Contents

Manual for K-Notes ................................................................................. 2

Error Analysis .......................................................................................... 3
Electro-Mechanical Instruments ............................................................. 6
Potentiometer / Null Detector .............................................................. 15
Instrument Transformer ....................................................................... 16
AC Bridges ............................................................................................. 18
Measurement of Resistance ................................................................. 21
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) ........................................................... 25
Digital Meters ....................................................................................... 28
Qmeter / Voltage Magnifier ................................................................ 30

2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

1

Manual for K-Notes

Why K-Notes?
Towards the end of preparation, a student has lost the time to revise all the chapters from his /
her class notes / standard text books. This is the reason why K-Notes is specifically intended for
Quick Revision and should not be considered as comprehensive study material.
What are K-Notes?
A 40 page or less notebook for each subject which contains all concepts covered in GATE
Curriculum in a concise manner to aid a student in final stages of his/her preparation. It is highly
useful for both the students as well as working professionals who are preparing for GATE as it
comes handy while traveling long distances.
When do I start using K-Notes?
It is highly recommended to use K-Notes in the last 2 months before GATE Exam
(November end onwards).
How do I use K-Notes?
Once you finish the entire K-Notes for a particular subject, you should practice the respective
Subject Test / Mixed Question Bag containing questions from all the Chapters to make best use
of it.

2014 Kreatryx. All Rights Reserved.

2

Error Analysis
Static characteristics of measuring system
1) Accuracy
Degree of closeness in which a measured value approaches a true value of a quantity under
measurement.
When accuracy is measured in terms of error :
Guaranteed accuracy error (GAE) is measured with respect to full scale deflation.
Limiting error (in terms of measured value)
LE

GAE * Full scale deflection

Measured value

2) Precision
Degree of closeness with which reading in produced again & again for same value of input
quantity.
3) Sensitivity
Change the output quantity per unit change in input quantity.
S

qo
qi

4) Resolution
Smallest change in input which can be measured by an instrument
5) Threshold
Minimum input required to get measurable output by an instrument
6) Zero Drift
Entire calibration shifts gradually due to permanent set

7) Span Drift
If there is proportional change in indication all along upward scale is called span drift.

8) Dead zone & Dead time

The range of input for which there is no output this portion is called Dead zone.
To respond the pointer takes a minimum time is called dead time.

TYPES OF ERROR
a) Gross Error : Error due to human negligency, i.e. due to loose connection, reading the value
etc.
b) Systematic error : Errors are common for all observers like instrumental errors,
environmental errors and observational errors.
c) Random errors : Error due to unidentified causes & may be positive or negative.
Absolute Errors :

A Am Ar
Am Measured value

Ar True value
Relative Errors :

r =

AbsoluteErrors A

Truevalue
AT

Am
A A A 1
1 r T T m r

Composite Error :
i)

Sum of quantities

X X1 X2

x x1 x2
ii) Difference of quantities

X X1 X2

x x1 x2
So for sum & difference absolute errors are added.
iii) Multiplication of quantities

X X1 X2 X3
X
X
X
X
1 2 3
X
X2
X3
X1

iv) Division of quantities

X
X 1
X2
X
X
X
1 2
X
X2
X1

So, for multiplication & division, fractional or relative errors are added.
If X

X1m Xm2
Xp3

X
X
X
X
m 1 n 2 p 3
X
X2
X3
X1

Precision Index
Indicates the precision for a distribution
h

1
2

Probable Error
r = 0.6745

0.4769
h

Standard deviation of combination of quantities

2

X 2 X 2
X 2
x
x1
x2 ......
xn
X1
X2
Xn
Probable Error
2

X 2 X 2
X 2
rx
rx1
rx2 ......
rxn
X1
X 2
Xn

Electro-Mechanical Instruments
1) Permanent magnet moving Coil (PMMC)
Deflecting Torque
Td = nIAB
Where n = no. of turns
I = current flowing in coil
A = Area of coil
B = magnetic flux density
Deflection

G
I
k

G = NBA & K = Spring constant

Eddy current damping & spring control torque in used.
For pure AC signal, the pointer vibrates around zero position.
It is used to measured DC or average quantity.
It can directly read only up to 50mV or 100mA.

Enhancement of PMMC
i)

Ammeter
For using PMMC as an ammeter with wide range, we connect a small shunt resistance in
parallel to meter.

I
Im

m multiplication factor

Basically, m is ratio of final range (as an ammeter) to initial range of instrument.

R sh

ii)

Rm
m 1

; R m = meter resistance

Voltmeter
A series multiples resistance of high magnitude is connected in series with the meter.
M = multiplication factor

V
Vm

R s Rm m 1

Sensitivity of voltmeter
Sv

1
Ifsd

Rs Rm / V
V

Application of PMMC
1) Half wave rectifier meter
I
I Iavg m

Iavg

2VRMS

Rs Rm Rf
0.45VRMS

; For Ac input

R s R m R f

For DC input
VDC

Iavg

avg AC

Rs Rm Rf

0.45 Iavg

(Assuming VDC VRMS )

DC

(Sensitivity)AC 0.45(Sensitivity)DC

2) Full wave rectifier meter

Iavg

AC

2 2VRMS

Rs Rm 2R f

Iavg DC

Iavg

AC

0.9VRMS

Rs Rm 2R f
VDC

Rs Rm 2Rf

DC (Assuring V

0.9 Iavg

Sensitivity AC

RMS

VDC )

0.9 Sensitivity DC

2) Moving iron meter

Deflecting torque, Td

1 2 dL
I
2 d

I = current flowing throw the meter

L = Inductance
= deflection

Under steady state

8

1 2 dL
I
2 d

I2
MI meter measures both ac & dc quantities. In case of AC, It measures RMS value.
IRMS

1 T

i2 t dt
T 0

If i t I0 I1 sin wt I2 sin2wt .......

IRMS I20

1 2 2
I1 I2 .......
2

Air friction Damping is used

Condition for linearity

dL
cons tant
d

MI meter cannot be used beyond 125Hz, as then eddy current error is constant.
3) Elector dynamometer
Deflecting Torque, Td i1 i2

dM
d

For DC, i1 i2 I

Td I2

dM
d

I2
For AC,

i1 Im1 sin t

i2 Im2 sin t
Tdavg I1I2 cos
Where I1

dM
d

Im1
I2
& I2
2
2
9

Applications of dynamometer
1) Ammeter
Fixed coils are connected in series.

I1 I2 I

0
Td I2

(Angel between I1 & I2 )

dM
d

At balance, Tc Td
K I2

dM
d

I2
It reads both AC & DC & for AC it reads RMS.
2) Voltmeter
Rs Series multiplier resistance

I2 I1

V
,
Rs

cos 1

Td

V 2 dM
R 2s d

At balance, Td Tc
K

V 2 dM
R s2 d

V2

It reads both AC & DC & for AC it reads RMS.

10

3) Wattmeter

Fixed coils carry same current as load & as called as current coils.
Moving coil is connected across voltage and thus current voltage, a high non-inductive
load is connected in series with MC to limit the current.

Td I1 I2 cos
I

dM
d

V
dM Pavg dM
cos

Rs
d
R s d

At balance, k Td

Pavg
Symbol :

Two wattmeter method

W1 VRY IR cos VRY & IR

VL IL cos 30
W2 VBY IB cos VBY & IB

VL IL cos 30
Where VL is line to line voltage

11

IL is line current
These expression remain same for -connected load.
P3 W1 W2
3VL IL cos

Q3 3 W2 W1
3VL IL sin

tan

Q3
P3

3 W2 W1

W1 W2

3 W2 W1
tan1

W1 W2

for lag load

3 W2 W1
tan1

W1 W2

for lead load

= Remember, In our case W1 is wattmeter connected to R-phase and W2 is wattmeter

connected to B-phase.
= If one of the wattmeter indicates negative sign, then pf < 0.5
Errors in wattmeter
a) Due to potential coil connection
% r

IL2rc
PT

* 100

IL = load current

rC = CC Resistance
PT = True Power
% r

V2
* 100
R sPT

V = voltage across PC
12

Rs = Series multiplier resistance

PT = True Power
b) Due to self inductance of PC
If PC has finite inductance

Zp Rp R s jwLp

Rp R s Zp R s jwLp

% r tan tan *100

= load pf angle

Lp

Rs

tan1

4) Energy meter
Energy = Power * Time

WT

VIcos
t
*
kwhr
1000 3600

WT = True energy

It is based on principle of induction.

It is an integrating type instrument.

Wm VIsin *

t
3600

kwhr

Where Wm = measured Energy

= angle between potential coil voltage & flux produced by it.

= load pf angle

Error = Wm WT

Energy constant =

Measured Energy = Wm

No.of Re voluations N

kwhr
P.t

Totalno.ofrevolutions
K
13

VI cos
t
*
kw.hr
1000 3600
W WT
Error = % r m
* 100
WT
True Energy = WT

Creeping Error in energy meter

If friction is over compensated by placing shading loop nearer to PC, then disc starts rotating
slow with only PC excited without connecting any load is creeping.

Otherwise if over voltage is applied on pressure coil then also creeping may happen due to
stray magnetic fields.

To remove creeping holes are kept on either side of disc diametrically opposite & the torque
experienced by both holes is opposite & they stop creeping.
% creeping error =

TotalNo.of Re w / kwhr due to creeping

* 100
TotalNo.of Re w / kwhr due to load

Thermal Instruments

These instruments work on the principle of heating and are called as Thermal Instruments.

These are used for high frequency measurements.

They can measure both AC & DC.

In case of AC, they measure RMS value.

Electrostatic voltmeter
Deflecting torque, Td

1 2 dc
V
2
d

At Balance,
Td Tc

1 2 dc
V
k
2
d

V2
Condition for linearity

14

dc
cons tant
d

For increasing the range, we connect another capacitor in series

To increase the range from Vm to V

Cs

Cm
m 1

V
Vm

Potentiometer / Null Detector

Iw = working current

Iw

VB
_____________(1)
Rh l.r

Switch at (A)
If Ig 0
Vs I w l1r
Iw

Vs
l1r

_____________(2)

Switch at (B)
Vx I w l2r

Iw

Vx
l2r

________(3)

Vs Vx

l1r l2r
Vx Vs

l2
l1

15

r = resistance of slide wire (/ m)

l = Total length of slide wire (m)

l1 = length at which standard cell ( Vs ) is balanced

l2 = length at which test voltage ( Vx ) is balanced

Measuring a low resistance

VR
S
Vs

Instrument Transformer

Current transformer
Equivalent circuit

Turns Ratio = Nominal Ratio n

N2
N1

X Xs
tan1 l

Rl R s

R = Actual Ratio n

I cos I sin
Is

16

Errors in current transformer

1) Ratio Error :
Current ratio

Ip
Is

is not equal to turns ratio due to no-load component of current.

K R
* 100
R
K = n = Nominal Ratio
% r

R = Actual Ratio
2) Phase Angel Ratio :
Ideally, Phase difference between Ip & Is should be 1800 but due to no-load component of
current, it deviates from that value.
Phase angle error =

I cos I sin 180

degrees
*
nIs

Phase angle between primary & secondary currents

= 180 degrees

Potential Transformer
Equivalent circuit

Turns Ratio = n =

N2
N1

Actual Transformation Ratio = R =

R n

VP
VS

1 IS
RP cos XP sin I RP I XP ,
VS n

IS

XP cos RP sin I XP IRP

Phases angle error n

nVs

17

X
R

Where tan1

AC Bridges

AC Bridges
Balance condition : ID 0

Z1 Z 4 Z2 Z3
Z1 Z 4 Z 2 Z3
1 4 2 3

Z1

Z 2 Z3
Z4

2 3 4

Quality Factor & dissipation factor

Quality Factor (Q)
1

wL
R

R
wL

1
wCR

Q = wcR

Measurement of Inductance
(i) Maxwells Inductance Bridge
Here, we try to measure R1 & L1

18

Dissipation Factor
(D)

R
wL

wL
R

D =wcR

1
wCR

R1
L1

R2R3
R4

L2L3
R4

(ii) Maxwells Inductance Capacitance Bridge

R1

R2R3
R4

L1 R2R3C4
This bridge is only suitable for coils where 1 < Q < 10
Q = Quality Factor
(iii) Hays Bridge
Used for coils having high Q value

R1

L1

R 2R 3R 4 2 C24
1
1
Q
R 2R3C 4

1
1
Q
1
Q
R 4 C 4

(iv) Andersons Bridge

This Bridge is used for low Q coils.

R1
L1

R2R3
R4

r1

CR3

R R 4 r R2R3

R4 2

19

(v) Owens Bridge

R1

R3C 4
C2

L1 R 2R3C4

Measurement Of Capacitance

De-Sautys Bridge

r1 R2 r2

C1

R4
R3

R3

R4

R1

C2

D = dissipation factor
= C1r1

r1 = internal resistance of C1

Schering Bridge

R1

R3C 4

C1

C2

R 4 C2
R3

dissipation factor = D = C4R 4

Measurement of frequency

Wien Bridge Oscillator

Balancing Condition

R3

R4

R1

R2

C2
C1

Frequency of Osculation

1
2 R1R2C1C2
20

Measurement of Resistance
Classification of Resistance
1) Low Resistance :

R 1

, Motor and Generator

2) Medium Resistance : 1 < R < 100k , Electronic equipment

3) High Resistance :

R > 100 k, winding insulation of electrical motor

DC Bridges
Medium Resistance Measurement
1. Wheatstone Bridge

Finding Theremin Equivalent

Ig

Vth

R th R g

R
P
VTh V

P Q R S
PQ
RS
R Th

PQ R S
For Balance Condition

Ig 0
VTh 0

PS = RQ

21

Sensitivities
1) Current sensitivity , Si

mm/mA
Ig

= deflection of Galvan meter in mm

2) Voltage sensitivity, S
mm/V
VTh
3) Bridge Sensitivity , SB

SB

SB

mm
R /R

VThS v

R / R
V.S v

R S SR 2

For Maximum Sensitivity

R S = 1
S
R
V.S v
SB, max
4
2. Carey foster slide wire Bridge
r = slide wire resistance in

m .

for case (1).

At balance

R 1r
P

Q S L 1 r

.(1)

For case (2)

R & S is reversed

S 2r
P

Q R L 2 r

..(2)

From (1) & (2)

S L

1r
1

R L

2r
2

22

3.

Voltmeter Ammeter Method

a) Ammeter near the load

Rm

Vv
RX RA
IA

Vv = voltage across voltmeter

I A = Ammeter current

R A = Animator resistance

R X = Test resistance,
% error =

Rm R T
RT

100

RA
Rx

100%

b) Voltmeter near the load

Rm

Rm

% error =

VX
Vv

IA IX Iv

IX I v

VX VX

Rm R X
RX

R XR v
RX Rv

100%

If R X R aR v , voltmeter is connected near the load

R X RaR v , ammeter is connected near the load

4. Ohmmeter
a) Series Type
when R X 0

Im IFSD = Full scale deflection

when R X

Im 0 = zero deflection

23

for Half scale deflection

R .Rm
R X Rh R se sh
R Rm
sh

b) Shunt Type

RS = current limiting resistor

If R X 0

Im 0 = zero deflection
If R x

Im IFSD = Full scale deflection

For Half scale Deflection

R x Rh

RmRS

Rm R S

Measurement of Low Resistance

Kelvins Double Bridge Method

Unknown resistance

qr P p
P
S

Q
pqr Q q

P, Q = outer ratio arms

p, q = inner ratio arms
S = standard resistance
r = lead resistance
R = Test resistance
High Resistance Measurement

Loss of charge Method

VC t Ve
R

Rc

0.4343t
V
C log10
VC
24

t = time in (seconds)
V = source voltage

VC = Capacitor voltage

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

The velocity of e is changed by changing the pre-accelerating & accelerating anode

potential
KE =PE

1
mv 2 qVa
2

2qVa
m

Deflection sensitivity

D = deflection height on screen

d = distance between plates
d

= length of vertical deflecting plates

L = distance between centre of plate & screen

Va = anode potential
Vy = Vertical plate Potential

L d Vy
2dVa

mm

deflection sensitivity

L d
D
V

Vy 2dVa mm
25

Lissajous Pattern
If both horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRT is applied with the sinusoidal signal,
the wave form pattern appearing on screen is called Lissajous Pattern.
Case 1: Both signals have same frequency

Vx Vm sin w x t

Vy Vm sin w y t

Vx Vy Vm

wx w y w
= variable
S.No
1

Lissayous Pattern

0 or 360

0 90
Or

270 360
3

90 or 270
4

90 270
Or

180 270
5

180

26

Finding
1) Lissajous Pattern in Ist & IIIrd Quadrant

X
sin1 1
X
2

1 Y1
sin

Y2

for anti-clockwise orientation phase difference = (360 - )

for clockwise orientation, phase difference =

2) Lissajous Pattern in IInd & IVth Quadrant

X
180 sin1 1
X2
Y
180 sin1 1
Y2
for clockwise orientation, phase difference =
for anti-clockwise orientation = 360
Case 2

wx w y
Vx Vm sinwx t

Vy Vm sinwy t
wy
wx

fy
fx

Number of horizental tangencies

Number of vertical tangencies

fy
fx

4
2
2

27

Digital Meters

Type of converter
1) Dual slope ADC

Maximum Conversion Time

2) Successive Approximation Register (ADC)

3) Counter ADC
4) Flash ADC

n Clocks
2n Clocks
1 Clock

2n1 Clocks

Dual slope A/D Converter

Va = analog input

VR = Reference input
Va

VR
T1

T2 T1

T1 2n TCLK
Maximum conversion time = 2n1 TCLK

Successive Approximation Register

Suppose = VREF 1a V
and Va = 12V

D2

D1

D0

10
1

5
0

2.5
0

1.25
0

10V < 12V

15V > 12 V

12.5 > 12 V

11.25 < 12 V

D3
T1

T2

T3

T4

In first clock cycle, MSB is set to get voltage corresponding to the digital o/p

If V0 < Va , then in next cycle next bit is set else,

If V0 > Va , MSB is reset & next bit is set

We continue the same process till we reach LSB.

28

Specifications of Digital Voltmeter

1) Resolution
The smallest value of input that can be measured by digital meter is called resolution.

1
10n

n = No. of full Digits (0, 1,.., 9)

2) Sensitivity
S = Resolution x Range

3) Over Ranging
The extra 1

2 digit is called over-ranging

If n = 3, we can measure from 0 999

1
0.001
103
if n 3 1 digit, 1 digit can be 0 & 1.
2
2
Resolution , R

we can measure from 0 1999

Resolution, R
if 3

1
0.005
2000

4 digit is there than MSB can be 0 3.

4) Total Error
Error = (% error in reading) x reading + (NO. of counts)

29

Full Scale
Range of meter

Qmeter / Voltage Magnifier

If works on the principal of series resonance.

At series resonance

XL XC
V
R
VC IX C
I

XC
R

XL
R

VC = V. Q

VC Q

Practical Q-meter
Also includes series resistance of source (oscillator)

True Q T

wL
R

Measured Q, Qm

wL

R Rsh

QT
wL

R
R

R 1 sh 1 sh
R
R

Q T Qm 1 sh
R

30

Measurement of unknown capacitance

Test capacitance is connected at T3 & T4 .
Circuit is resonated at C = C1

fr =

(1)

2 2 C1 CT

C T = Test Capacitance

C T is removed & circuit is resonated at C = C2

fr =

1
2 LC2

(2)

from (1) & (2)

CT C2 C1

Measurement of self-capacitance

Resonance is achieved at C = C1
f1

1
2 L C1 Cd

At C = C2 , resonance is achieved at fr2

f2

Cd

1
2 L C2 Cd

= n f1,

C1 n2C2
n2 1

31