Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chap 3
Chap 3
Introduction
http://jas2.eng.buffalo.edu/applets/education/pn/biasedPN/index.html
http://jas2.eng.buffalo.edu/applets/education/pn/cv/index.html
Textbook CD
Introduction
The ideal diode: (a) diode circuit symbol; (b) i-v characteristic; (c) equivalent circuit in the reverse direction; (d) equivalent circuit
in the forward direction.
Rectifier Circuit
Input waveform.
Rectifier circuit
Output waveform.
Rectifier Circuit
Example 3.1
Rectifier Circuit
Example 3.2
Rectifier Circuit
Exercises 3.4 and 3.5
n VT
IS e
1
k T
VT
Thermal Voltage
for i>> Is
n VT
IS e
n VT ln
IS
ln = 2.3 log
IS e
n VT
v1
I1
IS e
IS e
VT 0.025
I1 0.0001
n VT
n VT
I2 0.01
( v1 v2)
I1
v2
I2
n 1.5
I2
n VT
v1_v2 n VT ln
I1
I2
v1_v2 0.173
IS e
n VT
0.7
0.001
IS e
1 0.025
0.5
IS e
1 0.025
0.2
I 0.001 e
I 0.335
0.025
uA
10
The semiconductor diode is what is called a pn junction and is shown in the figure on the right
Both the p and the n sections are part of the same crystal of silicon. At room temp., some
of the covalent bonds in silicon break and electrons are attracted to other atoms. These moving
electrons leave a hole behind that is filled by another electron, thus continuing the cycle. In
thermal equilibrium the concentration of holes (p) and the concentration of free electrons (n) are
equal to each other and to ni which is the number of holes or free electrons in silicon at a given
temp. Study of semiconductor physics yields the following equation for the free electrons.
In this eqaution, B is a material dependant parameter (5.4x10^31) for silicon, gE
is a parameter known as the bandgap energy (1.12electron volts (eV) for silicon),
and k is the Boltsmann's constant (8.62x10^-5 eV/K). Thus, at room temp
(300K), the number of holes or free electrons is 1.5x10^22.
The two methods by which holes and electrons move are called
diffusion and drift. In diffusion, the flow
moves from areas of higher concentration of p or n to areas of lower concentration. This flow gives rise to
a flow of charge or diffusion current. This is given by the following
Jp
Jn
d
q D n n Here, it stands for the rate of change of free electron concentration.
dx
Here, Jn is also the current density. The only difference is the differential dn.
The other method is called drift. Free holes and e- are moved by an electric field (E) and have a velocity
pE
v drift
Jp_drift
Jn_drift
q n n E
q pp nn E
Dp
The Vt term is what is called the thermal voltage. At room temperature, the
thermal voltage is approximately equal to 25mV
VT
Silicon is often doped to give it better conductivity. Doping is the process by which impurity atoms are
added to the silicon to provide more holes (p-type) or more free electrons (n-type). One thing to note is
the way the various terms are defined. For n-type silicon, the hole concentration is n p and the electron
concentration is nn. The concentration of donor (n-type) atoms or accpetor (p-type) atoms is denoted Nd
and NA respectively. Study of doped silicon revealed the following.
2
Pn
ni
ND
nn
Nd
pp
NA
np
ni
NA
The voltage across this region can be found by the following equation:
Vo
VT
NA ND
ni
In this equation, Na, Nd, and Vt are the same as they are previously
defined above. In open circuit conditions, V0 is 0 because the voltages
existing at the metal contacts of the diode (in the diagram above)
counteract the voltage at the barrier. If this were not so, energy could be
drawn from the isolated diode which is clearly incorrect.
In addition to the diffusion current, there is also a drift current. When some of the thermally generated
holes (holes created by a temp. increase which releases some outer electrons from their bonds) reach
the edge of the depletion region, they are swept accross the area because of the electric field present
in that region. This also happens to the free electrons. The addition of these two currents is the drift
current Is which flows in the opposite direction of ID. Under open circuit conditions, no external current
exists and the two currents are equal to each other. Under these conditions, if one current for some
reason is not equal to the other, they will shift and change until the equilibrium is once again attained.
xn
NA
xp
ND
q xn A ND
In actual practice, one side is usually more heavily doped than the
other causing the depletion region to exist almost entirely on one
side (the lightly doped side).
The width of the depletion region can be given (based on the above assumption that it exists
mainly on one side) by the following equation.
W depletion_region
xn xp
2s
o
q NA
ND
1
In this equation, s is the electrical permittivity of silicon (1.04x10^-12 Farrads/cm). The width of
the region is usually 0.1 to 1 m.
qn
qj
q ND xn A
NA ND
NA ND
A W depletion_region
2s 1
1
This
adjustment
is
made
because
W depletion_region xn xp
N
Vo VR
q
N
it is no longer an open circuit.
D
A
There is now an external voltage source acting on the diode so the voltage is the addition of the
open circuit voltage and the reverse voltage. The capacitance can then be written as the
derivative of the charge in the depletion region. WIth a little bit of algebra and the combining of
previous equations, the value for the capacitance (Cj ) can be found to be as follows:
Cj0
Cj
VR
Vo
Cj0
q s
Here, Cjo is the value of the capacitance of the open circuit diode
and is defined below. m is a value that depends on the manner in
which the concentration changes from the p to the n side of the
juncion. It is called the grading coefficient (for the case of the
diode we are using, it is .5 but it ranges from .5 to about .333)
2 NA ND Vo
NA ND
p n xn
p n0 e
VT
The concentration of excess holes in the n-region can be expressed as the following.
x xn
p n( x)
p n0 p n xn p n0 e
Lp
The constant Lp is also related to another parameter called the excess-minority-carrier lifetime p.
This is the average time it takes for an injected hole to recombine. Lp is also related to the diffusion
constant Dp.
Lp
Dp p
Typical values for Lp range from 1 to 100um and p usually ranges from 1 to
10,000ns.
Jp
Dp
Lp
p n0 e
VT
In a similar manner, the analysis can extendd to the electrons injected into the p-region
Jn
Dn
Ln
n p0 e
VT
Because both of the densities are in the same direction, the total current (I) can be found. Substituting
for pn0 = ni^2/ND and similarly for np0, the current can be expressed as follows.
2
A q ni
Dp
Dn
L N L N e
n
A
p D
V
VT
2
A q ni
Dp
L N
p D
Dn
Ln NA
Because of the excess carriers in forward bias, when the voltage is changed, the charge of the diode
will have to change to achieve steady state. This causes a form of charge storing in the depletion
region. This charge can be calculated by adding up the charge in the p and n regions. This charge
turns out to be as follows.
Q
p Ip n In
Because it was earlier defined that Ip + In is equal to I, the equation can be rewritten as Q T I
where T is related to n and p and is called the mean tranit time. With this, it can be shown that
the capacitance is defined as follows.
Cd
VT
The capacitance over the depletion layer under forward bias is written as Cj
2 Cj0
This eqation is actually a fairly poor model so it is used as a rule of thumb rather than a solid fact.
Diode Characteristic
Diode Characteristic
Diode Characteristic
Diode Characteristic
Diode Applications
Diode Applications
Diode Applications
Diode Applications
Diode Applications
Diode Applications
Graphical Analysis
v1
ID
ID
IS e
n VT
VDD VD
R
Iterative Analysis
Example 3.4
Determine ID and VD for this circuit with VDD = 5 V and R1 = 1 K ohm.
Assume diode current 1 mA at voltage 0.7 V, and that its voltage drop changes by 0.1 V for
every decade change in current.
VDD 5
ID
R1 1000
VDD VD
VD 0.7
3
ID 4.3 10
1000
2.3 n VT log
I2
I1
V1 0.7 V
I2 4.3
mA
I1 1
mA
For our case 2.3.n.VT = 0.1 V (This results from the condition of 0.1 V change for every
decade change in current
V2 V1 0.1 log
I2
V2 0.763
I1
ID2
5 0.763
1000
ID2 4.237 10
ID2
ID
V2 0.762
Piecewise-linear model of the diode forward characteristic and its equivalent circuit representation.
Development of the constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forward characteristics. A vertical straight line (b) is used to
approximate the fast-rising exponential.
The constant-voltage-drop model of the diode forward characteristic and its equivalent circuit representation.
Development of the diode small-signal model. Note that the numerical values shown are for a diode with n = 2.
Equivalent circuit model for the diode for small changes around bias point Q. The incremental resistance rd is the inverse of the slope
of the tangent at Q, and VD0 is the intercept of the tangent on the vD axis.
The analysis of the circuit in (a), which contains both dc and signal quantities, can be performed by replacing the diode with the model
of previous figure, as shown in (b). This allows separating the dc analysis [the circuit in (c)] from the signal analysis [the circuit in
(d)].
Vz = Vzo + r2Iz
Vz > Vzo
Circuit symbol for a zener diode.
The diode i-v characteristic with the breakdown region shown in some detail.
Rectifier Circuits
Rectifier Circuits
vs VDO
vo 0
vo
R
R rD
rD R
PIV Vs
v s VDO
R
R rD
v o vs VDO
vs VDO
Rectifier Circuits
PIV
2 V s V DO
Rectifier Circuits
The bridge rectifier: (a) circuit and (b) input and output
waveforms.
PIV
Vs VDO
Rectifier Circuits
With A Filter Capacitor
Voltage and current waveforms in the peak rectifier circuit with CR T. The diode is assumed ideal.
Rectifier Circuits
With A Filter Capacitor
iL
iD
vo
R
iC IL
d
C v I iL
dt
Vp
IL
CR >> T
vo
Vp e
C R
Vp Vr
Vp e
C R
T
SInce CR >> T
Vr
Vp
and
T
CR
Vr
Vp
f C R
CR
T
CR
Vr << Vp
Vp cos t
Rectifier Circuits
With A Filter Capacitor
Vp Vr
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
Vp t
2
Vp Vr
Vr
Vr
Vp
Qsupplied
iDmax
C Vr
Vp
Vr
IL 1 2
Vp
Vr
IL 1 2 2
Rectifier Circuits
With A Filter Capacitor
Vp 100
R 10000
Vr 5
C
If Vp = 100 V
R = 10 K
Calculate the value of the
capacitance C that will result
in a peak-to-peak ripple
Vr of 5 V, the conduction
angle and the average and
peak values of the diode
current.
IL
Vp
f 60
Vp
IL 0.01
mA
C 3.333 10
Vr f R
t 2
Vr
Vp
t 0.316
Vp
Vr
iDav IL 1 2
iDav 0.209
Vp
Vr
iDmax IL 1 2 2
rad
iDmax 0.407
parameter
units
default example
----
---------
IS
saturation current
1.0E-14 1.0E-14 *
RS
*
ohmic resistance
Ohm
10
emission coefficient
1.0
TT
transit-time
sec
0.1Ns
CJO
2PF
VJ
junction potential
0.6
grading coefficient
0.5
0.5
EG
activation energy
eV
1.11
1.11 Si
-----
-------
0.69 Sbd
0.67 Ge
parameter
----
---------
XTI
units
default example
-----
-------
3.0
3.0 jn
------9
2.0 Sbd
10
KF
11
AF
12
FC
0.5
BV
14
IBV
infinite
A
1.0E-3
40.0
Name
Parameter
Units
Default
IS
saturation current
1.0E-14
emission coefficient
BV
reverse breakdown voltage
infinite
RS
CJO
VJ
junction potential V
grading coefficient
0.5