(Power Plant Engineering)

ii
.. 2558


(Power Plant Engineering)
E-book 4 e-mail

e-mail

2558
(1)
(2) (3) 13
13 4
4

e-mail: somchart@engr.tu.ac.th
2558

iii

iv

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

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1
1
3
4
5

2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9
9
13
17

3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4

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27
27
33
35
38

4.1 . . . . . . . . .
4.2
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 . . .
4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . .

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41
41
43
46
49
53
55
56

5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67
67
70
72

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vi

5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7

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82
83
85
90

6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 . . . . .
6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6 .
6.7 . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.11 . . . . . .

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95
95
96
97
99
101
103
105
108
109
111
113

7.1 . . . . . . . . .
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 . . . . . . .
7.4 . . . . . . .
7.5 . . . .
7.6 . . . . .
7.7
7.8 . . . . . . . . .
7.9 . .
7.10 . . . . .

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121
121
122
124
126
131
136
139
142
143
146

8.1
8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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151
151
151
155
158
162

167
9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

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9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7

vii
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184
186
189
189
192

10
10.1 . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 . . . . . . . . .
10.4

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195
195
201
205
215

11
11.1 . . . . . . . .
11.2 . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 . . . . . . .
11.5 . . . . . . . .
11.6

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221
221
222
224
225
231
233

12
12.1 . . .
12.2 . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 . . . . . . .
12.4 . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.7
12.8 . . .
12.9 . . . . . . . . . . .
12.10 . . . . . . . .
12.11
12.12 .

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237
237
238
239
240
243
244
246
247
251
253
254
256

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261
261
265
269
273

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13
13.1 . . . .
13.2
13.3 . . . . . . .
13.4 . . . . . . . . .

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viii

13.5
13.6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

1.1

1.1
.. 2555 2557

(power generation system)



(power transmission system)


(substation)

1.
1.1: .. 2548

(W/)

1683

1114

804

774

622

581

458

377

286

225

147

131

75

52

39

28
69 kW 115 kW 230 kW 500 kW


(power distribution system)



11 kW 12 kW 22 kW 24 kW 33 kW

380/220 V

3
(1) (.)

(2) (.)
.

1.2.

(3) (.)
. .
.

1.2

(thermal power plant)

(gas turbine power plant)

(combined-cycle power plant)



(nuclear power plant)

(hydroelectric power plant)

(diesel power plant)

(renewable energy)

1.

1.3
MW
MW 1.2 ..
2558

1.2: .. 2558

(MW) (%)

23313
53.5

8176
18.7

3406
7.8

8741
20.0
(1) . (2)
(independent power producer) IPP (3) (small power producer)
SPP
.
.
IPP
SPP
IPP . .
IPP (1)
(2)
. (3) .
(4)
SPP .
90 MW SPP

1.4.

(cogeneration)

10%
45%
1.3 ..
2557 IPP

1.3: .. 2557

(MW) (%)
.
15482
45

13167
38

3615
10
()
2404
7

1.4

1.

(environmetal impact assessment EIA)

(.)
EIA
1. 100 MW
2. 150 MW
3. 3000 MW
4.



EIA .
EIA
EIA

1.4.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9. (IPP) (SPP)
10. EIA

1.

2.1

(discount
rate) (future value)
(present value)
P V = fP V F V

(2.1)

P V , F V n
fP V =

1
(1 + i)n

(2.2)

(present worth factor) i fP V

1 3
1.1

P V = 1000000 F V = 1100000
PV
FV
= 0.909
1
=
(1 + i)3

fP V =

10

2.
i = 0.0323

(series payment)
(2.1) (2.2)

500000 600000 5%
700000 4.5%

P V = P V0 + P V1 + P V2
P V0 = 500000
600000
P V1 =
(1 + 0.05)
= 471729
700000
P V2 =
(1 + 0.045)2
= 641011
= P V = 1612740

n


F Vk k
F Vk+1 = (1 + r)F Vk

100r (r > 0) (r < 0)

PV =

[
(
) ]
1+r n
F V1
1
ir
1+i

(2.3)

r = i (2.3) P V
PV =

nF V1
1+i

(2.4)

2.1.

11

1000000
5% 5
7%

F V1 = 1000000 , r = 0.05 i = 0.07

[
(
) ]
1.05 5
1000000
1
PV =
0.07 0.05
1.07
= 4501444

(optimization
process)
(levelized value)

(annual value)

n
(fP V 1 , fP V 2 , ..., fP V n ) (2.2)
(P V1 , P V2 , ..., P Vn ) (2.1) AV
AV =

P V1 + P V2 + + P Vn
fP V 1 + fP V 2 + + fP V n

(2.5)

50 /GJ 2-5
5% 5
4.5%

(2.1)

12

2.

1
2
3
4
5

FV

50.00
52.50
55.13
57.88
60.78

fP V i

0.9569
0.9157
0.8763
0.8386
0.8025

P Vi

47.85
48.07
48.31
48.54
48.78

P Vi fP V i (i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) (2.5)
47.85 + 48.07 + 48.31 + 48.54 + 48.78
0.9569 + 0.9157 + 0.8763 + 0.8386 + 0.8025
= 55.02 /GJ

AV =

(net present value) (internal
rate of return)

1500
150 20
8%

1500 (P Vout )
1500 20 (P Vin )
(2.3) r = 0
P Vin

[
(
) ]
150
1 + 0 20
=
1
i0
1+i

i P Vin = P Vout = 1500

[
(
)20 ]
1
1
1
= 10
i
1+i
= i = 0.078

i = 0.08 1500

2.2.

2.2

13

(load curve)
2.1

2.1
(load) 2.1
(load curve) 1
1 1

2.1: 12

14

2.

(peak load)
(load factor)
2.2




(blackout)


15-20%

2.2:
2.1 93 MW 7
2.1

.. 2548-2557

kW kW.h 1
(average load)
(Pave ) (Pmax ) (LF)
LF =

Pave
Pmax

(2.6)

2.2.

15

2.1: .. 2548-2557
.. (MW) (MW)
2548
20538
26450
2549
21064
27106
2550
22586
28530
2551
22568
29892
2552
22045
29212
2553
24010
30920
2554
23900
31447
2555
26121
32600
2556
26598
33681
2557
26942
34668




2.1
2.1

2.1
(rated capacity)
(capacity factor)
CF =

Pave
Prated

(2.7)

Pave (2.7)
Prated Pmax (2.6)

Pave (2.6)
(2.7)
LF.Pmax
(2.8)
CF =
P
rated

16

2.
(h) 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-22 22-24
(MW) 30 70
90
60
100
80
60

.
.
100 MW
.
70 MW 70 MW 24
30 MW 70 MW

2.3
30 6 + 70 4 + 90 2 + 60 4 + 100 4 + 80 2 + 60 2
24
= 65 MW
65
= 0.65
LF = 100

Pave =

2.3:
CF = LF Pave
Prated = Pmax = 100 MW

2.3

2.3.

17

30 6 + 70 6 + 60 4 + 70 6 + 60 2
24
= 57.5 MW
57.5
CF1 =
= 0.82
70

Pave,1 =

70 MW 24 h

20 2 + 30 4 + 10 2
24
= 7.5 MW
7.5
CF2 =
= 0.25
30

Pave,2 =

2.3

(variable cost) (xed cost)



2.4

(fuel cost) (operation and maintenance cost)
(construction cost)

2.3.1

18

2.

2.4:
(cf ) (Cf )
(E ) E kJ cf (kW.h) cf
cf =

3600Cf
E

(2.9)

E = .Q

(2.10)

Q
(HHV) kJ/kg (mf ) /kg
Q = mf .HHV

(2.11)

(Ff )
Cf = mf .Ff

(2.12)

3600Ff
.HHV

(2.13)

E Cf (2.9)
cf =

4 1000, 1500, 1300 1100

4 20, 22, 18 15 MJ/kg

2.3.

19

(2.12) cf
Ff /HHV Ff /HHV 4

Ff

(/kg)
1.0
1.5
1.3
1.1

HHV

(MJ/kg)
20
22
18
15

(/MJ)
0.050
0.068
0.072
0.073

Ff /HHV

800 MW 38%
82% 20000 kJ/kg 0.5

Ff (2.13)
cf ..HHV
3600
0.5 0.38 20000
=
3600
= 1.06 /kg

Ff =

2.3.2

com =

Com
E

(2.14)

20

2.

Com E
8760

E = 8760Pave

(2.15)

Pave (2.7)
(2.14)
com =

Com
8760.CF.Prated

(2.16)

600 MW 500
35%

500 106
8760 0.35 600 103
= 0.27 /kW.h

com =

2.3.3


(depreciation)


30-40
(salvage value)
(A) (G) (D)
N

(staight-line method)
D=

AG
N

(2.17)

2.3.

21

(sinking-fund method)
D=

(A G)i
(1 + i)N 1

(2.18)

(xed-charge rate)
Cc I

cc =

ICc
8760.CF.Prated

(2.19)

Cc = Fc Prated

(2.20)

Fc Fc

65 15

5% 5

A = 65 G = 5 N = 15
65 5
15
= 4

D=

150 MW
20000 /kW 10%
120 MW 50%

22

2.

20000 150 103 = 3000 I = 0.1 (2.8)

0.5 120
150
= 0.4

CF =

0.1 3000 106

8760 0.4 150 103
= 0.57 /kW.h

cc =

2.3.4

2.5 1
1
2
2
3
3
1 ()
2 (
) 3
()
2.1 %
(load distribution curve)
2.6
(base load) (intermediate load)
(peak load)
2.6
1
2.5 1
2
3
1, 2 3

2.3.

23

2.5:

2.6:

24

2.

2.3.5

(http://www.mea.or.th)
(http://www.pea.or.th)

(1) (2) (3)

(4) (5) () (6)
(7)

(energy charge)
(kW.h) (demand charge)
15

(supply and demand)
(peak period)
(off-peak period) 9.00-22.00 .

2.3.

25

(time of use TOU)

26

2.

1. 3
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8. TOU
9. 50 /GJ 5%
2 5 5% 5
10. 6000 500
30
(internal return rate)
11. 800 MW
(peak load) 750 MW 8760
5 (capacity factor)
12. 42% 22000 kJ/kg
1500
13. 0.31
700 MW 8600 45%

14. 800 20

4% (salvage value) 60
(sinking-fund method)
15. 450 MW 18000 /kW
24 365 9%
37%

3.1

(coal)
(biomass)

3.1.1

4 (Anthracite)
(Bituminous) (Sub-bituminous) (Lignite)

(proximate analysis) (ultimate analysis)
4
(moisture) (volatile matter) (ash) (free carbon)
3.1

28

3.

(mi )
(mM )
(coke)
(mV M )
mA (mF C )


xF C =

mF C
m
m
m
; xV M = V M ; xM = M ; xA = A
mi
mi
mi
mi

(3.1)

50%
(bound water)
(free water)



(uniform burning)
(tempering process)
3.1
954 C
CH4 CO2

3.1:

3.1.

29

(spontaneous combustion)

Al2 O3 , Fe2 O3 , CaO, P2 O5
(ash fusion temperature)
(slag)

3.1 4


3.1:
(%) (%) (%) (%)

4.3
9.6
5.1
81.0

8.5
10.8
36.4
44.3

22.2
4.3
33.2
40.3

36.8
5.9
27.8
29.5
(C) (H) (O) (N) (S)

(dry ash-free coal)

m = mF C + mV M

(3.2)

30

3.

5
xC =

mC
m
m
m
m
; xH = H ; xO = O ; xN = N ; xS = S
m
m
m
m
m

(3.3)

5 1
(3.1) mi
(as-received coal) mi m

mi m = mM + mA

(3.4)

m = mi (1 xM xA )

(3.5)

C, H, O, N, S (3.3)
(3.1) C, H, O, N, S

xC,ar = xC (1 xM xA )

(3.6)

xC,ar =

mC
mi

(3.7)

xH,ar , xO,ar , xN,ar xS,ar

C 39.58%, H 2.57%, O 9.70%, N
0.67%, S 0.49%, 33.54% 13.46% C, H, O, N, S

xH,ar , xO,ar , xN,ar xS,ar (3.6)

xC,ar
(1 xM xA )
0.3958
=
(1 0.3354 0.1346)

xC =

= 0.7468

xH = 0.0485, xO = 0.1830, xN = 0.0126 xS = 0.0092

3.1.

31

(calorimeter)

(grindability)

(Hardgrove machine)
(Hardgrove index)

(abrasivity)
(carbon steel)

(swelling index)

(stationary grate)

32

3.

800 C
1 9

0

3.1.2

3.2 (
)
3.2:

(%) (%)
(%)
(%)
(kJ/kg)

12.00 12.65
56.46 18.88
14,755

10.00 10.39
60.70 18.90
13,650

50.73 1.43
41.98
5.86
9,243

40.00 0.90
45.42 13.68
11,298
59.40 1.50
31.00
8.10
7,451

3.2.

33

3.2

C 84-89%, H 12-14%, O 2-3% N 0-1%

S 0-3%
(fractional distillation process)

(liquidied petroleum
gas LPG) (gasoline) (kerosene) (diesel)
(fuel oil)

3.2.1

40705 45520
kJ/kg 1, 2, 4,
5 6 ( 3 )

3.2.2

80% 20%

(emulsied diesel)

34

3.

3.2.3

(specic gravity)

s=

15.6 C
15.6 C

API (American Petroleum Institute) API s API

s=

141.5
131.5 + API

(viscosity)

ASTM Standard D445 (centistoke)
(viscometer)

(pour point)

3.3.

35

(ash point)


4-5 C

6
1% 3-4% 2%
SO3




(steam coil)

(1)
(2) (3)

3.3

(natural gas) (synthetic gas) (biogas)

3.3.1

(CH4 )
CO2

36

3.

(H2 S)

CO2




(methyl alcohol)

(ethyl alcohol)
(propylene)
(polypropylene)

(liqueed petroleum gas LPG)
LPG
LPG

(natural gasoline NGL) 5 NGL

NGL



100%

(ideal gas)

yi =

Mi
V
= i
M
V

Mi Vi i M V

3.3.

37

MBtu (1 Btu = 1.055 kJ)

3.3.2

(coal gasication) (coke-oven gas) (producer gas) (water gas) (synthetic natural gas SNG)

(coke)
+ + +
H2 CH4
(exothermic)

+ CO + N2 +
CO N2 CO

CO H2
(endothermic)
+ + CO + H2

SNG N2 CO

CO + H2 O CO2 + H2
SNG SNG H2
CO CH4
CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2 O
(catalyst)

(blast-furnace gas) CO2
(sewer gas) CH4

38

3.

3.3.3
(biogas) (anaerobic digestion) 5 C, H,
O, N S
Ca Hb Oc Ne Se
(

)
b
c 3d e
Ca Hb Oc Nd Se + a 4 2 + 4 + 2 H2 O
(
)
(
)
a b
c 3d e
c 3d e
a b
+

CH4 + 2 8 + 4 + 8 + 4 CO2
2 8 2
8
4
+ dNH3 + eH2 S

CO2 , NH3 H2 S

BOD (biochemical
oxygen demand) COD (chemical oxygen demand) BOD
80% COD BOD COD

3.4
7



(proven reserve) (probable
reserve) (possible reserve)
3.3
(
)

3.4.

39

3.3:

()
P1 P1+P2 P1+P2+P3 P1 P1+P2 P1+P2+P3
223 553
741
4
11
15

()
LPG
182 411
()

7752 15560
()

1181 2007
()

P1
P2
P3

476

12

14

18885

13

16

2007

18

65

111

3.4
20

3.4: .. 2549 2529

.. 2549 .. 2529

5.6%
21.8%

5.5%
13.1%

17.2%
21.8%

66.5%
40.3%

5.2%
3.0%
70%

40

3.

1.
2. 4
3.
4.
5.
6. (coke)
7. (ultimate analysis)
8.
9.
10. (water gas)
11. (biogas)
12.
13.
14.

15. (proximate analysis) 15%

5% (dry, ash-free basis)
(ultimate analysis) H 3% H
(as-received coal)

4.1

(ue gas)

3


C + O2 CO2
H2 + 12 O2 H2 O
S + O2 SO2

(4.1)
(4.2)
(4.3)

(CH4 )

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2 O

(4.4)

(4.1) - (4.4)
(reactant)
(product)
(ignition temperature)

O2
N2 , O2 , Ar CO2

42

4.

28.0134, 31.9988, 39.9480 44.0095 4.2

28.97
(theoretical air)
N2 79% O2 21% 28.84 4.76
N2 3.76 O2 1 N2 O2 0.767
0.233

4.1:

N2
O2
Ar
CO2

(%)

78.084
79
20.946
21
0.934
0
0.036
0

(complete combustion)
(stoichiometric combustion)
C, H, S CO
(incomplete combustion)
O2 O2
(stoichiometric air) (theoretical air) H2 O, CO2 N2
O2
(Cm Hn )
Cm Hn + (m + n4 )(O2 + 3.76N2 ) mCO2 + n2 H2 O + 3.76(m + n4 )N2

(4.5)

CO CO
CO + 12 (O2 + 3.76N2 ) CO2 + 1.88N2

(4.6)

CO

CO

4.2.

43

4 (1) (2)
(3) (4)

(excess air)

4.2

(theoretical air-fuel ratio) AF RT
AF RT kgair /kgfuel
molair /molfuel
= 28.84
(4.7)
Mf uel

28.84 Mf uel
C, H S (4.1)-(4.3)
O N
Ca Hb Sc Od Ne
C
)
b
d
a+ +c
(O2 + 3.76N2 )
4
2
[
(
)
]
b
b
d
e
aCO2 + H2 O + cSO2 + 3.76 a + + c
+
N2
2
4
2
2

Ca Hb Sc Od Ne +

(4.8)
(

b
d
AF RT = 4.76 a + + c
4
2

molair /molfuel

(4.8)

(4.9)

4.2 AF RT (4.9)
N, O2 CO2 AF RT
AF RT
k y1 , y2 , ..., yk
AF RT AF RT,1 , AF RT,2 , ..., AF RT,k AF RT

AF RT = y1 AF RT,1 + y2 AF RT,2 + ... + yk AF RT,k

(4.10)

44

4.
4.2: AF RT

C
H
S
CH4
C2 H6
C3 H8
CO

AF RT

(molair /molfuel )
4.76
1.19
4.76
9.52
16.66
23.8
2.38

AF RT C3 H8 40% C4 H10 60%

C3 H8 1 C4 H10 2 y1
= 0.4, y2 = 0.6, AF RT,1 = 23.8, AF RT,2 = 30.94
AF RT = 0.4 23.8 + 0.6 30.94
= 28.1

molair /molfuel

AF RT CH4 70%, C2 H6 10%,

C3 H8 10% CO2 10%

CH4 , C2 H6 , C3 H8 CO2 1, 2, 3 4
y1 = 0.7, y2 = 0.1, y3 =
0.1, y4 = 0.1, AF RT,1 = 9.52, AF RT,2 = 16.66, AF RT,3 = 23.8, AF RT,4 = 0
AF RT = 0.7 9.52 + 0.1 16.66 + 0.1 23.8 + 0.1 0
= 10.7

molair /molfuel

AF RT
(4.9)
(4.7)
28.84 4.76
AF RT =
Mf uel

(
)
b
d
a+ +c
4
2

kgair /kgfuel

(4.11)

4.2.

45

Ca Hb Sc Od Ne
(4.12)

Mf uel = 12a + b + 32c + 16d + 14e

C, H, S O
12a
Mf uel
b
xH =
Mf uel
32c
xS =
Mf uel
16d
xO =
Mf uel

(4.13)

xC =

(4.14)
(4.15)
(4.16)

xC , xH , xS xO a, b, c d (4.11)
AF RT = 11.44xC + 34.32xH + 4.29xS 4.29xO

kgair /kgfuel

(4.17)

xM
xA
AF RT = (11.44xC + 34.32xH + 4.29xS 4.29xO )(1 xM xA )

(4.18)

xC , xH , xS xO
(3.6) (4.18)
AF RT = 11.44xC,ar + 34.32xH,ar + 4.29xS,ar 4.29xO,ar

(4.19)

xC,ar , xH.ar , xS,ar xO,ar

4% 5%
C 83.1%, H 5.5%, O
7.4%, N 2.1% S 1.9% AF RT

(4.18) AF RT
AF RT = (11.44 0.831 + 34.32 0.055 + 4.29 0.019 4.29 0.074)
(1 0.04 0.05)
= 10.2

kgair /kgfuel

46

4.

4.3

(formation enthalpy)

(adiabatic ame
temperature)



(heating value)

1 kg 1 m3 (bomb
calorimeter)
(higher heating value)
(lower heating value)

4.3 C
4.3: C H S

C
H
S

HHV (kJ/kg)
C + O2 CO2
33700
H + 0.25O2 0.5H2 O 144200
S + O2 SO2
9300

S 4.3 H
1 kg O 8 kg

(
x )
HHV = 33700xC + 144200 xH O + 9300xS
(4.20)
8
(Dulongs formula) (4.20)

(
x )
HHV = (33700xC + 144200 xH O + 9300xS )(1 xM xA )
8

(4.21)

4.3.

47

(
xO,ar )
+ 9300xS,ar
HHV = 33700xC,ar + 144200 xH,ar
8

(4.22)

4.3 C S H
9 kg 1 kg H

9

25 C 2442 kJ/kg
LHV = HHV 2442(9xH,ar + xM )

(4.23)

Cm Hn Cm Hn , CO H2
4.4
4.4:

CH4
C2 H6
C3 H8
H2
CO

HHV (kJ/m3 ) HHV (kJ/kg)

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2 O
39700
55600
C2 H6 + 72 O2 2CO2 + 3H2 O
69600
52000
C3 H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2 O
99100
50500
1
H2 + 2 O2 H2 O
12700
142200
CO + 12 O2 CO2
12600
10100

k y1 , y2 , ..., yk
HHV1 , HHV2 , ..., HHVk

HHV = y1 HHV1 + y2 HHV2 + ... + yk HHVk

(4.24)

k x1 , x2 , ..., xk
HHV1 , HHV2 , ..., HHVk

HHV = x1 HHV1 + x2 HHV2 + ... + xk HHVk

(4.25)

48

4.

4.4
CO Vi i 1
m3 1 m3 k

V = y1 V1 + y2 V2 + ... + yk Vk

(4.26)

25 C 1962 kJ/m3

LHV = HHV 1962V

(4.27)

(4.20) xM = 0

C 70%, H 5%, O 4%, S 1%, 10% 10%

4 100%
xC,ar
= 0.70, xH,ar = 0.05, xO,ar = 0.04, xS,ar = 0.01, xM = 0.10 xA = 0.10
(4.22)
HHV = 33700(0.7) + 144200(0.05 0.04/8) + 9300(0.01)
= 30172 kJ/kg

(4.23)
LHV = 30172 2440(9 0.05 + 0.1)
= 28828 kJ/kg

CH4 80%, H2 15% CO 5%

(4.24) 4.4
HHV = 39700(0.8) + 12700(0.15) + 12600(0.05)

4.4.

49

= 34295 kJ/m3

1 m3 (4.26) 4.4
V = 2 0.8 + 1 0.15
= 1.75 m3

(4.27)
LHV = 34295 1960 1.75
= 30865 kJ/m3

4.4

2



(Orsat apparatus)
CO2 , CO O2
(CO2 , CO, O2 N2 )
N2
yN2 = 1 yCO2 yCO yO2

(4.28)

(AF RA )

4.4.1

AF RA
AF RA

(
)

N
1
2
=
0.767

AF RA =

50

4.
(

N2 N2

(
)
1
28( N2 )
=
xN,ar
0.767

1
=
0.767

(4.29)

xN N C CO CO2
xcb C 1 kg
CO CO2

12()(yCO + yCO2 )
=

12(yCO + yCO2 )()

= =
xcb =

xcb

(4.30)

xcb C (4.30)
(4.29)
1
AF RA =
0.767

28xcb yN2
xN,ar
12(yCO + yCO2 )

(4.31)

xcb
(xA )
(refuse)
(xcr ) xcb
xcb

= 1 x
cr

= x
A

= xA
(1 xcr
) (
)
=

=
xcb =

xcr xA
1 xcr

4.4.
=

51

xcb = xC,ar

xcr xA
1 xcr

(4.32)

C 36%, H 3%, O 8%, S 0.64%,

N 0.84%, 36% 15.52%
CO2 18.57%, O2 5.84%, SO2 0.13% CO 0.66%
7.18%

yN2 = 1 yCO2 yO2 ySO2 yCO

= 0.748
xcb = 0.36
= 0.348
AF RA =

1
0.767

= 4.11

4.4.2

0.0718 0.1552
1 0.0718

)
28 0.348 0.748
0.0084
12(0.0066 + 0.1857)

kgair /kgfuel

Ca Hb Sc Od (4.8)
(
)
d
b
(O2 + 3.76N2 )
a+ +c
4
2
(
)
b
d
b
N2
aCO2 + H2 O + cSO2 + 3.76 a + + c
2
4
2

Ca Hb Sc Od +

(4.33)

O2
CO
(
)
b
d
Ca Hb Sc Od + a + 4 + c 2 (O2 + 3.76N2 ) (a )CO2 + CO +
[
(
)
]
b
b
d

H2 O + cSO2 + ( 1) a + 4 + c 2 + 2 O2 +
2

52

4.
(
)
b
d
3.76 a + + c
N2
4
2

(4.34)

(air ratio) AF RA AF RT
O2 , CO N2 (4.29)

( 1)(a + b/4 + c d/2) + /2

Ntotal

=
Ntotal
3.76(a + b/4 + c d/2)
=
Ntotal

yO2 =

(4.35)

yCO

(4.36)

yN2

(4.37)

Ntotal (4.30) (4.31)

1
( 1)(a + b/4 + c d/2)
yO2 yCO =
2
Ntotal

(4.38)

(4.32) (4.33)
yN2
3.76
=
yO2 0.5yCO
( 1)

yN2
yN2 3.76(yO2 0.5yCO )

(4.39)

AF RA
(4.40)

AF RA = AF RT

C3 H8 CO2 , O2
CO 11.5%, 2.7% 0.7%

AF RT C3 H8 23.8 / (4.31)
N2
yN2 = 1 yCO2 yO2 yCO
= 0.851

N (e = 0)
=

0.851/(0.027 007/2)
0.851/(0.027 007/2) 3.76

= 1.116
= AF RA = 1.116 23.8 = 26.56

molair /molfuel

4.5.

4.5

53

(lean mixture) (rich mixture)

20% 20%
(e)
(
e=

AF RA AF RT
AF RT

)
100

(4.41)

N2 O2

(burner)
15-30% 5-10%
3-15%

O2 CO2
Cm Hn O2
Cm Hn +

(
m+

[
(
n)
n )]
(O2 + 3.76N2 ) mCO2 + ( 1) m +
O2
4
4 )
(
n
n
+ H2 O + 3.76 m +
N2
2
4

(4.42)

O2 , CO2
[( 1)(m + n/4)
4.76(m + n/4) n/4
m
=
4.76(m + n/4) n/4

yO2 =
yCO2

e = 100( 1)

yO2 yCO2 e
yO2 =

0.01e
4.76(1 + 0.01e) n/(4m + n)

54

4.
yCO2 =

4m/(4m + n)
4.76(1 + 0.01e) n/(4m + n)

4.1 yO2 yCO2 e Cm Hn m

n yO2
yCO2 CO2
CO2

4.1: yO2 yCO2 e

O2 CO2 O2

O2

CO2
CO2 O2 CO2
O2
CO2 O2 CO2

4.2 CO2 , O2 CO
CO2
O2

O2
O2

4.6.

55

4.2: O2 CO2 CO
O2 O2
O2

CO
O2 CO


O2
CO CO

4.6

SO2

S + O2 SO2
SO2 O2 SO3
SO2 + 12 O2 SO3
SO3 (sulfuric acid)
SO3 + H2 O H2 SO4

56

4.

SO2
SO2
(p) 1 atm
(partial pressure) (pH2 O )
pH2 O = yH2 O p

yH2 O
1 atm (dewpoint temperature) pH2 O

4.7

1. (ignition temperature)

4.5

4.5:
( C)
C
700
S
243
H2
500
CO
609
CH4
580
C2 H6
515
C3 H8
480

4.7.

57

2.

3.


(furnace)

(1) (2)
(3)

4.7.1

(burner)
4.3


4.3

4.3:

11 kV (pilot ame)

58

4.

(main ame)






(turndown ratio)

(atomizer)


(1) (2)

(3)

4.7.2

H2 , CH4 CO





(mechanical stoker)
(pulverizer-burner system) (uidized bed combustion system)

(grate)

4.7.

59

(spreader)


(arch)

4.4 (spreader
stoker)

4.4:

(pulverizer)
3


26 112

60

4.

85% 200 (200 mesh)

74 60% 200

4.3
4 (1)
(2) (3)
(ashback)
(4)

4.5

4.5:
32 mm
0.6-4.6 m/s

4.7.

61

(CaCO3 )
MgCO3 CaCO3 CaO CO2
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
CaO SO2 O2
CaO + SO2 + 0.5O2 CaSO4
SO2 815 C 870 C
CaSO4

900 C

NOx

(bubbling uidized bed combustion) (bubbling uidized bed combustion) 4.6







4.7

62

4.

4.6:

(SH) (RH)
(Eco) (AH)

4.7:



SO2

4.7.

63

64

4.

1.
2. (stoichiometric combustion)
(complete combustion)
3.
4. H xH O xO
(free hydrogen)
5. (air ratio)
6. Orsat apparatus

7.
8.

9.
10. O2
11. CO2 O2

12.
13.
14.
15.
16. (uidized-bed combustion system)
17. (uidized bed) SO2

18. NOx
19. (HHV) C4 H10 128400 kJ/m3
1960 kJ/m3 (LHV) C4 H10

4.7.

65

20. (as-received basis) C

70%, H 3%, O 4%, N 2%, S 1%, 15% 5% AFRT
21.
22. C5 H12
23. C4 H10 1 m3
24. CH4 74%, C2 H6 17% CO 9% HHV
41475 kJ/m3 1960 kJ/m3
LHV
25. 30%
AF RT = 10 kgair /kgf uel AF RA

66

4.

5.1

5.1
(compressed liquid
subcooled liquid)
(saturated liquid)
(saturated vapor) (superheated vapor)

5.1:

68

5.

5.1 5.2
(saturated liquid
line) (saturated vapor line)
374 C 22 MPa
(vapor dome)

5.2

5.2:

(T ) (p) (v) (h) (s)


(steam table) (steam chart)
5.3 h-p
(steam quality)

5.1.

69

5.3: h-p
x = 1 x = 0


5.3
x

70

5.

5.4:

5.2

(Carnot cycle) 5.4

1-2 (boiler)
2-3 (turbine)
3-4 (condenser)
4-1 (compressor)
1-2 3-4
1-2
3-4
=1

T4
T1

(5.1)

5.2.

71

(Rankine cycle) 5.5

5.5:
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-1
T-s 5.4 5.5
4-1

wnet
qin

wnet = (h2 h3 ) (h1 h4 )

qin = h2 h1

(5.2)
(5.3)
(5.4)

72

5.

5.3
5.5

(5.1)

5 (1)
(2) (3)
(4) (5)

5.3.1
5.6
T-s
( 5.6)
(heat sink)


15%

5.6:

5.3.2
1-2 5.5 (superheater)
(superheated steam) 5.7

5.3.

73

5.5



650 C

5.7:

5.3.3

5.8 T-s

( )

(22.1 MPa)
5.9
(supercritical Rankine cycle)

74

5.

5.8:

5.9:

5.3.4
3
(reheat)
5.10
(reheater)





20%

5.3.

75

5.10:

850 K 15 MPa 0.01 MPa
0.9

5.11:

5.11 T-s
6 h6 = 192 kJ/kg
p6 p1 h1 = h6
2 h2 = 3510 kJ/kg.K
5 0.01 MPa 0.9 h5 = 2340 kJ/kg.K 5.11 s4 =
s5 T4 = T2 (s4 T4 )
4 h4 3620 kJ/kg p4 = 3.5 MPa

76

5.

3 p3 =
p4 s3 = s2 h3 = 3090 kJ/kg

wnet = wt
= h2 h3 + h4 h5
= 1700 kJ/kg
qin = h2 h1 + h4 h3
= 3848 kJ/kg
1700
= 0.44
=
3848

5 s5 = s2
p5 = 0.01 MPa h5 = 2100 kJ/kg
wnet = h2 h5
= 1410 kJ/kg
qin = h2 h1
= 3318 kJ/kg
1410
= 0.42
=
3318

5.3.5

(feed
water)
5.12


(regeneration)


(1-2-3-4-5-1) (1-2-3 -4 1)

5.3.

77

5.12:



(feed water
heater)
2 (1) (open feed water
heater) (2) (closed feed water heater )
5.13


5.14 T-s

5.13:
(5.2)
5.14

78

5.

5.14:

=
w net

w net
qin

(5.5)

qin
w net = h1 h2 + (1 m)(h2 h3 ) (1 m)(h5 h4 ) (h7 h6 )
qin = h1 h7

(5.6)
(5.7)

m
1 kg/s m

m=

h6 h1
h2 h5

(5.8)

(shell-and-tube
heat exchanger)
5.15
(drain)


TTD (terminal temperature difference)

5.16
()

5.3.

79

5.15:
(throttle valve)
()

5.16: ()
()
5.17 T-s

(5.5) w net , qin m
w net = h1 h2 + (1 m)(h2 h3 ) (h7 h4 )
qin = h1 h8
m=

h8 h7
h2 h5

(5.9)
(5.10)
(5.11)

TTD (terminal temperature difference)

(Tsat )

80

5.

TTD T8
T8 = Tsat TTD

(5.12)

Tsat p2

5.17:
5.18 T-s

5.14 5.14
(feed water pump) 5.16
5.14 (5.5) w net
qin
w net = h1 h2 + (1 m)(h2 h3 ) (1 m)(h5 h4 ) m(h8 h6 )
qin = h1 h9

(5.13)
(5.14)

m h9 (5.13) (5.14)
(mixing chamber)
m=

h7 h5
h2 h6 + h7 h5

(5.15)

h9 = (1 m)h7 + mh8

(5.16)

T7 = Tsat TTD

(5.17)

TTD T7
Tsat p2

5.3.

81

5.18:

70 bar 540 C
7 bar 0.07 bar TTD = 3 C

5.18
h1 = 3500 kJ/kg
h2 = 2860 kJ/kg
h3 = 2150 kJ/kg
h4 = 163 kJ/kg
h5 = h4
h6 = 697 kJ/kg
h8 = h6

7 h7 p7 T7 5.18 p7 = p1 = 70
bar T7 (5.17) 7 bar Tsat = 165 C
T7 = 162 C
h7

162 C
h7 = 684 kJ/kg

82

5.
m (5.15)
684 163
2860 697 + 684 163
= 0.194 kg

m=

h9 (5.16) (mixing chamber)

h9 = (1 0.194) 684 + 0.194 697
= 689 kJ/kg

1 kg/s (5.13), (5.14) (5.5)

w net , qin
w net = (h1 h2 ) + (1 m)(h2 h3 )
= 1212 kg/s
qin = 3500 689
= 2811 kg/s
= = 0.43

5.4

(pump efciency, p ) (turbine efciency, t )
wps
wp
wt
t =
wts

p =

wps wp wps
(isentropic process)
wp wt wts

5.5.

83

5.19: (4-1, 2-3)

(4-1s, 2-3s)
5.19 T-s

h1s h4
h1 h4
h2 h3
t =
h2 h3s

p =

5.5

5.20




(o )

Pe
o =
(5.18)
m
.HV
f

Pe , m f HV (heating value)
HV (HHV ) (LHV )
HV HV

o
o = b ..g
(5.19)

84

5.

5.20:

(boiler efciency)

b =

m
s (hout hin )
m
f .HV

(5.20)

m s , hin
hout

(Pnet ) (Qin )
Pnet
Qin

(5.21)

Qin (5.20)
g (Pe )

g =

Pe
Pnet

(5.22)

1 kW.h
(heat rate)
HR =

mf .HV
Pe t

(5.23)

5.6.

85

t mf
HR kJ/kW.h HR o
HR =

5.6

3600
o

(5.24)

5.21
(5.20)

(input-output method)
(heat-loss method) (5.20)



(Q l )

b = 1

Q l
m
f .HV

(5.25)

5.21

6
Li =

Q l,i
m
f .HV

(5.26)

b = 1 (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5 + L6 )

(5.27)

86

5.

5.21:
1.
Ta Tg

L1 =

xdg .cpg (Tg Ta )

HHV

(5.28)

xdg
cpg ( 1.0 kJ/kg. C)
Tg
Ta
CO2 , CO, O2
N2 NCO2 , NCO , NO2 NN2

mdg = 44NCO2 + 28NCO + 32NO2 + 28NN2

(5.29)

(4.30)
mf =

12(yCO + yCO2 )Ndg

xcb

(5.30)

Ndg (5.29) (5.30) xdg

xdg =

(11yCO2 + 7yCO + 8yO2 + 7yN2 )xcb

3(yCO + yCO2 )

(5.31)

5.6.

87

2.
H
O
L2 =

(xM + 9xH,ar )[2442 + cpv (Tg Ta )]

HHV

(5.32)

cpv ( 1.9 kJ/kg. C) 2442 kJ/

kg 25 C
H

3.
L3 =

.AF RA .cpv (Tg Ta )

HHV

(5.33)

L3
L2
L3 L3 = 0
4.
(refuse)

L4 =

xuc .HHVC
HHV

(5.34)

xuc HHVC
(32800 kJ/kg)
5. CO

CO CO

C
CO

=
C

L5 =

88

5.

CO

MCO yCO xcb HHVCO

MC (yCO + yCO2 )HHV

(5.35)

xcb CO
(MCO ) 28 C (MC ) 12 CO (HHVCO )
10100 kJ/kg
6.

1%

L6

180 ton/h 170 ton/h

4 MPa 405 C 124 C
C 73%, H 5%, O 8%, N 2%, 6% 6%
17600 kg/h 30% 27 C
1232 kg/h 14.3% 167 C
CO2 13.65%, CO 0.47% O2 5.18% N2

L6 = 0.5%

hout 4 MPa 405 C hin

124 C hin
124 C hout = 3225.3
kJ/kg hin = 520.0 kJ/kg (4.22) 30369 kJ/kg
(5.20) HV = HHV
b =

170 103 (3225.3 520.0)

17600(30369)

= 0.860

5.6.

89

1232 kg/h 0.143 1232 = 176 kg/h

(xuc ) 0.01 (xcb ) 0.72
N2 1 - 0.1365 - 0.0047 - 0.0518 = 0.807
(5.31)
xdg =

[11(0.1365) + 7(0.0047) + 8(0.0518) + 7(0.807)] 0.72

3(0.0047 + 0.1365)

= 12.9

(5.28)
12.9 1.0 (167 27)
30369
= 0.0595

L1 =

(5.32)
(0.06 + 9 0.05)[2442 + 1.9(167 27)]
30369
= 0.0455

L2 =

= 0
0.01
(5.34)
L3

0.01 32800
30369
= 0.0108

L4 =

CO (5.35)
L5 =

28 0.47 0.72 10100

12(0.47 + 13.65) 30369

= 0.0186

L1 L5 L6 (5.27)
b = 1 0.0595 0.0455 0 0.0108 0.0186 0.0050
= 0.861

90

5.

(4.23) HV
(5.20) (5.25) LHV
(L2 )
b = 1 (L1 + L3 + L4 + L5 + L6 )

HHV
LHV

(5.36)

(4.23)
b = 30369 2442(9(0.05) + 0.06)
= 29124

b =

0.861 30369
= 0.898
29124

5.7
(cogeneration)


(bottoming system) (topping system) 5.22






(absorption chiller)
(trigeneration)

5.7.

91

5.22: () ()

5.23:
5.23

92

5.

(back-pressure turbine)

5.24
(extraction turbine)

5.24:

5.7.

93

1.
2.

3.
4.

5.

6. (
, , )
7.
8.
9. T-s
10.
11. T-s
12.

13. 6 MPa 850 K
14. 900 K 12 MPa
TTD 5 K
15.
10 MPa 700 K 3 MPa
0.01 MPa (
)

94

5.

16.
8 MPa
850 K 0.8 MPa
0.01 MPa (drain cooler) TTD
5 C ()
17. 9000 kJ/kW.h

18. 180 ton/h 4 MPa

800 K 450 K
15000 kJ/kg 10 kg/s
19. 70%
CO2 10%, O2 5% SO2 1% CO 0.5% N2 83.5%
1 kg
20.
19600 kJ/kg
CO ( HHV CO 10080 kJ/kg)

6.1

(process boiler)


(utility boiler)

2
(re-tube boiler) (water-tube boiler)


18 bar
6.2 kg/s

(boiler shell)



(tensile stress)

pD
2t

(6.1)

96

6.

p D t

(D )

6.2


(steam generator)
(drum-type steam generator)
(once-through steam generator) 6.1
(furnace) (evaporator) (drum)
(superheater) (reheater) (economizer)
(air heater)

22.1 bar

( 5.11)

6.3.

97

6.1:

6.1


(steam separator)

6.3

(refractory)

98

6.

(water wall) 6.2

(membrane)

6.2:



6.3

(convection)
(bubbly
ow)
(slug ow)
(annular ow)


(mist ow) 6.3
(h) h
h
h

h


h

6.4.

99

6.3:

6.4

(pressure vessel)
(6.1) 30
m 4.5 m 30
(riser) (downcomer)
6.4

100

6.

6.4:
6.5 (bafe)
(screen)






(cyclone separator)

(d ) (r )
(p) p (H )
d r

(natural circulation)
d r
H r
d

6.5.

101

6.5:

H r
d


d r
180 bar
(forced circulation)
H

6.5

(total dissolved solid, TDS)
ppm (part per million)

102

6.

(blowdown)

(continuous blowdown) (intermitten blowdown)

6.6
xd
xw xs
m s

m
b=m
s

xw xs
xd xw

(6.2)

(xs = 0) (6.2)
(

m
b=m
s

xw
xd xw

(6.3)

6.6:
m b d
(t)
xd1 xd2 xd2 xd1
6.7
m
b=

m
s (xw xs )(d + t)
[0.5(xd1 + xd2 ) xw ]d

(6.4)

6.6.
t = 0 xd1
(6.2)

103
= xd2 = xd

(6.4)

6.7:

6.6

100 MW

(radiant superheater)
(convective superheater)

104

6.

6.8
(parallel ow)
(counter-ow)

6.8

6.8:

(6.1)

6.7.

105

20-30 C




(soot
blower)

6.7

5 C
4
(attemperation)
(gas recirculation)
1.

106

6.

6.9

6.9:

2. (attemperator)
6.10

(m w )

m
s hs1 + m
w hw = (m
s+m
w )hs2

3.

6.11 (Q)
(Qa ) (Qg )
(Qr )

6.7.

107

6.10:

6.11:
4.

108

6.

6.12

6.12:

6.8




(thermal stress)




30 C

6.9.

109

10-12 m/s

6.9

110 C 4%
280 C 11%
150-420 C
280-400 C
135-180 C

(recuperator)
(regenerator)
6.13
6.13()
6.13()

(hopper) 30-60 W/m2 . C

50-65
mm

110

6.

6.13: () ()

(matrix)





6.14 (Ljungstrom regenerator) (Rothemuhle regenerator)

(effectiveness)

(self-cleaning)

6.10.

111

6.14: () ()

120 MW
10 m 0.5-3 rpm

6.10

112

6.

(soot blower)

(multi-nozzle soot blower)

(retractable soot blower)
50-64 mm
2 m


180
6.15
1000 C

6.15:

6.11.

113

6.16



50 cm

6.16:

6.11

(draft)
2 (natural
draft) (mechanical draft)

6.11.1

(stack) 6.17

114

6.

H (p) H

6.17:

6.11.2

(forced draft) (induced

draft)
p (PF D )

6.11.

115

PF D =

m
f .AF RA .va .p
F D

(6.5)

va F D

(PID ) p
PID =

m
f (1 + AF RA )vg .p
ID

vg ID

(balanced draft)

6.11.3

(axial type) (centrifugal type)

(single-stage axial fan) (twostage axial fan)

116

6.

(forward-curved)
(at) (backwardcurved) 6.18


6.1

6.18: ,


(characteristic curve)

(system resistance curve)

6.19

6.11.

117

6.1:

78-83%
84-91%
70-72%

6.19:
(inlet vane
control) 6.20
sp1 sp2
sp2 sp3 p1 p2

118

6.

p2 p3
a b b c
a p1 b p2
b p2 c p3

6.20:
(variable-speed
control) sp1 p1 sp2 p2
sp3 p3

6.21:

6.11.

119

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

11.
12.
13.
14.

15.
16.

17.
18.
19.

20.

120

6.

7.1

(radial-ow turbine) (axial-ow turbine)

(stator) (rotor) 7.1

122

7.

7.1:

7.2
(stage)

7.2 4

(impulse stage)
(reaction stage)

7.2: 5

7.2.

7.2.1

123

7.3

7.3:
(pressure compound
stage) 7.4

7.4

(velocity compound stage) 7.5

7.2.2

124

7.

7.4:


(reaction degree)

R=

hr
hs + hr

(7.1)

hs hr
0 1 50%

7.6
50%
(air foil)

7.3

(nozzle)

7.3.

125

7.5:

7.6: 50%


(nozzle efciency)

126

7.

(isentropic ow)
N =

h
hs

(7.2)

(h0 ) (V0 ) (h1 )
(V1 )
h0 +

V02
V2
= h1 + 1
2
2

= h = h0 h1 =

V2
V12
0
2
2

V0 V1
V12
2

V1 = 2h

h =

(7.3)
(7.4)

0.4 MPa
0.1 MPa 90%

0.4 MPa h0 = 2740 kJ/kg

0.1 MPa s1s = s0 h1s = 2500 kJ/kg h (7.2)
h = 0.90(2740 2500) 103
= 2.16 105

J/kg

h (7.4)
V1 =

2 2.16 105

= 657 m/s

7.4

(velocity triangle)

7.4.

127

V
(absolute velocity) U W

=W
+U

(7.5)

7.7

V1 (nozzle angle)
(1 ) (2 )

7.7: () ()




U = r

(7.6)

rad/s r
N rpm
=

2N
60

(7.7)

128

7.

F = m(V
1 cos 1 + V2 cos 2 )

(7.8)

P = mU
(V1 cos 1 + V2 cos 2 )

(7.9)

[
)]
1( 2
P =m
h1 h2 +
V1 V22
2

(7.10)

W1 W2

[
)]
1( 2
2
0=m
h1 h2 +
W1 W2
2
)
1( 2
W1 W22
= h1 h2 =
2

(7.11)

h1 h2 (7.10)
P =

) (
)]
m
[( 2
V1 V22 W12 W22
2

(7.12)

(7.12)
V12 = W12 + U 2 + 2W1 U cos 1
V22 = W22 + U 2 2W2 U cos 2

(7.12)
P = mU
(W1 cos 1 + W2 cos 2 )

(7.13)

7.4.

129

7.7
(7.9) (7.13)
(vertex)
7.8 50%
1 = 2
50%
50%
1 = 2 2 = 1 W1 = V2 W2 = V1

7.8: () 50% ()



(blade efciency)
B =

P
mh

(7.14)

h (7.3)
(7.14)
P
B = 1
(7.15)
2
1
2 mV

h (h0 h1 )
(h1 h2 ) V12 /2 (7.3)
h1 h2 (7.11)
h =

1 2
[V + (W22 W12 )]
2 1

(7.16)

B =

1 m[V
2
2 1

P
+ (W22 W12 )]

(7.17)

130

7.

3000 rpm
600 mm 800 mm

(rm ) (600+800)/2 = 700 mm

(7.6) (7.7)
2N rm
60
2 3000 0.7
=
= 220 m/s
60

U=

50% 20 C
50 m/s 30 m/s
8 kg/s

(1 ) (1 )
W1 sin 1 = V1 sin 1
W1 cos 1 = V1 cos 1 U
[
]
V1 sin 1
1 = tan1
V1 cos 1 U
[
]
50 sin 20
= tan1
50 cos 20 30
= 45.2

W1
V1 sin 1
sin 1
50 sin 20
=
sin 45.2
= 24.1 m/s

W1 =

P (7.11) B (7.15)
50% (2 = 1 W2 = V1 )
P = 8 30(24.1 sin 45.2 + 50 sin 20 )
= 15.4 kW

7.5.

131

B =

1
2

1.54 104
8[502 + (502 24.12 )]

= 0.87

7.5

Pact
P (7.10)

7.5.1

(1 = 2 )
(W1 = W2 ) V2
(2 = 90 )
7.9 (Uopt )

Uopt = W2 cos 2

V1 cos 1 = W1 cos 1 + Uopt

Uopt =

V1 cos 1
2

(7.18)

Uopt (7.1)
Pmax =

(V1 cos 1 )2
2

(7.19)

Pmax (7.13)
B,max = cos2 1

(7.20)

132

7.

(7.16) 1 1 = 0

1 0

7.10

(Uopt )
Uopt = W4 cos 2

V3 cos 2 = W3 cos 2 + Uopt

(W3 = W4 )
V3 cos 2 = 2Uopt

(7.21)

7.5 V2 V3
(V2 = V3 )
V2 cos 2 = 2Uopt

(7.22)

7.9:

7.5.

133

7.10:

Uopt W2
W2 cos 1 = V2 cos 2 + Uopt
= 3Uopt

V1 cos 1 = W1 cos 1 + Uopt

(W1 = W2 )
V1 cos 1 = 4Uopt

(7.23)

Uopt =

V1 cos 1
4

n

Uopt =

V1 cos 1
2n

(7.24)

134

7.

(P1 ) (P2 ) (7.7)
P1 = mU
opt (V1 cos 1 + V2 cos 2 )
P2 = mU
opt (V3 cos 2 )

V1 cos 1 , V2 cos 2 V3 cos 2 (7.21), (7.20) (7.19)

2
P1 = 6mU
opt
2
P2 = 2mU
opt

(7.25)
(7.26)

3 : 1

3
5 : 3 : 1 2

h n
h/n

V1 =

2h
n

(7.27)

(7.16) Uopt n
7.4

7.5.2
50%

7.11
Uopt = V1 cos 1

(7.28)

7.5.

135

Uopt 2 = 90 (7.11)
Pmax = m
(V1 cos 1 )2

(7.29)

Pmax (7.27) (7.15)

B,max =

2 cos2 1
1 + cos2 1

(7.30)

7.11: 50%








W2 = kW1 k < 1
1

136

7.
7.13
V1 cos 1 = W1 cos 1 + Uopt
Uopt = W2 cos 2 = kW1 cos 1
Uopt
+ Uopt
(k
)
k
=
V1 cos 1
k+1

V1 cos 1 =
= Uopt

7.12:
(7.7) (7.13)
P = mU
opt (V1 cos 1 )
(
)
k
=m

(V1 cos 1 )2
k+1
(
)
k
B = 2
cos2 1
k+1

7.6
mh

s hs

1. (turbulence) mh

s
2.

7.6.

137

3. 7.7


(PS ) P (7.7) (7.11)
4.

5.
7.12
(W )
(Wm )
PS P

7.13:
(stage efciency)

S =

PS
mh

(7.31)

(7.29)
(
S =

h
hs

) (
) ( )
P
PS
.
.
mh

138

7.

2 3-5

PS
= 1 fL
P

(7.32)

fL (energy loss factor)

(7.33)

S = N B (1 fL )

S N , B fL
hs () ( ) PS /m
PS
=
m

(7.34)

hs

(7.35)

S =

0.7 MPa 800 K

0.4 MPa 1500
rpm 1000 N.m

0.7 MPa h0 = 3540 kJ/kg

0.1 MPa s1s = s0 h1s = 3340 kJ/kg
hs = (3540 3340) 105 = 2.00 105

(N ) rpm
=

2N
= 157 rad/s
60

(7.33)
S =

1000 157
= 0.785
2.00 105

J/kg

7.7.

7.7

139

PT

n=

PT
PS

(7.36)

S 4
7.14 1 2s, 3ss, 4ss
5ss 1 2, 3, 4 5

T =
PT

PT
m(h
1 h5ss )

(7.37)

4
PT = PS1 + PS2 + PS3 + PS4

S
PT = m
S [(h1 h2s ) + (h2 h3s ) + (h3 h4s ) + (h4 h5s )]

PT (7.35)
[
T = S

(h1 h2s ) + (h2 h3s ) + (h3 h4s ) + (h4 h5s )

h1 h5ss

7.14
(h1 h2s ) + (h2 h3s ) + (h3 h4s ) + (h4 h5s ) > h1 h5ss

T S
T = fR S

fR (reheat factor) 1

(7.38)

140

7.

7.14: 4

2 2
50% 2
(1 )

h(1) 2
h(1) /2 (7.4)
V1 =

h(1)

(7.16)
2U
cos 1
(
)2
U
=4
cos 1

V1 =
= h(1)

h(2)
(7.4)
V1 =

2h(2)

7.7.

141

(7.22)
V1 =

4U

cos 1
(

= h(2) = 8

U
cos 1

)2

h(3)
h(3) /2 50%

h(3)

V1 =

(7.23)
U
cos 1
(
)2
U
=2
cos 1

V1 =
= h(3)

h(1) : h(2) : h(3) = 2 : 4 : 1

50%
50%

7.15

7.15

142

7.

7.15:

7.8
P F

(axial thrust)

T = (p1 p2 )A m(W

1 sin 1 W2 sin 2 )

(7.39)

A (7.31)
7.3 p1 p2

7.9.

143

7.6 p1
p2




7.16

7.16:

7.9

(high-pressure section) (low-pressure section) 7.17


7.17

144

7.

7.17:

(back-pressure turbine)

7.18
(hp turbine)


(ip turbine)
(lp turbine)

7.19

7.17 (double-ow
turbine)

7.9.

145

7.18:

7.19: (extraction turbine)

7.20

7.20
3000 rpm
(tandem-compound turbine)
3000 rpm

1500 rpm
7.21 (cross-compound turbine)

146

7.

7.20: (triple-ow turbine)

(four-ow turbine)

7.21:

7.10

50% (7.29) U

7.10.

147

(Uopt = V1 cos 1 )

(governor)

7.22 (yball
governor) (sleeve)

(governor oil pump)

7.22:






10% 3000 rpm
3300 rpm

148

7.

1.
2.
3.
4. 50%
5.
6. 50%

7.
V1 1
8.
9.
10.
11.


12.
13.
14.
15. 3100 kJ/kg
3000 kJ/kg
16. 500 mm
3600 rpm
17. 900 m/s 20
300 m/s

7.10.

149

18. 150 kJ/kg

5 kg/s 20
19. 19

20. 50% 15

150

7.

8.1

(cooling tower)

8.1

8.2

(shell-and-tube heat exchanger)

(one-pass)
(two-pass) 8.2

U (four-pass)

8.3

152

8.

8.1:

8.2:

8.2.

153

Q = U ATlm

ITD TTD
Tlm =
ln(ITD/TTD)

(8.1)
(8.2)

ITD TTD
U A
(8.1)
ITD TTD
Q

8.3:
8.1


(admilralty copper) 304 (304 stainless steel)


(fouling)

90-10

154

8.

4






8.4

8.4:

1.8
3 m/s

8.3.

155

(vacuum pump) (ejector)

8.3

8.3.1

(deaerator)
O2 CO2
O2 CO2
8.5
(heater) (vent condenser) (storage tank)



(trays)

156

8.

8.5:

8.3.2


(LP heater) (HP heater)

(desuperheater) (condensing section)
(drain cooler)

8.6

8.3.

157

8.7

8.6:

8.7:

158

8.

8.3.3




8.1
200 MW 3 8
200 MW
8.1:
(MW)
0 50
3 5
50 100
5 6
100 200
5 7
200
6 8

8.4



(once-through system)
(thermal pollution)
(closed-loop system)
(cooling tower)

8.4.

159

2
(wet cooling tower) (dry cooling tower)

8.4.1

(approach) (range)
(wet-bulb temperature)

(natural draft) (mechanical
draft)

(i ) (o ) H (p)

p = (o i )gH

(8.3)

p




(hyperbola)

8.8
150 m 2.5-5

160

8.

8.8:


(forced draft)




(induced
draft)
(counter-ow) 8.9
(cross-ow) 8.10
8.8-8.10
(ll)
(packing)



(makeup water)
11.5%

8.4.

161

8.9:

8.10:

(drift) (drift eliminator)

162

8.
0.03% (bafe)

(blowdown)

1-1.5%

(recirculation)
(interference)

8.4.2

8.11
8.12

8.5
(blowdown)

(makeup

8.5.

163

8.11:

8.12:
water) 1.5-2%

3 Ca+ , Mg2+ , Na+
3 HCO3 , Cl , SO2
4

164

8.
(scale)

CO2 O2

(sedimentation)

(coagulation)

(internal treatment)
(external treatment)




(ion
exchange process) (cation resin) (anion
resin) ( Ca+ , Mg2+ , Na+ ) ( HCO3 , Cl , SO2
4 )

R H+ + C+ R C+ + H+
2+
2R H+ + C2+ R
+ 2H+
2C

R+ OH + A R+ A + OH
2
2R+ OH + A2 R+
+ 2OH
2A

R
C Ca+ , Mg2+ , Na+
A HCO3 , Cl , SO2
4
H+ OH (H2 O)

8.5.

165

(regeneration)

2
2R C+ + H2 SO4 2R H+ + C+
2 SO4

R2 C2+ + H2 SO4 2R H+ + C2+ SO2

4

R+ A + NaOH R+ OH + Na+ A
R+2 A2 + 2NaOH 2R+ OH + Na+2 A2

166

8.

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

9.1

(open-loop control)
(closed-loop control) 9.1
(output) (input) (set point)
(controller) (control element)
(process equipment)

168

9.

(sensor)

(feedback)

9.1:
9.1 (feedback control) (disturbance)

(feedforward controller) 9.2
(cascade control) 9.3
1 (primary control loop)
1 2 (secondary control loop)
2 1 2
2 1 2
1
1

9.2.

169

9.2:

9.3:

9.2

170

9.

9.2.1

(manometer) (Bourdon gauge) (bellows
gauge) (diaphragm gauge)
(strain gauge)
9.4

p1
p2 p2
h p1
p2
p1 p2 = gh

(9.1)

9.4:
p2 p1 p2

9.5

9.2.

171

9.5:
9.6

9.6:
9.7

9.8

172

9.

9.7:

9.8:

(differential pressure transmitter)

(block valve)
(equalizing valve) 9.9

9.2.2


(level gauge)

9.2.

173

9.9: (DPT)
(displacer level gauge) (differential pressure level
gauge)
9.10

9.10:
9.11

9.12

174

9.

9.11:
(9.1) (h)

DPT

9.12:

9.2.3



(bimetallic thermometer)
(lled-bulb thermometer) (resis-

9.2.

175

tance temperature detector RTD) (thermistor) (thermocouple) (optical temperature sensor)

9.13

9.13:
9.14
(bellows)

RTD



RTD

176

9.

9.14:
(Seebeck effect)

9.15


9.16
V1 V2 V1 1 V2
2 2 0 C 2
V2 V1
1 2
2
1 0 C RTD
2 V2
V1 1

9.15:

9.2.

177

9.16:

9.17:



(thermowell) 9.17

9.2.4

178

9.

(pressure-difference ow meter)
(velocity-based ow meter)
(positive-displacement ow meter)

(DPT)


(orice meter) (Venturi tube) (ow nozzle) 90
(elbow meter) (Pitot tube) (averaging Pitot tube)
(Annubar)

9.18
9.19
9.20

(9.2)

Q=k

p1 p2

(9.2)

k
(d)
(D) ( = d/D)
9.21
(throat)


(9.2) k

9.22

90 9.23

9.2.

179

9.18:

9.19:




9.24
90 (p1 )

(total pressure)
1
p2 = p1 + V 2
2

(9.3)

180

9.

9.20:

9.21:

9.22:
V

Q=A

2(p2 p1 )

(9.4)

9.2.

181

9.23: 90
A

9.24:
9.25

90

9.26

182

9.

9.25:

9.26:
(turbine ow meter) (vortex ow meter)
(magnetic ow meter)
9.27

9.28
(vortex)

9.2.

183

9.27:

9.28:
9.29

(1)
(2) (3)

184

9.

9.29:
9.30 (gear ow meter)

9.30:

9.3

9.3.

185

50 Hz
50 Hz

50 Hz




(load demand signal)

(boilerfollowing control) (turbine-following control)

(coordinated control)
9.31
(EC) (load set point)

(ET)
EC
(PC)
(pressure set point)
PC

(PT)

9.31:

186

9.

PT

PC
9.32 EC

PC

9.32:

9.33 EC

9.4

9.4.

187

9.33:





9.34
9.34
(cross-limited control) 9.35
(FT)
(FC)
(low select)

(high select)

188

9.

9.34:

9.35:



9.34

9.5.

189

9.34

9.5

9.36
(PT) (PC)

PC

PC

9.36

9.6

190

9.

9.36:
(single-element control) 9.37 (LT)
(LC)

(two-element control) 9.38
FT

9.6.

191

9.37:

9.38:

192

9.

(three-element control) 9.39

9.39:

9.7




6

9.40
(primary superheater) (secondary superheater)

9.7.

193

(attempetor)
1 ( TT1)
2 (TT2) 1 (TC1) TT1

2 (TC2) TC2 TT2
TC2

9.40:

194

9.

1.
2.
10 cm
3.
4.
5.

6.

7.
8.
9.
10. RTD
11.
12.
13.
14. (total pressure)
(static pressure) (dynamic pressure)
15.
16.
17.

18.
19.
20.

 10

10.1
(gas turbine cycle)
10.1 (compressor)
(combustor)
(gas turbine)

10.1:


(open Brayton cycle) 10.2
(heater)

196

10.

10.2:
10.3 (closed Brayton cycle)
(cooler)
T1

(ideal gas)
T-s 10.3 4
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-1
(wnet ) (qin )
(10.1)
qin = cp (T3 T2 )
(10.2)
cp (B )

wnet = cp (T3 T4 ) cp (T2 T1 )

B = 1

T4 T1
T3 T2

10.1.

197

10.3:
=1

T1 (T4 /T1 1)
T2 (T3 /T2 1)

1-2 3-4
2-3 4-1
T2
T3
(k1)/k
= rp
=
(10.3)
T
T
1

k = cp /cv rp = p2 /p1

B = 1
=1

T1
T2
1

(10.4)

(k1)/k
rp

(10.4) k k
He Ar k 1.67
k 1.4
(T3 ) (T1 ) rp
rp
(
rp.max =

T3
T1

)k/(k1)

(10.5)

T3 T1


(10.3) (10.1)
[

wnet = cp T3

1
(k1)/k

rp

T1

(k1)/k
rp

)
1

(10.6)

198

10.

rp wnet (10.6)
(
rp,opt =

T3
T1

)k/2(k1)

(10.7)

(
wmax = cp T3

T1
T3

)2

(10.8)

10.4
1-2 3-4

T2s T1
T2 T1
T3 T4
t =
T3 T4s

c =

(10.9)
(10.10)

100%

10.4:

10.1.

199

(regenerator)

10.5
T-s

10.5:
10.5 (Tx ) (T4 )
Tx T4
(regenerator effectiveness, )
=

Tx T2
T4 T2

(10.11)

T4
T2
T4 T2 (reheating)
(intercooling) 10.6
(LC)
(HC) (LT)

200

10.

(HT)

10.6:
10.5 1 atm
15.6 C 1093.3 C 4
0.88 0.85 0.7
cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K k = 1.4

(
T2s = T1

p2
p1

)(k1)/k

= 288.6(4)0.4/1.4 = 429 K
T2s T1
= c = 0.85
T2 T1

= T2 = 454 K
( )(k1)/k
p4
T4s = T3
p3

10.2.

201
= 1366.3(4)0.4/1.4 = 919 K
T3 T4
= t = 0.88
T3 T4s
= T4 = 973 K
=

Tx T2
= 0.7
T4 T2

= Tx = 817 K

wc = cp (T2 T1 )
= 166 kJ/kg
wt = cp (T3 T4 )
= 395 kJ/kg
qin = cp (T3 Tx )
= 552 kJ/kg
395 166
=
= 41.5%
552

10.2

10.7
(heat recovery steam
generator HRSG)

cc =

w B + w R
qin

(10.12)

w B w R qin
(B )
(R )
w B = B qin
w R = R (1 B )qin

w B w R (10.12)
cc = R + B R B

(10.13)

202

10.

R = 0.33 B = 0.26 0.5

cc 0.38 0.42

10.7:

HRSG
10.8
q1
q2
w B = B q1
w R = R [(1 B )q1 + q2 ]
w B + w R
q1 + q2
B q1 + R [(1 B )q1 + q2 ]
=
q1 + q2

cc =
= cc

(10.14)

x=

q2
q1 + q2

= q2 = x(q1 + q2 )

10.2.

203

q2 (10.14)
cc = B + R B R xB (1 R )

(10.15)

10.8: HRSG
(10.13)
(10.12) w B , w R qin
w B = m
g cpg (T3 T4 T2 + T1 )
w R = m
s (ha hb hd + hc )
qin = m
g cpg (T3 T2 )

(10.16)
(10.17)
(10.18)

m g m s
cpg m g m s
HRSG HRSG

m
g cpg (T4 T5 ) = m
s (ha hd )

(10.19)

204

10.

10.7
7.5 15 C
750 C 100 C
50 bar 500 C
0.1 bar 200 MW

cpg = 1.1 kJ/kg.K k = 1.4

(
T2 = T1

p2
p1

)(k1)/k

= 288 (7.5)0.4/1.4 = 512.2 K

( )(k1)/k
p4
T4 = T3
p3
= 1023 (7.5)0.4/1.4 = 620.5 K

w B (10.16)
w B = 196.1m
g

(10.20)

qin = 561.9m
g

(10.21)

qin (10.18)

ha = 3670 kJ/kg
hb = 2305 kJ/kg
hc = 192 kJ/kg = hd

w R (10.17)
w R = 1365m
s

(10.22)

(w B + w R )
196.1m
g + 1365m
s = 200 103

(10.23)

10.3.

205

MW w B (10.20) w R
(10.22) kW kW
(10.19)
m
s
= 0.0712
m
g

(10.24)

(10.23) (10.24) m g m s
m
g = 681.9 kg/s
m
s = 48.6 kg/s

m g , m s (10.20)-(10.22) (10.12)
w B = 133.8 MW
qin = 383.2 MW
w R = 66.3 MW
cc = 0.52

10.3

10.3.1

(aeroderivative gas turbine)
(industrial gas turbine)

206

10.

10.1

10.1:

30
16

50 MW
300 MW

10.3.2
(compressor) (combustor) (turbine) (casing)
10.9

(positive displacement)
(centrifugal ) (axial)

10.10 (lift)
() ()

10.3.

207

10.9:
(W ) (chord line) ()
10.11
(guide vane)

7

10.10:
(stall)


10.12

208

10.

10.11:

(V ) ()

(variable-angle guide vane)

10.12:


(lowpressure compressor) (high-pressure compressor)
(low-pressure turbine)
(high-pressure turbine)
10.13

10.3.

209

10.13:

(compressor wash)

(, SNG) ( , , 2)
3 (tubular) (tuboannular)
(annular) 10.14
(ame tube)




10.15

(recirculation zone)


(burning zone)
(dilution zone)

NOx NOx
NOx

210

10.

10.14:

10.15:

(single-shaft gas turbine)

10.16 (two-shaft gas turbine)

10.3.

211

10.16:

(creep)

(Larson-Miller parameter)
LM LM ( K)
( )
LM = T (20 + log t)

(10.25)

LM T1 = 900 K T2 = 890
K (10.1) t1 = 25000 T2 = 47000
10 K

10.17

212

10.

10.17:

10.3.3

ISO 15 C
60% 1 atm

1 atm

10.3.

213

NOx

100%

10.3.4

15 C

10.18

10.18:
(evaporative cooling system)

214

10.
(fogging system)

(absorption cooling system)

(vapor compression system)

10.19
(steam injection cycle)


10.1

10.19:
10.20 (evaporation cycle)
10.1

10.4.

215

10.20:

10.4
HRSG
HRSG
10.21

Ty Tx (pinch point)
HRSG Tx Ty

HRSG HRSG
5-30 C
HRSG (horizontal) (vertical)
(once-through) 10.22 HRSG





HRSG
HRSG

216

10.

10.21: HRSG
10.23 HRSG

HRSG
HRSG
HRSG HRSG HRSG
HRSG

HRSG 10.22 10.23 (single-pressure HRSG)

HRSG
HRSG (double-pressure HRSG)

10.22:

10.4.

217

10.23:
10.24

HRSG HRSG
HRSG (triplepressure HRSG)

10.24: HRSG
HRSG


HRSG

HRSG

218

10.
HRSG

HRSG

HRSG
HRSG

10.4.

219

1.
2.
3.
4. T-s

5.
6.

7.

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13. NOx
14.
15.
16. ISO
17.
18.

19.
20.

220

10.

21.
22.

23.
24. 50% 300 C
200 C 100 C
25. 30 C 2000 C
4
26. 50%
( k = 1.4, cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K)
27. 300 K 1 atm
80% 8 atm
( k = 1.4)
28. 1300 K 8 atm
80%
1 atm ( k = 1.4)
29.

2
300 K 1300 K
0.8 ( cp = 1.005
kJ/kg.K k = 1.4)
30. 200 MW 7.5
15 C 750 C
750 C HRSG
50 bar 600 C
0.1 bar ( cp = 1.11 kJ/kg.K, k =
1.33 )

 11

11.1




(hydroelectric power plant)

100 kW 30 MW
(1) (run-of-river plant)
(2)
(impoundment plant)
(3) (pumpedstorage plant)

11.1 (dam)
(penstock)
(hydraulic turbine)

222

11.

(generator)

11.1:
H Q
gQH 75%



= p .t .g

(11.1)

11.2

11.2.

223

(rock-lled dam) (earth dam)
(gravity
dam) (arc dam) (buttress dam)

(buttress)
20-30%

11.1



(spillway)

224

11.
11.1:

(m3 )
(MW)
13462
731
17745
720
9510
500
8860
300
3057
240
1420
72
2263
55
1967
36

(service spillway)
(emergency spillway)

11.3
(low-pressure conduit)
(screen)
,


(surge tank)
(penstock)
PVC (polyethelene)

(expansion joint)

1
p
p1
+ V12 + L = gH

(11.2)

H p1
pL (pressure loss) V1

11.4.

225

p = 1

pL
gH

(11.3)

p 1

(water hammer)

(simple surge tank)

(orice surge tank)
(differential surge tank)

11.2

11.4

11.3 (p1 ) (V1 )

(p2 ) (V2 )

226

11.

11.2:

p1
1
p2
1
+ V12 =
+ V22 + E

(11.4)

E=

)
p1 p2
1( 2
+
V1 V22

(11.5)

Eact
E

(11.6)

t =

Eact

11.3:

11.4.1
(11.5)
(reaction degree)

R=

(p1 p2 )/
E

(11.7)

11.4.

227

R (impulse turbine) R
(reaction turbine) R

(Pelton turbine)
11.4

(nozzle)

(needle valve)

(deector)

11.4:
11.5


= 180
(V2 = 0)
180

170 1
(V2 > 0)

228

11.

11.5:

(casing)
(Francis turbine)
(Kaplan turbine)
11.6

(1) (2) (guide vane) (wicket
gate)
(3)
(runner blade)

(propeller) 4
8 11.7
(servo-motor)

11.6 11.7 (draft tube)

(11.5) p1

11.4.

229

11.6:

11.7:
V1 E p2 V2
Emax =

p1
1
+ V12

(11.8)

p2 = 0 V2 = 0 p2
V2
E Emax
E Emax
11.5

11.4.2

230

11.

(head) (specic
speed)
( 60 m) (60350 m) ( 350 m)

(H ) (P ) (N )

N P
Ns = 5/4
H

(11.9)

N (rpm) P kW H m
4 1100


11.8

11.8:

100%
11.9

(propeller) (xed-blade)

11.5.

231

11.9:

11.4.3

(runaway speed)
11.10 (turbine governing system)
(speed governor) (electro-hydraulic governor)
(speed sensor)

(actuator)
() ()
(runner)

11.5

(11.5)
E Emax (11.8)
p2 V2
11.11

232

11.

11.10:
z 1 2
3

1 3
E=

)
p1 p3
1( 2
+
V1 V32

(11.10)

p3 = 0
(V3 0) E Emax
E z

11.11:
2 3
V2
V2
p2
+ 2 + gz = 3

2
2

11.6.

233
[

)
1 (
p2 = gz + V22 V32
2

(11.11)

(11.11) p2 z V2 V3
E p2 p2
(cavitation)
(vapor pressure)

(101.3 kPa) 100 C
27 C
3.54 kPa
27 C


7000 atm

p2
pv patm pv patm (11.11)
p2

11.6

11.12

234

11.

100%

11.12

(pump-turbine)
(motor-generator)

11.12:

(centrifugal pump)

620-660 m
350 m
250 MW 4

11.6.

235

1.
2.
3. 100 m
3.6 105 kg/h
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14. 60 m
15.
16.
17.

18.
19.
20.

236

11.

 12

12.1

(nucleus)
(nucleon)

(mn ) 1.008665 amu
(mp ) 1.007277 amu (me ) 0.0005486 amu amu
atomic mass unit 1.66 1027 kg

H 1 He 2
C 12 (atomic number Z ) (mass number A)
(AZ ) (nuclear symbol) AZ X X
11 H 42 He
126 C
10 e -1
10 n
1
(neutrino) 00

(isotope)
(11 H) 1 (21 H)
(tritium) (31 H)
1 2
X-Z X

238

12.

(periodical table)
He-3 32 He U-235 235
92 U
D T

U-235, U-238 U-234
99.282%, 0.712% 0.006%

3 U-227 U-240
(H2 O)
(D2 O) 1 3200
0.03%


H2 O D2 O
D2 O
H2 O

12.2

C + O2 CO2
C O2

(valence electron)


A2
A3
A4
A1
Z1 K Z2 L Z3 M Z4 N
A1
Z1

A3
A4
K +A2
Z2 L Z3 M +Z4 N

Z1 + Z2 = Z3 + Z4
A1 + A2 = A3 + A4

12.3.

239

X
27
13

A
Al + 42 He 30
14 Si + Z X

13 + 2 = 14 + Z
Z=1
27 + 4 = 30 + A
A=1

1 1 11 H
1 H 1 p
1
1

12.3

(mass defect) AZ X
m = (A Z)mn + Z(mp + me ) mX

(12.1)

(Einsteins law)
E = mc2

(12.2)

m kg c 3.00 108 m/s

E (binding energy)

1 amu = 1.66 1027 kg
1 amu 1.494 1011 J 931 MeV
42 He 4.00277 amu m 0.03037 amu E = 27.1 MeV
42 He 4 6.78 MeV
12.1
40

Fe, Co Ni

240

12.

12.1:
7.5 MeV
7.5 MeV

1 H 1 H
1
1
4
2 He (fusion)
11 H

(ssion)

12.4


(radioactive matter)

1. (gamma ray)

12.4.

241

(excited state) (ground
state)
(

A
Z

A
Z

X+

2. (beta ray)

1

60
27

0
Co 60
28 Ni +1 e + +

3. (alpha ray)

239
94

Pu

235
92

U +42 He +

N (t) t

dN
= N
dt

(12.3)

(decay constant) s1 (12.3)

N (t) = N (0)et

(12.4)

N (0)
(half-life)

(12.4) t = t1/2 N (t1/2 ) = 0.5N0
0.5N0 = N (0)et1/2

242

12.
12.1:

C-14
N-16
P-32
K-40
Co-60
Sr-90
I-131
Xe-135
Cs-137
Rn-222
U-235
U-238
Pu-239

(MeV)
5715

0.156
7.13 , 4.24 (), 6.129 ()
14.28

1.170
9
1.25 10

1.312
5.271 , 0.315 (), 1.332 ()
29.1

0.546
8.021 , 0.606 (), 0.364 ()
9.10 , 0.910 (), 0.250 ()
30.2 , 0.514 (), 0.662 ()
3.823 , 5.490 (), 0.510 ()
7.40 108

4.152
9
4.47 10

4.040
4
2.41 10

5.055

= t1/2 =

0.6931

(12.5)

t1/2 12.1

Co-60 3 1000

12.1 t1/2 Co-60 5.271 (12.5)

=

(12.4)

0.6931
t1/2
(

)
0.6931t
N (t) = N (0) exp
t1/2
(
)
0.6931 3
= 1000 exp
5.271
= 674

12.5.

12.5

243

U-235, U-238, Pu-239 Th-232
2-3 (ssion)

A
Z

X + 10 n

A1
Z1 1

A2
Z2 2

+ m10 n

AZ X AZ11 F1 AZ22 F2 m

235
92 U U-235 U235
U-235
235
92

U + 10 n

140
54

1
Xe + 94
38 Sr + 20 n

U-235 75 160

(delay process)
U-235
U-236 U-236
235
92

U + 10 n

236
92

U-236
2.34 107 U-236
14% 86%

235
92

U + 10 n

137
56

1
Ba + 97
36 Kr + 20 n

235.0439 + 1.00867 = 236.0526 amu

138.9061 + 96.9212 + 2(1.00867) = 235.8446 amu
0.208 amu 193.6 MeV
200
MeV 12.2
190 MeV 10 MeV

244

12.
12.2: U-235

(MeV)
166
14
10
5
5
200

U-235 1 MW

1 U-235 0.86 0.14

1 U-235
E = 0.86 190 1.60 1013
= 2.61 1011

U-235 235 g 6.02 1023 1 g U-235

1
6.02 1023 E
235
= 6.69 1010 J

E=

86400 U-235 1 g
P =

6.69 1010
= 0.774 MW
86400

1 MW U-235 1.3 g

12.6
U-235

12.6.

245

(chain reaction)
2-3

12.2

U-235



U-235
U-235 U-236
U-235
U-235

U-235
86% U-235
(slow neutron)
(thermal neutron)
(fast neutron)
(prompt neutron)
U-235

(En2 )
(En1 ) A
En2
=
En1

A1
A+1

)2

(12.6)

2% U-238

246

12.

28% C-12

12.7
(1) (fuel core) (2)
(coolant) (3) (moderator) (4) (control rod) (5)
(reactor vessel)

(UO2 )
(UC) (cladding material) Al, Mg, Zr,
3

(shim rod) (regulating rod)
(safety rod)
(boron steel)

12.8.

247

1.8 m

12.8

(1)
(pressurized water reactor, PWR) (2) (boiling water reactor,
BWR) (3) (advanced gas-cooled reactor, AGR) (4)
(pressurized heavy water reactor, PHWR) (5) RBMK
( Reaktor Bolshoy Moshchnosti Kanalniy High
Power Channel Reactor)

12.8.1

200-300
150-250


(zircaloy) 12.2

PWR 12.2
(primary loop)
(secondary loop)

325 C
150 (pressurizer)

PWR

PWR 374 C
374 C

230

248

12.

12.2:

12.8.2
U-235 1.9-2.6 % 750 90-100
12.3
PWR
75
285 C

12.3

BWR
PWR BWR
PWR

12.8.

249

12.3:

12.8.3

PHWR CANDU (Canadian Deuterium)

CANDU PWR



PWR
12.4
(Calandria)
12-13 CANDU
(zircaloy)

300 C
CANDU

CANDU
CANDU
1 3200

250

12.

12.4: CANDU

12.8.4
12.5
U-235 2.5-3.5%
CO2
CO2
650 C
AGR PWR BWR AGR PWR BWR

12.8.5 RBMK
RBMK 12.6


290 C BWR

.. 2529 RBMK

12.9.

251

12.5:

12.6: RBMK

12.9

252

12.

(U3 O8 )
3.3
(27%)
(17%) (15%) (11%) (8%) (7%) (5%)
(4%) (4%) (leaching)
(yellow cake)
1000 MW 200
U3 O8 (UF6 )

U-235 1% 4% U-238
85%
(depleted uranium) U-235
(0.7%) (gas centrifuge)
(gas diffusion)
12.7
235
UF6 238
92 UF6 92 UF6
235
92 UF6 UF6
235
92 UF6 UF6 UF6
U-235 U-235 UF6
UF6 U-235

U-235


UF6
12.8 (stage)
(membrane) UF6
235
238
92 UF6 92 UF6
235 UF 235 UF UF
6
6
6
92
92
235 UF UF 235 UF UF
6
6
6
6
92
92

U-235
UF6

UF6
UF6 (UO2 )
1 cm 2 cm

12.10.

253

12.7:

12.8:
(fuel pellet)
60 cm 4 m

12.10

(1) (low-level waste)

(2) (intermediate-level waste)
(3) (high-level waste)

254

12.

5-10




(borosilicate glass)

500
U-235 1% U-238 93%
Pu-239 0.5% 5.5%
U-235,
U-238 Pu-239 U-235
Pu-239 U-235


Pu-239 U-235
Pu-239

12.11

H+
OH
(somatic
effect) (genetic effect)

(cosmic ray)

12.11.

255

(radiation dose) SI
(Gy) 1 Gy 1 J 1 kg


(equivalent radiation dose) (quality factor)
(Sv) 12.3

12.3:

, ,
1

10

10

20

20

1
4 Sv
2-6 mSv

1 kg 4 103 J

256

12.

4 103 J/1 kg = 4 103 Gy 1

1 4 103 = 4 mSv

12.12
(International Atomic Energy Agency) IAEA

IAEA 3

U-235 95%
U-235 2-3%
(reactor meltdown)

28 .. 2522 (Three Mile Island) PWR

12.12.

257

26 .. 2529 (Chernobyl)
() RBMK

31 203

11 .. 2554 8.9
10
(Fukushima) (Fukushima Daiichi)
BWR 6
14

4

258

12.

1.
2. 239
94 Pu
3.
4.
5.
6.

Sr 90
39 Y

90
38

7. 360 2
6
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

15.
16. RBMK
17.
18. (U3 O8 )
19.
20.

12.12.

259

21.
22.
23.
24. 1.007277 amu 1.008665 amu
168 O 15.99491 amu 168 O (1 amu = 1.66 1027 kg,
1 eV = 1.6 1019 J c = 3.0 108 m/s)
25. U-235 200 MeV 1 20000 kJ
1 g U-235 (1 eV = 1.6
1019 J 6.022 1023 1 mol U-235)

260

12.

 13

13.1

13.1.1

N2 79% O2 21%



(particulate)
(NOx ) (SO2 )

(NO) (NO2 )
NO

262

13.
NO2
NOx

SO2 SO2 (sulfuric

acid) SO2

13.1
13.1:

1.
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2.
2.1
(1) 300 MW
(2) 300 - 500 MW
(3) 500 MW
2.2
(1) 300 MW
(2) 300 - 500 MW
(3) 500 MW
2.3
2.4

SO2 NOx
(ppm) (ppm) (mg/m3 )
700
950
60
60

400
200
200
200

320
240
60
320

640
450
320

350
350
350

120
120
120

640
450
320
20
60

180
180
180
120
200

120
120
120
60
120

AW + BX + CY + DZ

13.1.

263

B
C
D
W
X
Y
Z

13.1
A

13.1:

13.1.2

264

13.
(cooling tower)

1. (pH) 5 9
2. 40 C
3. 3000 mg/L
4. 50 mg/L
5. BOD 20 mg/L
6. COD 120 mg/L
7.

13.2.

13.1.3

265

(stabilization)

13.2

NOx NOx
(combustion control) NOx
NOx (post-combustion control) NOx
NOx (NH3 )
NOx NOx NOx
NOx SCR (selective catalytic reduction) NOx
SCNR (selective non-catalytic reduction)

13.2.1

NOx
NOx



(ue gas recirculation)
NOx


NOx

266

13.

NOx NOx (low NOx burner)



(air staging) (fuel
staging) NOx


13.2

13.2: NOx

13.2.2 NOx SCR

(NH3 )
(catalyst) 13.3 NH3 NOx
4NO + 4NH3 + O2 4N2 + 6H2 O
2NO2 + 4NH3 + 2O2 3N2 + 6H2 O

(exothermic)
(160 350 C)
NOx SCR 95%
SCR

13.2.

267

13.3: NOx SCR

3 4
SCR
SCR NOx
(ammonia slip)

SO2 SO2 SO3

SO + 12 O2 SO3
NH3 + SO3 + H2 O NH4 HSO2
1
2NH3 + 2SO3 + H2 O + O2 2NH4 SO4
2
(ammonium bisulfate, NH4 HSO2 ) (ammonium
sulfate, NH4 SO4 ) 1 3
SCR
5 ppm
SCR (titanium dioxide, TiO2 )
(vanadium pentoxide, V2 O5 ) (tungsten oxide, WO3 )
SCR
13.1 6 7.5 mm SCR
3.3 5 mm
2 3 mm
2 4 NOx
20 30% NOx SCR

268

13.

SCR

13.2.3 NOx SNCR

SNCR (urea, CO(NH2 )2 ) NO

4NO + 4NH3 + O2 4N2 + 6H2 O
4NO + 2CO(NH2 )2 + O2 4N2 + 2CO2 + 4H2 O

900 1050 C
SNCR NO2 NOx
NO 95% NO2 5% SNCR NOx
70 80% SCR SNCR
SCR SNCR SCR

4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2 O

4NH3 + 3O2 2N2 + 6H2 O
2NH3 + 2O2 N2 O + 3H2 O

NO (nitrous oxide, N2 O)
N2 O

NOx SNCR




NOx
SNCR NOx


(computational uid dynamics)
SNCR

13.3.

13.3

269

(bottom ash)
(y ash)
13.2
13.2:

(%)
(%)
(%)
60-80
0-5
20-40

10-30
0-10
70-90

5-90
0-5
10-95

(cyclone separator)




(electrostatic precipitator) (fabric lter)

13.3.1

(emitting electrode)
(grounded collecting plate)
30 80 kV
13.4

270

13.

13.4:




(ash hopper)
13.5

13.5:
(elec-

13.3.

271

trical resistivity) 1 108

1 1014 .cm



5 109 5 1010 .cm
SO3
SO3

13.3.2

(lter bag)
125 300 mm
12.5 m
(cell plate)

(reverse gas fabric lter) 13.6

(pulse jet fabric lter) 13.7

272

13.

13.6:

13.7:

13.4.

13.3.3

273

13.8

13.8:

13.4

(extrinsic ash)
(intrinsic ash)

(silicon) (aluminum) (alkali)



(bottom ash)

274

13.

(y ash)

(mechanical stoker) 60 80% 20 40%
(pulverized coal) 10 30%
70 90%

13.4.1
(hopper)



13.9 (silo)

13.9:
(pneumatic)

13.4.

275

(Bernoulli equation)

(uidization)

60

13.4.2

276

13.

13.5
(SO2 )
S + O2 SO2
SO2 (sulfuric acid, H2 SO4 )

SO2

SO2
SO2
70%
SO2


SO2 SO2 (ue gas desulfurization)
SO2 (sulfurous acid, H2 SO3 )
(H+ ) (HSO3 )
H+ (SO2
3 )
SO2 + H2 O H2 SO3
H2 SO3 H+ + HSO3
+
H+ + HSO3 SO2
3 + 2H
SO2 SO2 SO2
H+ (alkaline ion)

(OH ) (CO2
3 ) (HCO3 )
SO2
SO2 (limestone)

13.5.1 SO2
SO2 (CaCO3 )
SO2 95 - 98% 13.10
SO2

CaCO3 + SO2 + 21 H2 O CaSO3 . 21 H2 O

13.5.

277

CaSO3 . 12 H2 O + 32 H2 O CaSO4 .2H2 O

SO2 (CaSO4 )
(CaSO3 )

13.10: SO2
SO2
(saturated)

278

13.

(mist eliminator)

(hydrocyclone)


SO2

13.5.2 SO2

pH 8 CO2
3 HCO3
SO2 SO2

13.11
SO2
2
SO2 + CO2
3 SO3 + CO2
SO2 + HCO3 HSO3 + CO2

SO2
3 HSO3

SO2
3 HSO3 O2
1
2
SO2
3 + 2 O2 SO4

HSO3 + 12 O2 HSO4
pH 6 7 pH pH

13.6

(continuous emission monitoring, CEM)

13.6.

279

13.11: SO2
CEM
NO, NO2 SO2

13.6.1

2 (insitu method) (extractive method)

(point
analysis) (path analysis)

13.12
(single-pass)

280

13.

13.13 (double-pass)


NOx , SO2

13.12:

13.13:

13.6.

281

(dry extractive)
(wet extractive)

(dilution extractive)


(lter)
(membrane)


SO2

NOx
NOx

NOx SO2

50:1 250:1



13.3 NOx SO2

13.6.2

(light extinction)

282

13.
13.3: NOx SO2

NOx SO2
2% 3%

- 48% 9%
- 1% 1%
-
49% 87%

13.12 13.13
(beta ray
attenuation) C-14

(probe electrication)

13.6.3 NOx SO2

NOx SO2
(infrared) (ultraviolet)
NOx SO2 (non-dispersive)
NOx
SO2 (light source) (beam)
NOx

13.6.

283

SO2 NOx SO2

NOx SO2
(chemiluminescence) NOx (UV uorescence) SO2 SO2
(excited state) (ground state)
SO2 NO
(O3 ) NO2
NO + O3 NO2 + O2
(ground state)
NO NO2
NO2 NO

284

13.

1. NOx
2.
3. NOx SCR
4. NOx SCR
5. NOx SNCR
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11. SO2
12.
13.

14. CEM
15.

16.

17. SO2 SO2

18. NOx NOx
19.
20.
21.


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