Unique Aspects of Competitive Oly Lift

Pcx/icur A DTiri c
0112-1642/12/00(O76'5/S49.96/0
Adis 2012 Springer International Publishing AG. All rights reserved.
Unique Aspects of Competitive

Weightlifting
Performance, Training and Physiology
Adam Storey and Heather K. Smith
Department of Sport and Exercise Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
Contents
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Literature Reviewed
3. Weightlifting Performance
3.1 The Snatch
3.2 The Clean and Jerk
4. Training
4.1 Exercises
4.2 Annual Training Structure
4.3 Application and Variation in Training Load
4.4 Metaboiic Cost of Weightiifting and Nutritional Practices
4.5 Influence of Body Weight Changes on Performance
5. Anthropomtrie Characteristics of Weightiifters
6. Physiological Responses and Adaptations to Weightlifting
6.1 Skeietai Muscle Structure and Function
6.1.1 Fibre Type Composition
6.1.2 Neuromuscuiar Function
6.1.3 Sex- and Age-Reiated Differences in Neuromuscular Function
6.2 Bone Mineral Density
6.3 Cardiovascular Structure and Function
6.4 Endocrine
6.4.1 Testosterone
6.4.2 Testosterone ; Cortisol Ratio
6.4.3 Grovi^h Hormone
7. Recommendations and Conclusions
Abstract
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weightlifting is a dynamic strength and power sport in which two, multijoint, whole-body lifts are performed in competition; the snatch and clean
and jerk. During the performance of these lifts, weightiifters have achieved
some of the highest absolute and relative peak power outputs reported in the
literature. The training structure of competitive weightiifters is characterized
by the frequent use of high-intensity resistance exercise movements. Varied
coaching and training philosophies currently exist around the world and further research is required to substantiate the best type of training programme
for male and female weightiifters of various age groups. As competitive
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Storey & Smith
weightlifting is contested over eight male and seven female body weight categories, the anthropomtrie characteristics of the athletes widely ranges. The
body compositions of weightlifters are similar to that of athletes of comparable body mass in other strength and power sports. However, the shorter
height and limb lengths of weightlifters provide mechanical advantages when
lifting heavy loads by reducing the mechanical torque and the vertical distance that the barbell must be displaced. Furthermore, the shorter body dimensions coincide with a greater mean skeletal muscle cross-sectional area
that is advantageous to weightlifting performance. Weightlifting training
induces a high metabohc cost. Although dietary records demonstrate that
weightlifters typically meet their required daily energy intake, weightlifters
have been shown to over consume protein and fat at the expense of adequate
carbohydrate. The resulting macronutrient imbalance may not yield optimal
performance gains. Cross-sectional data suggest that weightlifting training
induces type IIX to IIA fibre-type transformation. Furthermore, weightlifters
exhibit hypertrophy of type II fibres that is advantageous to weightlifting
performance and maximal force production. As such, the isometric peak
force and contractile rate of force development of weightlifters is -15-20%
and -13-16% greater, respectively, than in other strength and power athletes.
In addition, weightlifting training has been shown to reduce the typical sexrelated difference in the expression of neuromuscular strength and power.
However, this apparent sex-related difference appears to be augmented with
increasing adult age demonstrating that women undergo a greater age-related
decline in muscle shortening velocity and peak power when compared with
men, Weightlifting training and competition has been shown to induce significant structural and functional adaptations of the cardiovascular system.
The collective evidence shows that these adaptations are physiological as
opposed to pathological. Finally, the acute exercise-induced testosterone,
Cortisol and growth hormone responses of weightlifters have similarities to
that of following conventional strength and hypertrophy protocols involving
large muscle mass exercises. The routine assessment of the basal testosterone : Cortisol ratio may be beneficial when attempting to quantify the adaptive
responses to weightlifting training. As competitive weightlifting is becoming
increasingly popular around the world, further research addressing the physiological responses and adaptations of female weightlifters and younger (i.e,
<17 years of age) and older (i.e. >35 years of age) weightlifters of both sexes is
required.
1. Introduction
Weightlifting has been a longstanding part of the
modern Olympic Games and has wide and growing
intemational participation. During the performance
of the two competitive lifts, the snatch and the clean
and jerk (C&J), weightlifters are required to generate extremely high peak forces and contractile
rates of force development and, consequently, high
peak power outputs and contractile impulses,!'"'']
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This review details the unique performance

and training requirements of competitive weightlifters with particular emphasis on the movement
demands, training intensities and commonly adopted nutritional practices of these athletes. Further
attention is directed towards descriptions of the
physiological responses and adaptations of the
musculoskeletal, cardiovascular and endocrine systems to weightlifting training and competition, Finally, as weightHfting is becoming increasingly
Sports Med 2012; 42 (9)
Competitive Weightlifting Performance, Training and Physiology
popular with females, and younger and older individuals, we highlight potential areas for future
research that will enable the development of safe and
effective training guidelines for these populations.
2. Literature Reviewed
The search for scientific literature relevant to
this review was conducted using the US National
Library of Medicine (PubMed), SPORTDiscus
and Google Scholar databases. Key search terms
of'Olympic weighthfting', 'weightlifter/s', 'snatch',
'clean and jerk', 'muscular strength' and 'muscular
power' were used. Further literature was obtained
from electronic 'related articles' searches and by
manually screening the reference lists of included
studies. The inclusion criteria for all articles were;
(i) refereed articles published in Enghsh language
journals and books from the 1970s until February,
2012; and (ii) the terms 'weightlifter' and 'weightlifting' had to be in context with the sport of
competitive weightlifting as opposed to general
weight/resistance training.
3. Weigtitlifting Performance
The snatch and C&J are complex whole-body
movements encompassing a series of high-intensity
muscular contractions. During these lifts, weightlifters achieve power outputs unmatched by any
other athletes.t'l Since 1998, the recognized body
weight classes are: men <56kg, <62kg, <69kg,
<77kg, <85kg, <94kg, <105kg and>105kg; and
women <48kg, <53kg, <58kg, <63kg, <69kg,
<75 kg and >75 kg. Athletes must weigh-in during
a 1-hour window that begins 2 hours before the
start of their competition session. The athlete's
placing within their respective body weight class is
determined by their competition total, which is
the sum of their highest recorded snatch and C&J.
3.1 The Snatch
The snatch requires the weighted barbell to be
lifted from the floor (using a wide grip) to an
overhead position in one continuous movement.t^'
The snatch includes six phases (figure 1). The first
pull is initiated when the lifter extends their knees
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771
to raise the barbell off the platform to a position

just below knee level. A transition period (also referred to as the 'double-knee bend') follows whereby
the knees are re-bent and are moved under the
barbell whilst the lifter's trunk is moved to a near
vertical position.[^"'"^ The 'double-knee bend'
allows the lifter to take advantage of a stretchshortening cycle during the subsequent second
pul^^^ The second pull requires the lifter to maximally accelerate the barbell by simultaneously
shrugging the shoulders and extending the hips,
knees and ankles. During the performance of near
maximal to maximal full snatch attempts, the vertical velocity of the barbell during the second pull
can range between 1.65m/sec and 2.28m/sec.['*'''"'*l
During submaximal attempts and snatch-related
movements (i.e. power snatch), barbell velocities
may exceed 3.00m/sec.'''''^l As the barbell rises
in the vertical plane to -62-78% of the lifter's
height,!"''^"'^1 the lifter begins to 'pull' their body
underneath the barbell; this phase is referred to as
the turnover. The lifter then 'catches' the barbell in
a straight-arm overhead position whilst fiexing at
the knee and hip into a full squat position. The
lifter then 'recovers' out of the full squat to a
standing position whilst maintaining the barbell
overhead. The duration of effort from the start of
the first pull until the competition referees signal
a successful lift is -3-5 seconds. Each athlete is
entitled to three snatch attempts in competition.
3.2 The Clean and Jerk
The C&J is a two-part lift that enables heavier
loads (-18-20% greater) to be lifted than during
the snatch. The clean requires the barbell to be
raised from the floor (using a shoulder width grip)
to the front of the shoulders in one continuous
movement. There are six phases of the clean
(figure 2). The mechanical principles behind the
first three phases (first pull, transition/doubleknee bend and second pull) are the same as those
of the snatch. During the second pull of near
maximal to maximal attempt cleans, the vertical
velocity of the barbell can range from 0.88 m/sec
to 1.73m/sec.f^''*l However, during submaximal
attempts and clean-related movements (i.e. power
clean), barbell velocities may exceed 2.5
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Storey & Smith
Fig. 1 . The six phases of the snatch: (a) first pull; (b) transition to the start of the second puii; (c) compietion of the second puil; (d) turnover;
(e) catch; (f) recovery.
As the barbell rises in the vertical plane to -55-65%

of the lifter's height,P'l the lifter initiates the 'turnover' phase. The lifter then 'catches' the barbell on
their shoulders and descends into a full squat position. The lifter then 'recovers' from the full squat
position to prepare for the jerk.
The jerk also has six phases (figure 2): (i) start;
(ii) dip; (iii) jerk drive; (iv) unsupported spht
under the bar; (v) supported split under the bar;
and (vi) recovery. During the start phase, the lifter
and the barbell must become motionless. The lifter
then begins to dip down by flexing at the knee
and hip, with the barbell held across the shoulders. At the lowest point of the dip, the lifter makes
the transition to the jerk drive where they are required to accelerate the barbell in the vertical
plane. During this transition period, the athlete
may be exposed to a downward force equivalent
to 17 times their body mass.^^^ Reported power

outputs during maximal attempt jerk drives
range from 2140 watts (W) for a lifter in men's
under 56 kg class to 4786 W for a lifter in
the men's 105 kg+ class.^'^ At the completion of the
jerk drive, the barbell is vertically driven off the
shoulders and the lifter's feet leave the ground.
This phase represents the 'unsupported split
under the bar'. Once the lifter's feet are in contact
with the ground and the barbell is held overhead
with fully extended arms, the lifter is in the 'supported split under the bar' phase. The hfter must
then recover and is required to stand motionless
with their feet parallel to one another. The duration of effort from the start of the first pull to
the signal of a successful lift is -812 seconds.
Each athlete is entitled to three C&J attempts in
competition.
SportsiVied2012;42C9)
Competitive Weightliftirig Performance, Training and Physiology
773
Fig. 2. The twelve phases of the clean and jerk: (a) first puil; (b) transition to the start of the second pull; (c) completion of the second pull;
(d) turnover; (e) catch; (f) recovery from the clean; (g) start position for the jerk; (h) jerk dip; (i) jerk drive; (j) unsupported spiif under fhe bar;
(k) supported split under fhe bar; (I) recovery from fhe jerk.
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Storey & Smith
4. Training
There is limited evidence comparing the performance and physiological responses arising from
different weightlifting training programmes.'^^"^''!
However, the English language coaching literature
and empirical evidence suggests that numerous
and varied practices exist amongst internationally
competi ti ve weightiifters ,'^ ' '^^"^^^
4.1 Exercises
The two competitive lifts form the basis of

the training programmes for junior and senior
weightiifters. Complementary exercises that have
movement patterns similar to the competitive lifts
(e,g, hang/power snatch, hang/power clean, snatch
and clean pulls, front and back squats) and supplementary exercises (e.g. overhead presses, back
extensions and abdominal work) that target synergistic muscle groups are also used. The complementary exercises are also incorporated into
the training programmes of other power athletes'^*'^^'-"' as follows: (i) kinematic similarities exist between the propulsive phases in both
weightlifting and jumping movements;'^^"^^' and
(ii) significant relationships exist between weightlifting ability and power output during jumping
(r = 0,59 to 0.93) and sprinting (r=-0,52 to
-0.76)t".3v-40] and tests of agility (-0.41).'"!
However, despite commonalities in the mode
of exercise and other acute variables, the training
programmes of weightiifters differ, particularly in
the frequency and volume of high-intensity loads,
from that of other power athletes (refer section 4.3).
The collective differences in the competitive demands and the required physiological adaptations
of other various athletes may account for these discrepancies. Furthermore, due to the technically and
physically demanding nature of the snatch and
C&J, modified versions are often employed by other
athletes for the enhancement of muscular power,
4.2 Annual Training Structure
Broad descriptions of variations in weightlifting training variables have been offered in the
literature.P''^^"^*'^^-'*'^ More specific details are
rarely outlined. Due to the success of many
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Eastern European teams, in particular the former

Soviet Union and Bulgaria, a number of the world's
training programmes are variations of the generalized training models established by these nations.P^
However, Western coaches were required to make
modifications to these training methods presumably due to the higher prevalence of anabolic
steroid use amongst Eastern Bloc teams;'"''*^''*^'
since the 1970s, competitive weightiifters have
been subjected to random drug testing''*^' that can
include both urine and blood assays.
The training programmes from the former
Soviet Union were based upon the classic 'periodization' model'^^ consisting of a preparatory phase
(generalized and specific conditioning), competition
phase (specific training mimicking the demands of
competition), and a transition phase (generalized
conditioning at the end of a training cycle). A wide
variety of exercises at varying intensities and volumes were incorporated into these programmes
with the belief that this would prevent athletes
reaching a state of overtraining due to 'movement
pattern monotony','^^ Although international-level
weightiifters would typically perform 20 000-25 000
multijoint exercise repetitions per year, only
15-35% of those repetitions were competition lifts
performed at 80-90% of their one-repetition maximum (lRM) with an additional 4-7% being performed at >90% of lRM,'2'-25.44]
In contrast, the Bulgarian training approach
is characterized by frequent, near-maximal to
maximal-intensity loading'^'^^'^"'**1 and is more
closely aligned with the demands of competition.
It has been reported that Bulgarian lifters performed between 1400 and 4000 maximal attempts,
and 450 and 460 failed supramaximal attempts
each year in training.'^'''*^' Approximately 10% of
the total training time is devoted to warm-up exercises, 45% to competition lifts, 40% to complementary strength exercises, 3% to supplementary
exercises and 2% to other sports and cross-training
activities,'^'' There is very little variation in training intensity, by comparison with the training
programmes of the former Soviet Union, However, fluctuations in training volume are applied.
The training follows a repeated pattern of 2-3 weeks
of increased loading followed by 1 week of reduced
loading. This cyclic pattern of 'overload' and
Sports Med 2012; 42 (9)
'recovery' is believed to contribute to subsequent

long-term improvements in performance.'^'*''*''^
Although the competitive performances of
weightlifters continue to improve, as evident by
increases in national and world records, further
research needs to be directed towards several aspects of weightlifting programme design. These
aspects include (i) effective coaching strategies for novice weightlifters; (ii) the infiuence of
exercise volume and intensity on physiological
and performance variables in female and youth
weightlifters; and (iii) the efficacy of variations in
training techniques (e.g. the incorporation of eccentric-only exercises).
4,3 Application and Variation in Training Load
International-level weightlifters perform two
or more high-intensity resistance exercise (HIRE)
[>80% lRM] sessions per day, of the same major
muscle groups, 6 or 7 days per week.P'-^^'^*] An
extreme example of this high-frequency of training was demonstrated by the Greek weightlifting
team during preparations for the 1996 Olympic
Games, Across a 6-day training week, the Greek
team performed 13 snatch, 11 C&J, 11 back squat
and 9 front squat sessions,'^'' In senior weightlifters, dividing a given training volume across
two sessions that are performed on the same day
produces significantly greater increases in muscular strength, hypertrophy and maximal neural activation of the trained musculature.^'**'''^] However,
as the majority of the exercises that are performed
by weightlifters are the competitive lifts and similar
muitijoint movements, a large number of muscle
contractions are performed by the same major
muscle groups within each training session.
Thus, the frequency of HIRE performed by
weightlifters exceeds evidence-based recommendations for improving muscular strength and power
in advanced trained adults. For example, the
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM)
propose (i) a training frequency of 46 sessions
per week; and (ii) training different muscle groups
during subsequent strength and power sessions to
allow for adequate recovery.'^^'^'i Previous evidence has also shown that repeated HIRE bouts
of the same muscle group/s result in the persistent
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775
suppression of key anabolic mediators, prolonged

infiammatory signalling and decrements in muscular performance.f^^"^^ In contrast to these findings,
weightlifters demonstrate both acute and long-term
improvements in competitive lifting performance
in response to their frequent HIRE training
Although little evidence exists to suggest that
weighthfting training, under proper supervision,
is more injurious to children or adolescents when
compared with other sports,'^'"*^1 considerable
controversy still surrounds the use of weightlifting
exercises in younger populations (i.e. <17 years of
age). As such, definitive biological and/or training
age appropriate weightlifting training guidelines
have yet to be established. The training age of
a weightlifter greatly inuences their ability to
positively adapt to the frequent use of HIRE.
Over a 10-week training period in competitive
junior (17-20 years of age) weightlifters, moderate
volumes of high-intensity (>90-100% lRM) loading produced significantly greater strength gains
(10.5% improvement in C&J and 9.5% improvement in back squat) when compared with low
(3,0% improvement in C&J and 5,3% improvement in back squat) and high (6,9% improvement
in back squat performance only) volumes of similarly high-intensity loading.t-^^' Furthermore, it
has recently been demonstrated that performing
additional high-intensity training sessions within
the same day does not lead to significantly greater
performance improvements in young weightlifters.t^*! In comparison, international-level senior
weightlifters (20-35 years of age) demonstrate a
greater ability to tolerate and adapt to higher
volumes of high-intensity loading.f^-'--*-^^' However, masters' weightlifters (>35 years of age) exhibit significant declines in training ability and
weightlifting performance,'^^"*^' which is in accordance with the well documented impaired adaptive
responses to resistance exercise with increasing
adult age.[^'"^'l On the basis of these findings, we
propose that an inverted U-shaped relationship
exists between competitive age and the volume
of high-intensity loading that leads to enhanced
weightlifting performance (figure 3).
During ballistic activities such as bench throws
or jump squats, absolute peak power output (PP)
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Storey & Smith
High
Volume of
high-intensity
loading
Moderate
Lovi/
Fig. 3. Proposed relationship between the volume of high-intensity

(90-100% of one-repetition maximum) loading that ieads to enhanced
weightlifting performance and competitive age. Junior: 17 to <20 years
of age; senior: >20 to <35 years of age; masters: >35 years of age.
has been shown to occur between training loads

of 30-50% of lRM.I^^-"] However, more recent
research suggests that the load required to elicit
PP during jump squats may even be as low as
body mass only.t''''^'''J Therefore, the prescription of relatively low-intensity (i.e. 0-60% lRM)
resistance exercise (inclusive of complementary
weightlifting exercises) is often recommended to
improve muscular power and dynamic athletic
performance.t^'''''*'^"-^^' For example, the lighter
relative training loads used for the power snatch,
power clean and various pulling movements result in
a greater maximum barbell vertical velocity, contractile impulse and thus a greater PP when compared with maximal competition iifts.[i8-20.36,86,87]
During the snatch and/or C&J, PP has been shown
to occur with loads of 70-80% of I R M " 9-30,86,88]
demonstrating that the high-intensity training of
weightlifters results in improved PP under highload conditions. Therefore, weightHfters will frequently train for the competitive lifts at intensities
>70% of lRM.Pi.25-28] Athletes who are required
to generate high PP against heavy external loads
(e.g. wrestlers, bobsledders and rugby union/league
players) are likely to benefit from high-load
weightlifdng training.['^^''^^^^^^^' However, at
present there is a paucity of research examining
the efficacy of power training with high- versus
low-load weighthfting exercises in trained strength
and power athletes.
4.4 Metabolic Cost of Weightlifting and
Nutritionai Practices
The metabolic demands of weightlifting training are refiected in the relatively high energy exAdis 2012 Springer International Publishing AG. Att rtgtits reserved.
penditures incurred by the athletes. For example,

a mean caloric expenditure of 39.5kJ/min was
recorded in male weightlifters during a 1 week
preparatory phase of training characterized by a
moderate- to high-volume of moderate- to highintensity lifts.'^'l This value is comparable with
the metabolic cost incurred by high-volume circuit-style resistance exercise.''^^ Furthermore, the
training stimulus alone produced a weekly energy
expenditure of 16456kJ.'^'l The reported mean
daily energy intakes of male weighthfters range
between 13 212 kJ and 19 307kJ,['3-97] ^î^.^ ^^^
consistent with the values recommended for 'hard
training' male athletes (14 700-23 100kJ/day).['*l
As expected, the corresponding relative daily energy intakes values of 134-244 kJ/kg/dayP3,95-97]
are comparable with those of other strength and
power athletes.P^''^-'^'''l In regards to macronutrient consumption, it is reported that weightlifters consume a greater number of daily servings
of protein-rich sources when compared with
other athletes.P^'9'*''l As a result, the protein intake of male weightlifters has been reported to
range between 1.6g/kg/day and 3.2g/kg/day,''^'^^
which is high when compared with the recommended 1.2-1.7 g/kg/day for resistance training athletes.'^'^^'^^'''l Furthermore, weightlifters
derive approximately 40-44% of their daily energy
intake from dietary fat,P3.95,96,i02] ^îch is also
well above the acceptable range for health and
athletic performance of 20-35%.['3-'O'*' This is
a possible consequence of their greater intake of
protein-rich animal products. Conversely, the
reported carbohydrate intakes in weighthfters of
2.9-6.1 g/kg/dayP^-'^''^l are insufficient according
to the current recommended levels of 7-8 g/kg/day
for athletic individuals.'""'^ Combined, these reports
suggest that the dietary habits of male weightlifters
may not yield the desired training gains and/or
health benefits due to the emphasis placed on
protein consumption (with high fat) at the expense of adequate carbohydrate ingestion. As the
training and competition demands of weighthfters
differ to those of other strength and power athletes, further research is required to (i) document
the current dietary habits of competitive weightlifters; and (ii) identify the optimal macronutrient
balance for weighthfting performance.
Sports Med 2012; 42 (9)
4.5 Influence of Body Weight Changes on

Performance
Athletes participating in weight-restricted events
will often train at a body mass that is 5-10% above
their required competition weight class.^^' In the
week leading up to competition, a minor reduction in body mass (e.g. a loss of 1-2 kg) might be
achieved by restricting fluid intake and consuming a
low residue diet.'""' To 'make weight' and to avoid
the loss of lean muscle mass, it is common for
weightiifters to rapidly reduce total body water content prior to competition weigh in. This is achieved
via passive methods including self-limited fiuid intake, acute heat exposure and/or the use of (banned)
diuretic agents.['^' Whilst the detrimental effects of
hypohydration on endurance performance are well
documented,''^""' less evidence exists regarding
the effects of hypohydration on muscular strength
and power. Evaluations of the effects of short-term
hypohydration on maximal force production, muscular endurance and PP have demonstrated a decrease'"'""^' or no change'"^""'^ in these variables.
Where mild hypohydration (i.e. <2% reduction in
body mass) techniques have attenuated neuromuscular performance, rapid rehydration interventions
over a short period of time (i.e. over a 2 hour period
as done in competition) have effectively restored
performance variables.''"1 However, an athlete's
ability to overcome the detrimental effects of dehydration is severely affected when hypohydrationinduced reductions in body mass reach 3-4%.''^-' '*'
It is thus tenable that severe hypohydration
would impair weightlifting performance. For weightlifters opting to train at a body mass >3% above
their competition weight, minor dietary modifications should be introduced in the weeks leading up
to competition to achieve a body mass of <2% above
that desired/required for competition. Mild hypohydration techniques may then be implemented
24 hours prior to competition weigh-in, followed by
effective rehydration strategies afterwards.
5. Anthropomtrie Charaoteristios of
Weightiifters
The anthropomtrie characteristics of male
weightiifters have been documented extensivejy [10,120-125] Light;, to middle-weight male weightAdis 2012 Springer internationai Pubiishing AG. Aii rights reserved.
lifters (i.e. <56 kg to <85 kg) are somatotyped as

predominately ectomorphic or mesomorphic''2^*'
with body fat percentages of 5-10%."0-'22-i23,i25]
These compositional characteristics are comparable
to weight restricted wrestlers and athletes competing in the sprinting and jumping events of
athletics.''"'^^'''^^l Conversely, weightiifters in the
heavy to unlimited weight classes (i.e. <94 kg to
>105kg) tend to be more endomorphic mesos''^^' with corresponding body fat percentages
''^'-'^^ These individuals possess similar
body compositions to heavyweight wrestlers, powerlifters, discus, shot put and hammer throwing
athletes."''2''"'3'l Although the anthropomtrie data
on female weightiifters is less comprehensive, the
limited data suggest that the body fat percentages of
female weightiifters may be double that of male
weightiifters of a similar body mass.''''^^''^^l However, elite male and female weightiifters exhibit a
lower body fat percentage when compared with
lower level competitors of a similar total body
mass.''^^''^^' Thus, the resulting differences in lean
body mass becomes a major contributing factor
to the divergent neuromuscular responses seen
between male and female and elite versus nonelite weightiifters (refer section 6.1.3).''22.i33-i40]
In comparison to other strength and power
athletes of a similar body mass and composition,
weightiifters have proportionally shorter arm span
and tibial lengths, larger biacromial breadths and
are shorter in height.''2O''22.125,136] ûch anthropomtrie characteristics provide two mechanical
advantages when lifting maximal loads: (i) the
mechanical torque that is required to lift a given
load is less due to shorter lengths of the resistance
lever arms; and (ii) the amount of muscular work
required to lift a given load is decreased via a
reduction in the vertical distance that the barbell
must be displaced.''^'l Furthermore, the shorter
body dimensions coincide with a greater mean
skeletal muscle cross-sectional area, which is advantageous to weightlifting performance.''''*]
6. Physioiogicai Responses and
Adaptations to Weightiifting
The complexity, intensity and brevity of weightlifting impose great challenges when attempting
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778
to obtain valid and meaningful physiological

data from competitive weightlifters. Furthermore,
it is onerous and/or inappropriate to apply similar exercise protocols in non-weightlifters due to
the technically demanding nature of the specific
movements. As such there is limited data on the
acute neuromuscular, cardiovascular and endocrine responses that occur (especially in female
weightlifters) during weightlifting training and
competition. Furthermore, few studies have examined the adaptations of the neuromuscular
and endocrine systems that arise from moderate
(weeks-months) to long-term (months-years) periods of weightlifting-specific training. However, investigations into the physiological responses and
adaptations of masters' weightlifters do provide
some insight into the long-term benefits of weightlifting training.
Storey & Smith
HIRE studies in non-weightlifters indicates that

there may also be a concomitant IIX to IIA fibretype transformation.''^'^*! Conversely, a restoration of type IIX content has been shown to occur in
other athletes (i.e. swimmers, runners and cyclists)
during pre-competition tapers, which involve a
planned reduction in training volume.''^^"'*^' However, the existence of a tapering-induced reshift in
the fibre-type composition of competitive weightlifters has yet to be quantified.
6.1.2 Neuromuscular Function
Maximal voluntary isometric peak force (PF)

and PP are strongly related to weightlifting performance.''*'*''**! During isometric conditions, PF is
reached in the vicinity of 300-400msec.I'*"-'*''-'^'!
However, during dynamic weightlifting movements,
weightlifters achieve PF, PP and maximum barbell
velocities in <260msec.''*''^-''*-'^^! Thus, the maximal
contractile rate of force development (RFD) in
6.1 Skeletal Muscle Structure and Function
the early phase of muscle contraction is of great
6.1.1 Fibre Type Composition
importance to these athletes.''*''''^^-'^'*!
The force-velocity properties of a muscle are in
Improvements in both PF and contractile RFD
part determined by the relative proportions of have been reported in male and female weightfast-twitch (type IIA and IIX; formerly identified lifters following moderate- to long-term periods
as IIB) and slow-twitch (type I) muscle fibres.'^"*-"*'! of training.P^-**'''-^^-''*^! These findings demonstrate
Strength and power athletes, including weight- that the frequent high-intensity training used by
lifters, exhibit mean percentages of fast-twitch weightlifters (refer to sections 4.2 and 4.3) effecfibres in the vastus lateralis ranging from 53% to tively increases muscular strength and power con65%.l^''-''*^"''**! Although similar percentages have currently.''*^-'^^ As a result, the isometric PF and
been reported in untrained adults,'''*'*-"*'-'^^! the peak RFD of male weightlifters is -15-20% and
cross-sectional areas of type II fibres are con- -13-16% greater, respectively, when compared
siderably larger in weightlifters.i"*^-""*-"*'-"**! Such with other strength and power athletes (i.e. football
a structural difference is advantageous to force players, sprinters, throwers and jumpers).''^*''^^!
production as type II fibres possess a greater ca- This improved muscular function may arise due
pacity to generate power per unit cross-sectional to an enhanced voluntary and/or refiex-induced
area when compared with type I fibres.'''*'-'^'"'^^! neural activation of motor units''**''*''*"-'*'! and/
Both the proportion of type IIA fibres and the or a selective recruitment of fast-twitch motor
[180,181]
relative myosin heavy chain IIA isoform content
have been shown to be greater in weightlifters when
During the performance of the snatch and
compared with recreationally active adults.'''*^! In C&J, weightlifters have demonstrated some of
addition, weightlifting performance is strongly cor- the highest absolute and relative PP reported in
related to type IIA percent content (r=0.94) and the literature.''-^-'*-^! For example, during the
type IIA percent fibre area (r = 0.83).["*3! Thus, second pull of maximal snatch and C&J attempts,
evidence from cross-sectional studies suggests that values as high as 5442 W and 6981 W, respectthe frequent high-intensity training of weight- ively, have been reported in male weightlifters.'^-^!
lifters results in hypertrophy of type IIA fi- Furthermore, the corresponding relative PP for
bres.'''*^-''*'*-'''^-''**! Evidence from longitudinal male and female weightlifters range from 53 W/kg
Adis 2012 Springer infernafionai Pubiishing AG. Aii righfs reserved.
SporfsMed2012;42(9)
to 56 W/kg and 38 W/kg to 40 W/kg, respectively,[4,5] ^g ^ comparison, during maximal bench

press and deadlift exercises performed by male
strength athletes, absolute PP of 415 W and 1274 W,
respectively, have been reported''*-^' with relative
PP ranging from -4-12 W/kg.''^' In addition, during
exercise tests that incorporate the lower body (i.e.
clean pulls and various jumps) the reported PP of
male weightiifters is -13-36% greater when compared with other power athletes.''^''''^^-'^'-'^^' However, during upper body only exercise, no differences
in absolute or relative PP were shown to exist
between weightiifters and handball players.'^^^
These findings highlight the important contribution that the lower body makes to power development in weightiifters. Furthermore, they may
be explained by the specificity of training, as handball players are required to perform repeated highintensity upper body movements (i.e. throwing)
in competition,'^^'^^' Conversely, the upper body
musculature of a weightlifter plays a relatively
lesser role, in comparison to the legs, during the
snatch and
6.].3 Sex- and Age-Related Differences in
Neuromuscuiar Function
To compare performances across the different

body weight classes, Sinclair scores, based upon
current world record totals and adjusted each
Olympic year, are used,''^^' The lifter's actual
competition total is multiplied by the appropriate
Sinclair coefficient. The resulting score is a projec-
779
tion of the total the lifter would theoretically achieve

if they were in the super heavy-weight class with the
same lifting ability. Various other allometric scaling
formulae have been derived.''-''*-'^^''^^' However,
many tend to yield either an overestimation or
underestimation for certain body weights.
In untrained and/or recreationally trained males
and females, reported sex-related differences in
absolute neuromuscular strength and power range
from 31% to 48% and 17% to 46%, respectively [139,189-192] However, when comparing the current under 69 kg (the only common body weight
class between sexes) world record lifts for youth,
junior and senior male and female weightiifters,
there is a consistent sex-related difference of
15-20% (table I), Thus, it is evident that although
long-term weightlifting training minimizes the sexrelated difference in neuromuscular function, factors such as the distribution and total amount of
lean body mass in male and female weightiifters will
ultimately influence the expression of strength and
power across all age and weight categories.'*^'^'^J
As competitive weightlifting is becoming increasingly popular in masters' athletes, a number
of studies have investigated the influence of increasing age on competitive weightlifting performance and neuromuscular function,'*^"**-"^-"'^'
Pearson et al.'*^' demonstrated that, on average,
masters' weightiifters (aged 40-87 years) were able
to generate 32% more isometric knee extensor
force and lower body explosive power when
compared with age-matched, healthy, untrained
Table I, Sex- and age-related differences in the under 69 kg world records'

Category
Lift
Male
Female
Percentage of the male record

obtaihed by a female
MeanSD(%)
Youth
Snatch
142
117
172
145
82.4
84.3
83.711.2
C&J
Total
310
262
84.5
Snatch
158
123
77.8
C&J
190
157
82.6
Total
346
275
79.5
Snatch
165
128
77.6
C&J
197
158
80.2
Total
357
286
79.9
Junior
Senior
80.0 + 2.4
79.2 1.4
Current world records as of November, 2011.
C&J = clean and jerl<.
Adis 2012 Springer International Publishing AG. All rights reserved.
Sports Med 2012; 42 (9)
780
Storey & Smith
adults. It is likely that neural factors contributed

to this enhanced functionality in older weightlifters
as no significant differences in lean lower-limb
volume existed between groups,'^^' Furthermore,
the maximal motor unit discharge rates in the
rectus femoris of masters' weightlifters have been
shown to be -20% greater than in untrained, agematched adults.'"^' Therefore, it appears that longterm weightlifting training and competition has the
potential to attenuate the age-related decline in
motor unit size, number and/or function that becomes apparent after the age of 60 years.'"^"^'
A significant reduction in type II fibre size and
content is associated with increasing agel"**"^""'
and is likely to contribute to the annual decline of
-1-1.5% in PP and competitive performance that
has been reported in masters' weightlifters.I*^-''^!
According to Anton et al. ,1*^1 the rate of decline in
competitive performance is markedly greater in
women across all weight classes.t^^' These previous findings are confirmed when comparing the
current under 69 kg male and female world records
across all age categories (figure 4). Interestingly, no
such sex-related difference with increasing age has
been reported during the expression of maximal
strength in competitive powerlifting,'^^' Therefore,
it was concluded that only the ability to perform
complex and explosive power-type exercises declines at a greater rate in women.'^^1 These findings
are in accordance with previous investigations,
which have demonstrated that women undergo
60-|
= 0.90
10-
Age category (years)

Fig, 4. The sex-related differences as a funcfion of age (years)
between male and female world record tofals in the under 69 kg
category. World record totals as of November, 2011, M = masters;
R^ = coefficient of determination.
Adis 2012 Springer internationai Pubiishing AG. Ail rights reserved.
greater age-related declines in muscle shortening

velocity and PP than men, which is likely due to a
decreased neural drive and a combination of
muscle fibre loss and atrophy.^ô'-ô^]
6.2 Bone iVIineral Density
The skeletal structures of weightlifters undergo

significant adaptations in response to the large
compressive and shear forces that are encountered
during training and competition,'^22,36,203] gj^,
chemical indicators of bone formation are elevated
by up to 35% in actively competitive weightlifters when compared with age-matched, healthy
adults.'^''^ Furthermore, greater site-specific increases in trabecular and cortical bone densities
have been reported in the vertebrae (13-42%), femoral neck/trochanter (12-24%), tibia (9-12%) and
radius (10%) of competitive weightlifters when
compared with untrained and recreationally trained
adults.'^^"-^'l Following -30 years of retirement
from weighthfting, former weightlifters aged between 50 and 64 years have been shown to exhibit
a significantly greater bone mass when compared
with age-matched controls.pos) However, between
the ages of 65-79 years, no differences in bone
mass existed between groups.^^'l Thus, it is evident that weightlifters must maintain an adequate
level of physical activity past the age of 65 in order
to attenuate age-related dechnes in bone mass.
6.3 Cardiovascuiar Structure and Function
High-intensity resistance exercise increases
peripheral vascular resistance, thereby stimulating
concentric left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy,^"^'^''1
The increase in myocardial wall thickness arises due
to the parallel addition of new myofibrils and is a
compensatory attempt to reduce LV wall stress and
systolic pressure.P"'^'^' A number of studies have
examined the ventricular morphology and function
in competitive weightlifters.['2'-2'3-227] goîg investigations have reported that the absolute LV mass (g)
of weightlifters may be -13-30% larger than that of
age-matched healthy and/or sedentary control subjects.P"''2'^'222-22^-229] However, in most instances,
the increased LV mass exhibited by weightlifters is
proportional to their total body mass, body surface
area and/or lean body mass, thereby indicating a
Sports Med 2012; 42 (9)
physiological as opposed to a pathological adaptation.P'9,222,228,229] -j-j^g^^^f importance as LV hypertrophy is categorized as an independent risk
factor for cardiovascular morbid events.'^"' Conversely, other studies have shown no significant
differences in absolute or relative measures of cardiac morphology between weighthfters and healthy
adults.'^'5.2'8.221,224,226] j ^ e lack of difference in
these results may be explained by (i) the experimental groups being more evenly matched for
body dimensions;'2'5'2'^l (ii) differences in the
training history of the control subjects (e.g. sedentary/untrained vs recreationally trained);'^^^'
and (iii) possible sex-related differences in cardiac
hypertrophy as only one study has examined
cardiac morphology in female weighthfters.'^'^'
In hght of these findings, the consensus of opinion is that weighthfting does not induce a true
concentric enlargement of the left ventricle as
seen in pathological conditions.
The cardiorespiratory function of competitive
male weightlifters, as determined by maximal oxygen
consumption (VOjmsjd^ has been reported to range
between 42.0 and 50.7mL/kg/min."2i-226-228,230,23i]
As expected, these mean values are similar to those
of other athletes involved in short-duration highintensity/power activities.'''^'! Short-term (8 weeks)
weighthfting-style training in active adults has
been shown to increase both absolute and relative
VO2max by ~6-7%.'22''l However, annual evaluations over the course of 3 years of specific weightlifting training in competitive weightlifters revealed
significant reductions in both absolute and relative
VOsmax of -4% and 11%, respectively.'232] With
regards to resting haemodynamics, reported values
for mean heart rates range between 60 beats per
minute (bpm) and 81bpm, systolic blood pressure between 115 mmHg and 153 mmHg, and
diastolic blood pressure between 71 mmHg and
93 mmHg.'2i4.22i,222,226-228,23t,233] -pjêse data classify weightlifters as being 'normal' or stage 1 hypertensive as per the ACSM guidehnes.^^"*!
6.4 Endocrine
Evidence of endocrine responses and adaptations in weightlifters and/or related to weightlifting
performance are predominately limited to anabolic
Adis 2012 Springer International Pubttshtng AG. Alt rights reserved.
781
and catabolic hormones for the large part in young

male weightlifters. Here we include where substantial data have been obtained, the responses of
testosterone, cortisol and growth hormone.
6.4.1 Testosterone
Testosterone is a potent androgenic-anabolic

hormone that is considered to be a major promoter of muscular hypertrophy, strength and
power.'235'2361 The reported basal serum total testosterone concentrations in male weightlifters range
from ~14.4nmol/L to 27.7nmol/L,"^0-'^-237-24i]
which is within the normal range for young, healthy
untrained men (12.1-34.7 mol/L).'2''242.243] shortterm exercise-induced increases in total serum testosterone of-17-30% have been reported in male
weightlifters in response to acute weightlifting
training sessions of moderate to high intensity and
volume.'''''^^'2'*'l In addition to the influence of exercise type, volume and intensity, the training age of
an individual also affects the exercise-induced testosterone response. Elite junior weighthfters with >2
years training experience exhibit significantly greater exercise-induced increases in serum testosterone
when compared with those with <2 years training experience.'^"*'! Combined, these results demonstrate that weighthfting training ehcits a response
similar to that reported for conventional strength
and hypertrophy protocols involving large muscle
mass exercises.'^**"^"*^
The available data pertaining to the testosterone
response to competition and competition-hke settings is limited to salivary measures.'^^--^'*^' During
official and simulated weightlifting competitions,
Passelergue et al.'^'*^' reported no significant changes
in sahvary total testosterone. From this limited
data, it appears that competition settings fail to
meet the exercise volume threshold that is required
to induce a significant testosterone response in
weightlifters.'^^*! Xhis is in accordance with previous
investigations that have demonstrated no significant
changes in total testosterone following highintensity, low-volume, moderately long rest period
duration, resistance exercise protocols.'^'^^'^'^^'^''''^^"!
6.4.2 Testosterone : Cortisol Ratio
The basal testosterone : cortisol (T : C) ratio is

often used to represent the physiological strain
Sports Med 2012; 42 (9)
Storey & Smith
782
imposed by a training programme,'2^'"253] as it

generally exhibits an inverse relationship with exercise volume.''^2.238.254-256] p^j. example, across
a 5-week training period in elite female weightlifters, a 37.0% reduction in training volume elicited a mean increase of 72.5% in basal T ; C
ratios.''^^' Conversely, Wu et al.'^^^^ demonstrated that a 54% increase in weightlifting training
volume over 2 weeks resulted in a 60% reduction
in the basal T : C ratio. However, weightlifting
training for >1 year and prior exposure to increased
training volumes appears to attenuate this relationship.'^^' Furthermore, during extended training
periods (i.e. \2lA weeks) of varying intensity and
volume, experienced weightiifters have demonstrated a positive association between an increased
basal T : C ratio and maximal voluntary isometric
PF and pp.[i32,255,257] ji^yg^ ^j^g routine assessment
of the basal T : C ratio may provide an effective
way in which to measure acute and chronic adaptive responses to weightlifting training.
In competition settings, the T : C ratio is greatly
inffuenced by pre-competition anxiety and may
decrease prior to any form of strenuous physical
activity.P"*^! Furthermore, an official weightlifting
competition has been shown to produce a higher
salivary cortisol response and, thus, a greater
decrease in the salivary T : C ratio, when compared with a simulated competition.'^^] However,
competitors with higher pre-competition salivary
cortisol levels also exhibited superior lifting performances.'^^' In stressful situations, salivary cortisol
levels have been shown to increase by 230% from
basal values.l^^^] A pre-competition anticipatory rise
in circulating catecholamines'^^-^^'] may stimulate
the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone, which
in turn increases cortisol secretion.P^' As a positive
association exists between increased catecholamine
levels and force production,'-^^'' it is possible that
this mechanism may account for the higher cortisol
levels and the superior lifting performances that
were reported during an official competition.'^^'
6.4.3 Growth Hormone
Conventional resistance exercise does not appear

to affect basal concentrations of growth hormone
(GH).P^'] In accordance with this contention, similar basal GH concentrations have been reported
Adis 2012 Springer internatiohai Pubiishihg AG. Aii rights reserved.
in male and female weightlifters''33,i76,24i,245,254]

and other strength athletes (i.e. bodybuilders and
powerlifters) when compared with recreationally
trained and untrained adults.'242.244,26i,262] g^g.
nificant exercise-induced increases in GH occur
similarly in men and women in response to moderate-intensity, high-volume and short rest period
resistance exercise protocols (i.e. hypertrophy
training).'^'*^'^^''^^^] Conversely, only minor increases in GH have been reported following conventional strength and power protocols that use
high loads, low repetitions and long rest periods.'^''^'^^"^*^] In contrast to these latter findings,
4.5-13-fold increases in GH have been reported in
male weightiifters in response to their high-intensity,
high-power training.''^^'^'*''^^' However, these confficting results may be explained by (i) the differences in the training experience of participants that
has been shown to affect the magnitude of GH release;'^''^'^^^'^*^ and (ii) differences in the absolute
and relative intensity, volume and type of exercise
performed (i.e. isolation vs multijoint exercise) in
each i
7. Recommendations and Conciusions
The high-intensity, explosive nature of weightlifting training and competition results in a
number of structural and functional adaptations
of the musculoskeletal and cardiovascular systems. Of particular interest is that the rapid force
and power generating ability of weightiifters exceeds that of other strength and power athletes.
Although the use of weightlifting exercises are
becoming increasingly popular across a number
of sports, the frequency of HIRE performed by
weightiifters is unmatched by other athletes and
exceeds the current ACSM recommendations for
strength and power training. As younger and
older individuals of both sexes are being drawn to
the sport of weightlifting, it is imperative that
further research is conducted in these populations
to ensure the development of safe and effective
training programmes. Particular focus needs to
be directed towards understanding the acute
responses and long-term adaptations of female
weightiifters, as the majority of existing research
has solely been conducted in male athletes.
Acknowledgements
The authors have no potential conflicts of interest. No
ftinding was received for this review. The authors would like
to thank Jonathan Milne and our athlete model for their assistance with supplying the photographs for this publication.
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Correspondence: Adam Storey, Department of Sport and

Exercise Science, The University of Auckland, Private Bag
92019, Auckland Mail Centre, Auckland 1142, New Zealand.
E-ma: adam.storey@auck]and,ac.nz
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Pcx/icur A DTiri c

Unique Aspects of Competitive

Storey & Smith

This review details the unique performance

Competitive Weightlifting Performance, Training and Physiology

to raise the barbell off the platform to a position

Sports Med 2012; 42 (9)

Storey & Smith

As the barbell rises in the vertical plane to -55-65%

Adis 2012 Springer internationai Pubiishing AG. Aii rights reserved.

to 17 times their body mass.^^^ Reported power

Competitive Weightliftirig Performance, Training and Physiology

Adis 2012 Springer infernafionai Pubiishing AG. Aii righfs reserved.

Storey & Smith

The two competitive lifts form the basis of

Eastern European teams, in particular the former

Sports Med 2012; 42 (9)

Competitive Weightlifting Performance, Training and Physiology

'recovery' is believed to contribute to subsequent

Adis 2012 Springer internationai Publishing AG. Aii rights reserved.

suppression of key anabolic mediators, prolonged

Storey & Smith

Fig. 3. Proposed relationship between the volume of high-intensity

has been shown to occur between training loads

penditures incurred by the athletes. For example,

Sports Med 2012; 42 (9)

Competitive Weightlifting Performance, Training and Physiology

4.5 Influence of Body Weight Changes on

lifters (i.e. <56 kg to <85 kg) are somatotyped as

to obtain valid and meaningful physiological

Storey & Smith

HIRE studies in non-weightlifters indicates that

Maximal voluntary isometric peak force (PF)

Competitive Weightlifting Performance, Training and Physiology

to 56 W/kg and 38 W/kg to 40 W/kg, respectively,[4,5] ^g ^ comparison, during maximal bench

To compare performances across the different

tion of the total the lifter would theoretically achieve

Table I, Sex- and age-related differences in the under 69 kg world records'

Percentage of the male record

Current world records as of November, 2011.

C&J = clean and jerl<.

Adis 2012 Springer International Publishing AG. All rights reserved.

Sports Med 2012; 42 (9)

Storey & Smith

adults. It is likely that neural factors contributed

Age category (years)

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greater age-related declines in muscle shortening

The skeletal structures of weightlifters undergo

Sports Med 2012; 42 (9)

Competitive Weightlifting Performance, Training and Physiology

and catabolic hormones for the large part in young

Testosterone is a potent androgenic-anabolic

The basal testosterone : cortisol (T : C) ratio is

Storey & Smith

imposed by a training programme,'2^'"253] as it

Conventional resistance exercise does not appear

in male and female weightlifters''33,i76,24i,245,254]

Sports ivied 2012; 42 (9)

Competitive Weightlifting Performance, Training and Physiology

Adis 2012 Springer infernafionai Publishing AG. All righfs reserved.

18. Winchester JB, Porter JM, McBride JM. Changes in bar

36. Garhammer J, Gregor R. Propulsion forces as a function of

Adis 2012 Springer international Pubiishing AG, All rights reserved.