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Brief Review of Elasticity

(Copyright 2009, David T. Sandwell)

This is a very brief review of the elasticity theory needed to understand the principles of
stress, strain, and flexure in Geodynamics [Turcotte and Schubert, 2002]. This review assumes
that you have already taken a class in continuum mechanics. One difference from T&S is that
we follow the sign convention used by seismologists and engineers where extensional strain and
stress is positive.
Stress
Stress is a force acting on an area is measured in Newtons per meter squared (N m2) which
corresponds to a Pascal unit (Pa). The following diagram shows a cube of solid material. Each
face of the cube has three components of stress so there are 9 possible components of the stress
tensor.

We will consider only the symmetric part of the stress tensor so only 6 of these components are
independent. The antisymmetric part of the tensor represents a torque. In Cartesian coordinates
the stress tensor is given by
xx

ij = xy

xz

xy xz

yy yz

yz zz

where index notation is the shorthand for dealing with tensors and vectors; a variable with a

single subscript is a vector a = ai , a variable with two subscripts is a tensor = ij , and a

repeated index indicates summation over the spatial coordinates. For example the pressure is
given by P = ii / 3 . In addition, a comma preceding a subscript means differentiation with
a

respect to that variable a = ai, j or for example ax, y = x .

y

2
Strain
Strain is change in length over the original length so it is a dimensionless variable and we will
assume strains are small (<< 10-3). Let the displacement vector field inside of a solid body be
given by

u = ui = [ u x

uy

uz ]

The gradient of this vector is a tensor u = ui, j . This tensor is commonly decomposed into a
symmetric tensor (strain) and an antisymmetric tensor (rotation).

ui, j =

1 ui u j 1 ui u j
+
+

2 x j xi 2 x j xi

We will not consider the rotation tensor further but the strain tensor is given by

ij =

1
ui, j + u j,i
2

Stress vs strain
If one assumes the material has an isotropic and linear response then the relationship between
stress and strain is given by

ij = ij kk + 2 ij
where ij is equal to 0 except when i=j and then it is equal to 1. The Lame constants and
define the elastic properties. The shear modulus (or G in the engineering literature) relates the
shear stress to shear strain on a component by component basis.
u y
u
xy = 2 xy = x +
y
x

Invariants and principal stress

This general relation between stress and strain tensors is rather involved and it is difficult to
invert this relationship to develop a relationship between strain and stress. One means of
simplifying this relationship is to find a co-ordinate system rotation that will cause the stress and
strain tensors to be diagonal. Let R be a rotation matrix such that R t R = I is the identity matrix.
There are three properties (invariants) of the stress tensor that do not change under co-ordinate
rotation. The invariants are found by first developing the characteristic equation from the
determinant of the following equation

xx

xy

xz

xy

yy

yz

xz

yz

zz

=0

which becomes

3 I 2 + II III = 0
where the stress invariants are

I = ii
1
II = ii jj ij ij = xx yy + yy zz + xx zz xy2 yz2 xz2
2
III = ij

the trace I, the sum of minors II, and the determinant of the stress tensor III. The first invariant
is related to the mean normal stress or pressure P = ii / 3 . The second invariant is related to
shear stress and thus is commonly used as the Von Mises failure criteria. We will not consider
the third invariant further.
Real symmetric matrices have real eigenvalues, orthogonal eigenvectors, and can be
diagonalized. This implies that there always exists some principal coordinate system where the
the shear stresses are zero on planes orthogonal to the coordinate axes and where the normal
stresses act along the principal axes directions (the eigenvectors) form the rotation matrix R.
The eigenvalues form the principal stress tensor

1 0

p = 0 2
0 0

0 = R t R
3

where

1 2 3
The principal stress system is important in geophysics and geology. Due to the presence of the
free surface, the stress field close to the Earth's surface is expected to have one principal stress
vertical and hence two horizontal principal stresses. Also in the earth we sometimes subtract the
pressure from the stress tensor. In this case it is called deviatoric stress. In the principal stress
system the pressure and maximum shear stress are given by

P=

1
( 1 + 2 + 3 )
3

1
( 1 3 )
2

Principal stress and strain

The stress versus strain relation is far simpler in the principal co-ordinate system

2

3

+ 2

+ 2

+ 2

2

3

where 1 , 2 , and 3 are the principal strains. Next we can use this relationship to develop three
important parameters, Poissons ratio , Youngs modulus E, and bulk modulus K.
First consider the case of uniaxial stress where 2 = 3 = 0 . This represents application of an
end load to an elastic beam fastened to a wall. The second equation for 2 is

0 = 1 + ( + 2 ) 2 + 3 .
Because of symmetry we know 2 = 3 so we arrive at a relationship between 2 and 1 .

2 =

1 = 1
2 ( + )

where is Poissons ratio. Next we can use this relationship between strains in the first
equation to provide a relationship between 1 and 1 .

1 = ( + 2 ) 1 +

1 =

1 =

2
1
+

( + 2 )( + ) 2
+

( 3 + 2 )
1
+

1 = E1

where E is Youngs modulus.

Next we consider the case of uniform pressure. In this case, the change in pressure
P = ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) / 3 is related to a change in volume V = ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) . Using the stressstrain relation we find.
2

P = + V

3
P = K V

where K is the bulk modulus. One can invert this stress vs. strain relationship to obtain a strain
vs. stress relationship. Well also assume that the principal co-ordinates are aligned with the x-,
y-, and z- axes.

xx

yy

zz

1 1
=
E

xx

yy
zz

Now we have arrived at equations 3-4, 3-5, and 3-6 in T&S. Before moving onto the flexure
problem we consider the case of a thin elastic plate. Thin plate means that there are no variations
in the vertical displacement field as a function of depth in the plate so we can make the
approximation zz = 0 . Under this approximation we have the following

1
yy v xx
E

xx + yy
E

xx =

1
xx v yy
E

yy =

zz =