Copyright © 1971 J. M. C. Toynbee All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America on acid-free recycled paper Originally published in the United States by Cornell University Press, 1971 Published by arrangement with Thames and Hudson, London Johns Hopkins Paperbacks edition, 1996 24689753 The Johns Hopkins University Press 2715 North Charles Street Baltimore, Maryland 21218-4363 www press jhiedit Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Toynbee, J. M. C. (Jocelyn M. C.), d. 1985. Death and Burial in the Roman World / J. M. C. Toynbee. pcm Originally published simultaneously : Ithaca, New York : Cornell University Press ; London : Thames & Hudson, ¢1.971- (Aspects of Greek and Roman life). Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8018-5507- 1. Funeral rites and ceremonies—Rome. 2. Tombs—Rome. 3. Rome—Social life and customs. 1. Title. DG103.T6g 1998 393'.0937—lez0 96-9618 A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.CONTENTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 7 LETRUSCAN ANTECEDENTS 11 (a) Etruria and Rome (0) Ideas on Death and the Afterlife (Q) Funerary Rites (@)_ Tomb-Forms and Cemeteries (a) Roman Beliefs about the Afterlife (6) Cremation and Inhumation Il FUNERARY RITES AND THE CULT OF THE DEAD 43 (2) Funerary Rites (b)} The Cult of the Dead IV_THE LAYOUT OF CEMETERIES AND OWNERSHIP OF TOMBS. WALLED CEMETERIES. FUNERARY GARDENS 73 (4) The Layout of Cemeteries and Ownership of Tombs b) Walled Cemeteries (c) Funerary Gardens V SELECTED TYPES OF TOMBS I 101 (a) Simple Cremation and Inhumation Tombs (8) The Tomb of the Comelii Scipiones in Rome (©) Columbaria (4) Late-Republican Chamber-Tombs in Rome (€) Late-Republican and Early-Imperial Masonry Tombs of Various Types in Rome and ItalyCONTENTS 0 ectemenne tee tg eee pees (h) e Circul Polygonal Tombs VI SELECTED TYPES OF TOMBS II 164 (a) Tower-Tombs (6) Celeia (¢) Ghirza (d) Provincial Tumuli (©) Eastern Tombs with Rock-cut Fagades: Jerusalem and Petra (f) Some Hypogea of Imperial Times in Rome and the Provinces (g) Catacombs AND TOMB FURNITURE 2: (a) Built-in Grave Reliefs (0) Free-standing Stelai (6) Ash-Containers and Funerary Altars of the Well-to-do (d) Funerary Couches with Effigies of the Dead (©) Decorated Sarcophagi (f) Other Sculptures NOTES 282 SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS 321 INDEX 322LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES 1 Etruscan dead feasting: painting in the Tomb of the Leopards, Tarquinia 2 Etruscan funerary couch: painting in the Tomb of the Shields, Tarquinia 3. Etruscan sarcophagus with reclining figure: Vatican Museum 4 Tomb of the Atian Family, Volterra: reconstructed in the gardens of the Archaeological Museum, Florence § Vaulted corridor in the Quinto Fiorentino chamber-tomb 6 Tomb of the Volumnii, Perugia 7 Casal Marittimo tholos tomb 8 Sarcophagus of Scipio Barbatus: Vatican Museum 9 Relief of a lying-in-state from the Tomb of the Haterii: Lateran collection 10 Relief of a death-bed scene: Musée de Cluny, Paris 11 Relief of a funeral procession from Amiternum:; Aquila Muscum 12 Statue of a man carrying ancestral busts: New Capitoline Museum 13 Relief showing ancestral masks in cupboards: National Museum, Copenhagen 14 Cremation burial with libation pipe from Caerleon: National Museum of Wales, Cardiff 15 Sestertius showing funerary pyre of Antoninis Pius: British Museum 16 Sestertius showing funerary pyre of Septimius Severus: British Museum 17 Relief from the Tomb of the Haterii showing a temple-tomb, ete. Lateran collection 18, 19 Tombs of the poor, Isola Sacra necropolis 20 Tomb of the Concordii, Reggio Emilia 21 Tomb of the Statii, Aquileia 22, 23 ‘Box’ cremation burials from Colchester 24 Inhumation grave of tiles, York8 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 25 Inhumation burial in cist, York 26 Tomb of Sabinus Taurius, Isola Sacra necropolis 27 A columbarium at Ostia 28 Columbarium IH (‘Colombari di Vigna Codini’) 29 Busts on the facade of a Via Caelimontana tomb, Rome 30 Adjacent tombs on the Via Caelimontana, Rome 31 Mausoleum of the Juli, St Rémy 32 Street of the Tombs, Pompeii 33 Pyramidal Tomb of Cestius, Rome 34 Relief on the Tomb of Eurysaces, Rome 35 Tomb of Eurysaces, Rome 36 Raising of Lazarus on a fourth-century Christian sarcophagus: Lateran collection 37 Temple-tomb of Asfionius Rufus: Sarsina Museum 38 ‘La Conocchia’, Santa Maria Capua Vetera 39 ‘Tomba degli Orazi ¢ Curiazi’, Ariccia 40 House-tomb of Annia Regilla, Via Appia, Rome 41 House-tombs under the Church of San Sebastiano, Rome 42 Tomb of the Axe under the Church of San Sebastiano, Rome 43 House-tombs in the Isola Sacra necropolis 44 Interior of a house-tomb in the Isola Sacra necropolis 45 Interior of Tomb I in the St Peter’s necropolis 46 Stucco relief of a Maenad in Tomb H in the St Peter's necropolis 47 Mosaic of Christus-Helios in Tomb M in the St Peter's necropolis 48 The northern row of tombs in the St Peter’s necropolis 49 Aerial view of the Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome 0 Close-up view of the Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome st Tomb of Caecilia Metella, Via Appia, Rome 52 Restoration of the Tomb of Plancus, Gaeta $3 Church of St George, Salonika 54 Church of Santa Costanza, Rome 55 Mausoleum of Theodoric, Ravenna 56 ‘Torre de los Escipiones’, near Tarragona $7 Reliefs from the Igel Monument, near Trier 58 Tower-tomb of Elahbél, Palmyra10 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURES 1 Plan of Etruscan Frangois Tomb at Vulci, p. 21 2 Plan of Aquileia cemetery, pp. 78-9 3 Plan of Isola Sacra cemetery, p. 85 4 Plan of Vatican cemetery, p. 89 5 Plan of Southfleet walled cemetery, p- 92 6 Plan of Shorden Brae mausoleum, near Corbridge, p. 93 7 Marble plan at Perugia of a funerary garden, p. 98 8 Marble plan from Rome of a funerary garden, p. 99 9 Plan of Tomb of the Scipios, Rome, p. 104 10 Plan of columbarium at Ostia, p. 116 11 Plan of Street of Tombs, Pompeii, pp. 120-1 12 Plan of Mausoleum 29 at Isola Sacra, p. 136 13 Plan of Mausoleum 34 at Isola Sacra, p. 137 14 Section and plan of Mausoleum of Augustus, p. 153 15 Plan of Centcelles mausolea, p. 161 16 Restoration and sections of a tower-tomb at Dura-Europos, p. 169 17 Restoration of tumulus at Bill, p. 185 18 Plan of Cineis cemetery, p. 187 19 Plan of hypogeum of the Aurelii, Rome, p. 209 20 Plan of northern extension of hypogeum of the Aurelii, p. 211 a1 Plan of Weiden bei Kéln hypogeum, p. 213 22 Plan of Silistria hypogeum, p. 217 23 Plan of Hypogeum 24, Group IV, at Dura-Europos, p. 224 24 Plan of Hypogenm 23, Group VI, at Dura-Europos, p. 222 25 Plan of Hypogeum 33, Group IX, at Dura-Europos, p. 222 26 Plan of tomb of Lijami, Palmyra, p. 229 27 Plan of tomb of Taai, Palmyra, p. 231 28 Section and plan of tomb of Yarhai, Palmyra, p. 233 29 Plan of San Giovanni catacomb, Syracuse, p. 241 30 Plan of new Via Latina catacomb, Rome, p. 243CHAPTER I ETRUSCAN ANTECEDENTS (A) ETRURIA AND ROME AMONG ALL THE spHERES of social and religious life in which Rome was deeply and permanently indebted to Etruria, that of burial customs may justly claim pride of place. Hence it is self-evident that at least some general consideration of Etruscan afterlife ideas, and of the practices and monuments relating to the dead which those ideas inspired, must form the essential prelude to any under- standing and discussion of their Roman counterparts. There are, indeed, certain marked features of Etruscan other-world beliefs and funerary art which find no place in Rome. Some ideas and customs inherited initially from the Etruscans developed very differently in the Roman world, where potent influences, other than Etruria’s, were also at work. Roman tomb-art, in particular, was immeasurably wider in its range than was Etruria’s, both in style and content. Nonetheless, there persisted, down to the end of the pagan Empire, at any rate, habits of thought and forms of architectural and artistic expression concerned with the cult of the departed that remained unmistakably Etruscan in their origins. (8) IDEAS ON DEATH AND THE AFTERLIFE For the Etruscans’ ideas on death and the afterlife, as for their funerary customs, all the evidence is archaeological, derived from the nature of their cemeteries and from the wall-paintings and the sculptures that adomed their tombs. No other people has dis- played a greater preoccupation—not to say obsession—with man’s fate at and after death. None has been more lavish in providing, in the terms of this life, for the soul's life beyond the grave, whether that life was conceived of as lived in the tomb itself or in some invisible, probably subterranean, realm of the deceased. For, wherever the dead dwelt, their condition wasclearly believedETRUSCAN ANTECEDENTS 19 anything up to seven rectangular compartments, of which the middle ones are generally the largest, with the smaller ones opening off them. All are symmetrically arranged about a central axis and they are approached from the outer edge of the tumulus by a corridor or dromos. Most of the smaller tumuli held one chamber-tomb only: one of the more complicated of these is the Tomb of the Capitals in Tumulus V, with its two rounded pillars upholding the flat ceiling of its central oblong room.** But of the colossal mounds, Tumulus I covers two, Tumulus II four, the Tumulus of the Nave five, the Tumulus of the Painted Animals four, and the Tumulus of the Shields and Chairs three chamber-tombs. These monumental round barrows, with their masonry ring-walls, neatly bevelled externally at their bases, and their numerous lesser brethren,:° together with the spacious and harmoniously proportioned chamber-tombs that all, both large and small, contain, were architecturally the Etruscans’ most imposing sepulchral legacies to Rome (cf. pp. 143-4, 170-88). By no means all the well-designed chamber-tombs at Caere are under tumuli. A large number of them, also partly cut in the rock and partly built of masonry, lacked that protection and had only a relatively slight earth covering above their roofs. These vary greatly in size; and most of them are, like those in the mounds, approached by corridors of differing lengths. Some are complex, multi-roomed chamber-tombs. Others consist of a single large compartment which is sometimes just a plain rectangle, sometimes a plain rectangle partially divided into two by short projecting cross-walls, sometimes a rectangle with alcoves in its sides. An outstanding instance of the last type is the Tomb of the Reliefs, which has thirteen alcoves and two square pilasters supporting its ceiling.5* Some of the tombs not surmounted by tumuli seem to have stood, either singly or in groups of three or four, within precinct walls; while large numbers of those not so confined are arranged either in compact blocks of confronted chambers or in long series of chambers that arc almost identical with onc another in shape and size, strung out in rows. In the central section (the ‘Recinto’) of the Banditaccia necropolis there are, for example, rows of thisETRUSCAN ANTECEDENTS 23 through a doorway that consists of heavily fashioned lintel, jambs, and threshold. An inscription on the right-hand jamb records the foundation of the tomb by Arnth and Larth Volum- njus; and in the gable-shaped space above the doorway is carved in low relief a Medusa on a shicld between two dolphins. The tomb itself reflects the layout of a Roman house, with an atrium, measuring 7-33 metres in length by 3-6 metres in width, in the centre. The pitched ceiling of the atrium simulates wooden beams and its long walls are lined with tufa benches. At the far end of the atrium a doorway leads into the principal room or tablinum; and in the gable-shaped space above that doorway is carved in relief a Medusa on a shield flanked by two human busts and two swords, on each of which a bird perches. Another Medusa is cut in relief in the central coffer of the tablinum’s flat ceiling. The general layout of the whole hypogeum is symmetrical. Two alae, with a portrait-bust in relief in the central coffer of the ceiling of each, open out on either side from the end of the atrium and each is connected with another room, one on cither side of the tablinunt and extending to the line of the latter’s back wall. Four more rooms, approached by short passages, open off the atrium, two on either side, two half-way along the atrium and two near the entrance-doorway. (PI. 6) The Tomb of the Volumnii was obviously intended to serve for an extended period, perhaps for a century or more. But its interior decoration was never completed and the burials were confined to the tablinum, every other room being found empty by the excavators. It would seem that some unforeseen disaster overtook the family: possibly it came, partially at least, to grief at the time of the destruction of Perugia in 40 8c, after which date only one burial was introduced, that of the wholly Romanized Publius Volumnius Violens, whose marble ash-chest, shaped like a little temple with gabled roof, has relief-ornamentation in the Augustan manner. The other six ash-chests are of stone and are all of the same character and worked in the same, more or less contemporary, style—within about twenty-five years, although four generations of the family are covered by them. Five of them, to judge from the way in which their relief-work is distributed,5,6 Right, the stone~ vaulted corridor in the seventh-century BC chamber-tomb, the so- called ‘La Montagnola’, found at Quinto Fiorentino in 1959 (of. p. 18). Below, the Tomb of the Volumnii ia, The12, 13 Above, marble statue of an Augustan man carrying ancestral busts (p. 48). Below, marble tomb relief showing two profile ancestral busts in little cupboards (pp. 47, 48).ROMAN BELIEFS ABOUT THE AFTERLIFE 35 of those who have died before their time.73 He also refers to paintings that depict the tortures of Hades, but does not tell us whether they were Greek, Etruscan, or Roman.’ For the rest, our knowledge of the views held in early- and mid-Republican times is mainly inferential, derived from Ovid’s descriptions in the Fasti of the traditional festivals of the dead and from the ancient term di Manes. From these sources, and in particular from a passage in Cicero,’ it can be deduced that the dead at this epoch were regarded as a collectivity, divine and to be venerated as ancestors, but colourless and undifferentiated. If duly propitiated they were capable of aiding their descendents, but were harmful and spiteful to the living if kinless and neglected, under the aspect of Lemures and Larvae, as Plautus again bears witness.7 In Homer and in classical Greek literature and art the dead in the underworld, if condemned to a shadowy and tenuous con- dition, as contrasted with the fullness of human life on earth, retained their names and were still to some degree themselves. Of this belief in the survival beyond the grave of a person’s iden- tity the earliest known evidence in Rome dates from the first century Bc, when Cicero, Livy, and Virgil use Manes of the souls of individuals;77 while from the Augustan age onwards tomb inscriptions combine the traditional formula of collectivity, D(is) M (anibus) or D(is) M (anibus) S(acrum), with the personal name or names of the deceased in the nominative, genitive, or dative case, The same trend appears at this period even in the most intellectualized theories of astral apotheosis, whereby the soul was believed to rejoin at death the pure fiery element from which it came. This is strikingly illustrated by Cicero’s Somnium Scipionis, where the starry being Africanus is described as dwelling among the blessed dead in the Milky Way.7* But he still keeps his recog nizable shape;79 and he takes an eager interest in the fortunes of his descendant Aemilianus. The same insistence on continuing identity of bodily form and on lively concern for mundane pursuits and family affairs is found in Virgil’s picture of the heroes in Elysium. Closely linked with the belief that the individual dead remember with affection their ties with living friends was the notion that aCREMATION AND INHUMATION 39 or ‘marriage’ with themselves, ecstatic bliss in a paradise that teemed with flora and fauna, and the total victory of life over death were the ‘other-worldly’ gifts promised by these saviours to their worshippers, Hence the recurrence in the picture language of Roman-age tomb art of such themes as marriages, real or mytho- logical, Dionysus’ triumphal progress and the revels of his followers,%* lively scenes of hunting and of animal pursuits and combats, the slaying of savage foes or ravening beasts, trophies of arms, Victories, victorious charioteers, palm trees, palm branches, Cupids, Psyches, and other children in gardens glowing with flowers, fruits, and gorgeous birds,94 and flocks and herds feeding peacefully in idyllic landscapes—gardens and landscapes that far outdistance in luxuriance the ‘amoena virecta’ of Virgil’s heroes. Ic is true that these motifs have relatively few explicit counter- parts in surviving literature. But most of the tombs where they occur belonged to types of persons who expressed their ideas less easily in writing than visually. It is in the light of these beliefs about the character and state of the human soul after death that we have to face the problem, already alluded to (¢f, pp. 33, 34), of the revolution in burial rite in Rome and in her world. (3) CREMATION AND INHUMATION According to Cicero®* and Pliny,97 inhumation, not cremation, was the primitive burial rite in Rome. But the Sepulcretum in the Roman Forum, dating from the eighth to the sixth century Bc, contains both cremations and inhumations; % and from the Law of the Twelve Tables it is evident that both rites were practised side by side in the fifth century 8c. According to Lucretius,"°° three types of burial were known in the late Republic—cremation {ignibus impostum calidis torrescere flammis’), embalmment (‘aut in melle situm suffocari’), and inhumation (‘urgerive superne ebtritum pondere terrae’). Pliny says*** that many Roman families kept to inhumation, notably the Gens Cornelia (also singled out by Cicero),!°* of which Sulla was the first member to be cremated; and in the subterrancan Tomb of the Cornelii ScipionesCHAPTER III FUNERARY RITES AND THE CULT OF THE DEAD (A) FUNERARY RITES ‘THE TERM funus can be used to cover all that took place between the hour of death and the performance of the last post-burial ceremonies. In its social range it denotes the final offices accorded to the very poor and to ordinary citizens of moderate or consider- able means (funus translaticum), to soldiers (funus militare), to persons who had given the State distinguished service (fis publicum), to emperors and members of their families (funus imperatorium). Funus includes, furthermore, the questions of who paid the expenses of the funerals of these various types and of the extent to which the State regulated funerals by legislation.*' All Roman funerary practice was influenced by two basic notions —first, that death brought pollution and demanded from the survivors acts of purification and expiation; secondly, that to leave a corpse unburied had unpleasant repercussions on the fate of the departed soul. The throwing of a little earth upon the body was the minimum requirement for burial, could nothing more be done. But custom ordained that in normal circumstances the obsequies should be carried out with as much solemnity as cir- cumstances in every case allowed. (1) FUNUS TRANSLATICUM (i) Rites preceding the Obsequies. When death was imminent relations and close friends gathered round the dying person’s bed, to comfort and support him or her and to give vent to their own grief.s The nearest relative present gave the last kiss,?** to catch the soul, which, so it was believed, left the body with theFUNERARY RITES 47 dissignator, stands facing them and grasps the end of one pole of the bier. The catafalque is preceded on the right by four pipers (tibicines)'44 below and by a trumpeter (tubicen)'45 and two horn- blowers (comicines)"*6 above. Again in the upper tier, between the three musicians and the bier, are two disheveled praeficae, one with both hands raised, the other tearing her hair. Ac the same level, following the bier on the left, are the chief mourners, the widow and her two daughters, all with dishevelled hair. On the extreme left of the relief are three levels of figures—below, behind the bearers, a boy holding a palm-branch and a pail or basket, in the centre, two female relatives or servants, one armed with a spade-like implement, and above, three women, probably relatives (the third from the left may be another daughter) or friends of the family. The hired mourners and musicians in this, as in all other Roman funeral processions, were, of course, an Etruscan legacy (see Chapter I(c)). (Pl. 11) The obsequies of Roman patricians in the middle of the second century 3c are vividly described by Polybius.'47 If the dead was a distinguished man his corpse was placed on the rostra in the Forum, in either a standing or reclining posture, and a panegyric on him was pronounced in the presence of the citizens."4* After the burial his portrait («lxdv), which was a mask (mpdowrov) resembling him as realistically as possible, was enclosed in a wooden shrine and placed in a conspicuous position in the house. In this way there were built up domestic ‘galleries’ of ancestral portraits, which formed part of the cortége of each member of the family when his turn came to die, the masks being worn in the procession by those relatives and friends who resembled most closely the dead iridividuals that they represented. The same phenomenon is mentioned by the Elder Pliny who, writing in the mid-first-century AD, states" that in earlier times (‘apud maiores’) wax masks (“expressi cera vultus’) were kept in cupboards in the house to serve as portraits attending family funerals (‘ut essent imagines quae comitarentur gentilicia funera’). Neither Polybius nor Pliny gives any support to the view that these masks were death-masks proper, cast directly from the faces of the dead. We would give much to possess a work of Roman art which renderedFUNERARY RITES st at the grave in honour of the dead.'79 There was also the cena novendialis eaten at the grave on the ninth day after the funeral, at the end of the period of full mourning, when a libation to the Manes was poured upon the actual burial.**° Offerings of food were left at the tomb for the dead and were sometimes eaten by the hungry.** The domestic Lar was purified by a sacrifice of wethers."** To disturb in any way the last resting-place of human relics that had been finally and solemnly buried was a criminal offence. Official dispensations from the penalties could be granted. But there are a number of known instances of unofficial breaches of the law (¢. p. 76 and pp. 296-7, Notes 273-6). Throughout the year there were occasions on which the dead were commemorated by funerary meals eaten at the tomb by their relatives and friends—on their birthdays and when the annual festivals of the dead were celebrated (sce pp. 61-4). The mausolea of the well-to-do often contained chambers for this purpose, sometimes equipped with kitchens (see Chapter V(c), p. 136). At all of these banquets, as at those held at the time of a death, the departed had their share set apart for them. Their disembodied spirits, it was thought, could somehow partake of the fare with which they were thus provided and, indeed, be nourished through the medium of their bones or ashes (¢f. p. 37). Hence the fact that graves, whether for inhumation or for cremation, with holes or pipes through which food and drink could be poured down directly on to the burial (profusic), so as to reach.the remains, are anot uncommon feature of cemeteries in very diverse areas of the Roman world. For example, in the necropolis excavated under St Peter's in Rome several instances have come to light. In Tomb F, inset into the border of a mosaic pavement, is a series of small, square marble slabs cach pierced with a hole for pouring sus- tenance down on to the dead beneath; and there are similar holes in the mosaic pavement of Tomb C.'8 In the foor of Tomb O there is a marble roundel pierced by four holes;**4 and Grave y, a child’s inhumation burial of Hadrianic date, near the reputed tomb of St Peter, contained a terracotta coffin, partly encased in a rectangular block of masonry, which was penetrated by a vertical tube for pouring.**5 Another child’s inhumation burial, this timeFUNERARY RITES 55 generally tolerated by the government were the burial clubs (collegia funeraticia) of the lower orders of society (tenuiores), mainly slavesand freedmen, whose members, theoretically, met only once a month for the payment of the contributions that they made to provide for their funerals.?°3 Most of theseclubshadsomereligious connections—for example, that of the cultores Dianae et Antinoi at Lanuvium;29 and, in practice, they also engaged in some social activities such as dining together on certain occasions. The members of a club were sometimes men who all practised the same craft or trade; or they were all the dependants of some great family*°5 or of the Imperial House.*°* The remains of persons belonging to these groups were often laid to rest in communal columbaria (see Chapter V(c)). (2) FUNUS MILITARE Soldiers killed on the battlefield were collectively cremated**? or buried.*°* The funeral expenses of those who died while on service were paid by their comrades, contributions from the soldiers’ pay being set aside for this purpose.?°9 A general could be honoured by a decursio in the form of a ride or march round his funeral pyre or cenotaph.2#° (3) FUNUS PUBLICUM A special kind of funus indictivum, to which all citizens were invited, was the funus publicum decreed to a benefactor of the State and paid for by the State treasury.*** A panegyric and a sung dirge were part of the honours accorded.**? Notable foreign prisoners also qualified for such obsequies.213 Sulla’s public funeral was conducted with particular magnificence.?!+ His corpse was carried on a golden litter and was accompanied by more than two thousand golden crowns and by axes and other symbols of the offices held by him in life. In the procession were trumpeters and pipers, Vestal Virgins, the senators and magistrates, and vast crowds of soldiers, horse and foot, as well as of citizens. In Italy, outside Rome, and in the provinces public funerals were decreed to citizens who had rendered signal service to theirFUNERARY RITES 59 Campus Martius. The procession included the senators and knights with their wives, the praetorian guard, and all citizens who were in Rome. The body was placed on the pyre and first the priests and then horsemen and infantry passed round it (decursio cirea rogum). All those who possessed triumphal decora- tions cast them on the pyre, which centurions lighted from beneath with torches; and an eagle released from it flew heaven- ward to symbolize the emperor’s apotheosis. Livia remained for five days by the pyre. The leading knights, barefoot and ungirt, gathered up the bones and placed them in Augustus’ Mausoleum. A institium was decreed. Women observed mourning for a whole year. . Septimius Severus died at York and in the Life of him in the Historia Augusta are given two versions of the fate of his remains. Some said that his body was brought to Rome to be cremated; others that only his ashes travelled to Rome in a golden urn to be buried in Hadrian’s (the Antonine) Mausoleum, his corpse having been cremated in Britain. The latter is the version accepted by Herodian, who records that the body was burnt in Britain, his ashes being placed in an alabaster urn and conveyed by his sons to Rome, On reaching the capital Caracalla and Geta donned the imperial purple for the faneral procession and were followed by the consuls carrying the urn, to which reverence was done by all who met the cortege. The urn was then deposited in the Antonine Mausoleum; and the ensuing ceremonies in the city were a mixture of mourning, feasting, and religious rites. The manner in which the ashes were laid to rest was that of an ordinary burial. But a life-size, realistic wax image of the emperor was made, laid on a great ivory couch, covered with golden coverlets, and placed for all to sce in the vestibule of the palace. The face of the image was that of one sick and suffering. The lying-in-state of this exe lasted for seven days; and for most of each day the senators, in mourning, sat on the left of it, the most illustrious matrons, without their necklaces and other gold ornaments, on the right of it. Every day the doctors came, approached the couch, inspected the image, and announced that the patient was growing progressively worse.THE CULT OF THE DEAD 63 a specified distance of the shrine. The testator’s freedmen and freedwomen were to contribute to the upkeep of the tomb; and his grandson and the latter's heirs were to pay an annual sum to cover the cost of food and drink for a meal to be celebrated there. Offerings at the funerary altar were to be made every year on the Kalends of April, May, June, July, August, and October. Finally it was laid down that all the testator’s hunting equipment, his sailing boat, and his best clothes were to be cremated with him—presumably to serve him in the afterlife (of pp. $2-4). Roses, the last item in the list set out above (p. 62) of offerings to the dead, are one of the gifts most frequently mentioned, along with food and drink, in funerary inscriptions—gifts for which the departed person’s fellow members of a burial club (of. Pp. 54, 55) were often made responsible.ss That roses were regarded as pledges of eternal spring in the life beyond the grave is suggested by one of Ausonius’ epitaphs: Sprinkle my ashes with pure wine and fragrant oil of spikenard: Bring balsam, too, stranger, with crimson roses. Tearless my urn enjoys unending spring. Ihave not died, but changed my state,*5* The same idea must have lain behind the painted showers of roses and rose-gardens on the walls and vaults of tombs.57 These counterfeited flowers perpetuated, as it were, all the year round the offerings of actual roses that were often associated with the Feast of Roses (Rosalia, Rosaria) held in May and June when roses are chiefly in season (suo tempore) in the Mediterranean world,5* Although by no means exclusively connected with the dead, the Rosalia (dies Rosalium, Rosariorum, Rosationis) un- doubtedly afforded specific occasions for scattering roses on the grave and decking the funerary portrait-statue with them. There were doubtless many other private family occasions for cult at the tomb—for instance, the departed’s birthday (dies natalis); and provision could be made for the lighting of lamps at the grave on the Kalends, Ides, and Nones of every month.25 But the annual official commemoration of the dead was the Parentalia or dies Parentales, lasting from 13-21 February, of20, 21 The tomb enclosures, with pilasters set diagonally, of the Concordii at Reggio Emilia (above) and of the Statii at Aquileia (b28. Columbarium III (‘Colombari di Vigna Codini’), west wing. This under- ground columbarium takes the form of a corridor with three branches runni Sffat right-angles from i. ‘The projecting blocks of stone probably supported wooden galleries for reaching the upper niches (p. 114).LAYOUT OF CEMETERIES AND OWNERSHIP OF TOMBS 75 put up by a speculator on a building plot that he had purchased for that purpose. There is some literary, and a great deal of epi- graphical, evidence for the frequent practice of placing on a burial plot or tomb a notice to define the width of its frontage on the road or cemetery-street (in fronte) and its depth reckoning back from that line (in agro, retro). This definition was often followed by some such formula as H(oc) M(onumentum) H(eredem, -eredes) Non) S(equitur, -equetur) or H(oc) M(onumentum) H{eredem) E(xterum) N(on) Hiabebit), designed to prevent the property from passing to the owner’s heir or heirs or to the heir or heirs of someone else. Horace mentions a grave-pillar (cippus) thus inscribed: mille pedes in fronte, trecentos cippus in agrum hic dabat: heredes monumentum non sequeretur;?®? and Trimalchio requested, apropos of the monumentum that Habinnas was to build for him, ‘ut sint in fronte pedes centum, in agro pedes ducenti’, adding that the words ‘hoc monumentum heredem non sequitur’ should on no account be omitted.24# Actual tomb-inscriptions enshrining these simple formulae are so abundant that no particular example need be cited. There are, however, numerous inscriptions which contain more specific statements of the precautions that were taken to obviate the alienation of tombs, as in the cemeteries of Ostia and of Portus Augusti at Isola Sacra, north of Ostia, where monetary penalties are prescribed for such offences. For instance: Marcus Antonius Vitalis and his son Marcus Antonius Verus built this tomb for themselves, their freedmen and freedwomen, and their descendants. But if after the death of Marcus Antonius Vitalis anyone should sell or give or in any way alienate this tomb or introduce into it or within one of its enclosure-walls the body or bones of a person with a name other than is con- tained in the above list, he shall pay a fine of 3000 sesterces for cach body to those who have charge of the cult of the Lares of Portus Augusti;?®LAYOUT OF CEMETERIES AND OWNERSHIP OF TOMBS 79 For example, at Ostia, Flavia Marcellina made a tomb for her sister, Flavia Hilaritas, in a place granted to her by Plotius Hermes and Valeria Saturnina;?#7 and Primitivianus and Volusia made one for their son, Lucius Kacius Volusianus, in a place granted to them by Gabinius Adiectus.*#§ In the Vatican cemetery, in Tomb C, the mother of Tullia Secunda ccded part of her daughter's burial-place to Passullena Secundina;**9 and in Tomb H Valerius Philumenus and Valeria Galatia gave Titus Pompeius Successus a place in their mausoleum in which to bury his son, Titus Pom- peius Successus junior.*9 At Aquileia in north-east Italy there has been excavated a compact row of five contiguous tomb-enclosures, originally planned and built in the late-first or early-second century ap, but remaining in use for several centuries after29* The group was obviously part of a cemetery that had developed just outside the gate near the southern end of the west city-wall and it must have been aligned along a Roman road running westward from the gate, although no actual traces of that road have come to light. The five enclosures that have been examined, together with a fragment of a sixth, also contiguous to the cast of them, are of unequal width in fronte but have a common frontage-line, a common depth in agro of 30 Roman feet (8-87 metres), and a common wall at their rear. Although it is clear that these tombs were not all put up in a single building operation, their commonLAYOUT OF CEMETERIES AND OWNERSHIP OF TOMBS 83 windings of the Tiber itself as it flows towards its mouth beside the northern boundary of Ostia.2% Sporadic finds of tombs on this island, combined with the systematic excavations of the late- twenties and the thirties of the present century, have indicated that the cemetery as a whole occupied an area of about 40,000 square metres and was roughly triangular in shape, the base of the triangle being parallel with Trajan’s canal, while the last tombs in the Ostia direction formed its apex. That apex is, in fact, represented by the complexes of tombs, running for some 330 metres from north to south, which Calza’s investigations have revealed. The tombs, whose chronology can be deduced from the details of their construction, from the styles of their internal decorations, and from the dated brick-stamps incorporated in them, range from about 100 to about 250 ap. They lie on either side, mainly on the west side, of the uncovered metalled section of the Via Severiana, the coast road linking Portus Augusti with Ostia, a road that was made, at any rate in its present form, in the carly years of the third century, as its name indeed implies; and the line of this road clearly forms the ccmetery’s axis. However, only the third-century tombs lie close beside its margins (e.g. No. 12). All the earliest (Trajanic) tombs that have been unearthed are at quite a considerable distance to the west of it, a few as much as about 45 metres away from it: most of the Hadrianic tombs lie roughly 17 metres back from it; and the interval between it and the bulk of the Antonine tombs averages 5 metres. Thus, despite 2 number of exceptions to these general rules, there would seem to have been a gradual filling up of the ground between the carliest tombs and the roadside, the last comers wedging themselves in where they could. Apart from a very few, all the tombs, those of the second century no less than those of the third, face towards the highway or (in rarer cases) along it. And since it is unthinkable that no communication between Portus Augusti and Ostia existed before the Severan age, an carlicr road must have run along much the same line as that of the Via Severiana, The Severan tombs are, in fact, on a level that is about 30 centimetres higher than that of the tombs of the second century. The land on Isola Sacra was not, so far as we can tell, required for otherLAYOUT OF CEMETERIES AND OWNERSHIP OF TOMBS 87 85) was built up against the northern side of No. 86. Two isolated Hadrianic tombs were erected to the south of the southern block, Nos. 97, 100; and there is a scatter of small, isolated Trajanic and Hadrianic mausolea to the west of the northern block. But the Hadrianic age would appear to have witnessed, at least in this cemetery, a deliberate tendency to fill up gaps and so to produce large, compact, and self-contained insulae. Sprinkled haphazardly in the spaces between the blocks of house-tombs, of which only the earliest were equipped internally solely for cremations, are the burial places of the humbler folk— small square monuments with pyramidal roofs, small chest-shaped tombs with rounded lids, trench-burials covered by tiles set gable-wise, and other simple burials each marked on the surface by the upper half of an amphora (¢f. pp. rot-3). After the Severan period the reoccupation and reconditioning of the second- century tombs for new burials began to take place on an exten- sive scale, the original owners’ families having by then presumably died out. But throughout its history the social pattern of the cemetery remained unchanged, as inscriptions and ‘professional’ tomb-reliefs reveal. It was, in the main, essentially a city of the bourgeois dead—of shopkeepers, merchants, surgeons, craftsmen, and so forth, persons of comfortable means and artistic taste, nearly all Latin-speaking and thoroughly Roman in background, even if many had Greek names and were ultimately of cast- Mediterranean stock. Roughly contemporary with the Isola Sacta necropolis and reflecting much the same social milieu is that which was excavated in 1939 and during the decade following on The Vatican, under the nave of St Peter’s Basilica.295 The section that has been un- earthed and remains accessible to visitors runs for about 70 metres in an east-west direction and is about 18 metres wide from north to south. Its eastern termination is roughly half-way between the Papal Altar and the church’s eastern fagade, and on the west it extends for about 8 metres beyond the niche, immediately below the Papal Altar in a north-south red-stuccoed wall, that is gener- ally believed to mark what the Roman Christians of the mid- second century venerated as St Peter’s grave. All the tombs areWALLED CEMETERIES 91 ground from A to O presented one long, continuous, solid block of mausolea. Only the ‘terrace’ A to F suggests deliberate planning. The later tombs had to take such spaces as were left nearer to the presumed highway ( to Z) or up an incline (Q), the former leaving between them narrow passages and small ‘piazze’ giving access to their predecessors to the north. Ifon the Vatican the align- ments of the various groups of tombs in both rows run parallel to one another, instead of at acute angles, as on Isola Sacra, that is likely to be due to this cemetery’s restricted terrain, penned in between a road and a steeply sloping hillside. Avery large number of necropoleis attached to towns is known throughout the Roman world; and obviously only a minute fraction of the total mass of available material is represented by the three Italian samples that have been selected for description here. Tt can, however, be claimed that few other Roman funerary sites have yielded so vivid and informative a picture of the growth and arrangement of someof these elaborate Romancities of the dead as have those at Aquileia, on Isola Sacra, and on the Vatican. (8) WALLED CEMETERIES The walled funerary enclosure open to the sky and housing several or many burials is, as we have seen, a feature of Roman city- cemeteries in Italy, where it either forms, as at Aquileia, the entire tomb (¢f. pp. 79-82) or is an adjunct, as on Isola Sacra, to the main, barrel~vaulted sepulchral chamber (¢f. pp. 88, 90). In both of these cases such enclosures are integral parts of rows or blocks of contiguous tombs; which are again but constituent clements of whole necropoleis; whereas the unroofed precinct surrounding the tomb of the Concordii in the countryside north-west of Reggio Emilia, with its lofty carved and inscribed stele in the centre of its front wall, is a free-standing, independent little cemetery in itself, measuring 10-60 by 9 metres (¢f. p. 81). (Pl. 20) Akin in form and internal arrangements to these Italian sepul~ chral precincts, but more closely resembling, for the most part, the Concordii type of structure in the self-contained independence of their siting, are the unroofed walled cemeteries of the northernFUNERARY GARDENS 95 vineyard—‘I should like to have every kind of fruit growing round my ashes and plenty of vines’ ;3°s and numerous sepulchral inscriptions bear witness to a widespread interest in the Roman world in the endowing of funerary gardens consecrated to the dead as holy and inviolable domains. The texts make it clear that these gardens were enclosed by walls, planted with a great variety of trees and flowers, equipped with wells, pools, and so forth for watering the plants and refreshing visitors, and furnished with buildings such as dining rooms and species of summer-houses in which meals in commemoration of the departed could be eaten by the survivors. Arrangements of this kind were wholly in keeping with the social and religious patterns of Roman life and thought in late-republican and imperial times. They reflected both the general passion of the Romans for gardens,*° a passion that the dead when dwelling in the tomb did not, so it was believed, cease to experience,7 and also the notion that Elysium, with its idyllic landscape, natural amenities, and heavenly ban- quets, could have its symbolic counterpart on earth. The technical term cepotaphium or cepotafium (—«ntordpeov or xynéragor), or, very occasionally, cepotafius, which in itself implies that scpulchral gardens were common in the Greck- speaking provinces, is relatively rare in inscriptions in the West, in Rome and in other parts of Italy; and, to judge by such names of imperial freedmen as occur in the texts that contain the term, it was not much employed there before the second century AD. In the East, on the other hand, and in Alexandria in particular, these Greek forms are attested in literary, papyrological, and epigraphic Greek sources from Augustan times and from later periods in the first century of our era. For example, Strabo des- cribes the district west of Alexandria as containing «nmol te moMol «ai ragai.3°° An Augustan papyrus mentions persons who combined in a group for the leasing of three «yrord¢ia near Canopus, one of the conditions being an annual payment of the best produce of these gardens (r&v Svruw ev rois xyroragios [r]4 xpdrora xal BéAriora) namely a large and very profitable quantity of vegetables and fruits.3°? An inscription found in Alexandria and cut in lettering of the second or third centuryFUNERARY GARDENS 99 65 Roman feet, the other two sides 76 and 70 feet respectively. The second slab was found in the cemetery of Helena on the Via Labicana near Rome.**? In the centre of one long side of this plan is a circular, tower-like tomb-monument on a square base, flanked on either side by an open space which has a row of dots, presumably denoting trees, on two of its sides. The central part of the area of the slab is occupied by five rectangular (one very narrow) and two small square spaces, possibly representing lawns Fig. 8 Marble plan from Rome of a funerary gardenSELECTED TYPES OF TOMBS [ 103 Bassus,?* both set up among the humbler graves. Each consists of a square, sealed brick ‘box’ topped by 2 pyramidal roof: in view of their shape they are likely to have held cremations, More ambitious in its structural and decorative elements, but basically unpretentious, is the tomb of Sabinus Taurius at Isola Sacra, which is built up against one wall of house-tomb 55.2% It com- prises a brick rectangular base, carrying the inscription slab and presumably containing the cremated remains (unless there is an inhumation in the ground below), and above that an aedicula (literally, ‘little house’) flanked by a colonnette on either side and topped by a pediment. Within the niche of the aedicula are ren- dered the open doors of a tomb, disclosing between them the figure of Taurius worked in brick intarsia. (Pl. 26) Carefully built, but lacking decoration and inscriptions, are some provincial variants of funerary structures of this simple kind. Roman York again provides examples and all are for in- humations. Some at least were in all probability subterranean originally, One neat brick tomb is large enough to hold three or four corpses.36° Of other brick-built tombs one had a barrel- vaulted roof; and there are also tombs made of upright stone slabs, some divided internally so as to take two bodies.367 Another funerary chamber, containing a single coffin, has walls of coursed limestone blocks and a vaulted roof turned in tiles: the entrance, blocked up after the burial had taken place, has a lintel and thres~ hold each of a single limestone slab.3* Similar to the last-cited York example, but designed to hold a pair of coffins, isa probably once subterranean chamber, built of well-cut stone blocks and originally covered by a barrel-vaulted roof, at Efferen in Ger- many.!© Tombs of this type must have been extremely common throughout the northern and western Roman provinces. (8) THE TOMB OF THE CORNELII SCIPIONES IN ROME From the humble or at least relatively simple tombs of a single individual or of two to four individuals, cremated or inhumed, we turn to more developed types. First, we consider a large and elaborate carly family tomb on the southern outskirts of Rome, some 300 metres inside the Porta Appia of the Aurelian Wall.34,35. The late-republican tomb of the baker, Marceius Vergileus Eurysaces, near the Porta Mee (below). Trapezoidal in shape, it has a series of vertical cylinders (representing corn-measures?) in its lower storey and of horizontal cylinders in its upper one. Above, a detail of the tomb’s frieze showing bread- making operations—sorting grain, kneading, rolling, placing loaves in an oven (p. 128). sem ia eaies the Tomb of Marcus Clodius Hermes, 0 the left, the Tomb of the Axe, the former with painted interior decoratio 5 5 3 z 3 4 5 3 i 3 5 3 3 E % 3 & é of San Sebastiano. On the right,SELECTED TYPES OF TOMBS I 119 classify. Other tombs designed for comparable social strata in Rome and Italy are much more individual; and even those that share the same general characteristics tend to differ from one another in their details to a far more marked extent. For example, the Street of the Tombs at Pompeii outside that city’s Her- culancum Gate, presents to the cyc, for the most part, a varied spectacle of funerary structures of very divergent shapes and sizes juxtaposed.3** These Pompeian tombs, and some parallels to them drawn from elsewhere, will be discussed first. We shall then turn to the much less numerous, but in some cases more self-con- sciously ambitious, specialized monuments within the area of ancient Rome; and finally to a few unusual tomb-forms elsewhere in Italy. (PI. 32) One of the simplest types, architecturally, among Pompeian tombs is the unroofed enclosure generally entered by a door on one side. It is exemplified by the burial place of the aedile Titus Terentius Felix, provided, according to its inscription, by the city (publice) and situated on the north side of the Street of the Tombs, a short distance from the city gate.387 Felix’s remains were found in a glass urn placed inside a leaden case, which was in turn protected by a terracotta jar. It had been buried in the earth under a small masonry table set against the enclosure’s south wall, on the left of the entrance. Coins of Augustus and Claudius are recorded as being in or near the urn—presumably Charon’s fee (cf. pp. 49, 124 and p. 291, Note 168). Along the interior face of the north wall is a bench containing the burials of members of Felix’s household. The discovery of shells suggests that funerary meals took place in the enclosure’s central area. More elaborate is another unroofed enclosure in the fork between the Street of the Tombs and the ‘Vesuvius Road’ that branches off the former to the north-west.388 This is a regular sepulchral triclinium with painted walls (perhaps once sheltered by some form of pent- house at the top), 2 broad, sloping bench along each side wall, on which the banqueters reclined, a table between the benches, and in front of the table a small round altar for offerings to the dead. Small pyramidal towers crown the walls. The tomb was built by a freedman, Callistus, for his patron, Gnaeus Vibius Saturninus,130 DEATH AND BURIAL IN THE ROMAN WORLD composed of three main elements—a high, square base containing the burial-cella; above that, a rectangular storey, which, instead of being straight-sided and pierced by four open arches, as at St Rémy, has concave sides, with a rounded engaged column at each corer and a pedimented, closed aedicula at the centre of each side; and at the top a circular structure comprising a plain round base surmounted by a ring of columns, which, instead of being free-standing and forming an open ‘canopy’, as at St Rémy, are engaged in a solid, circular wall. Its whole appearance is power- fully massive and ‘baroque’. (PI. 38) (F) RECTANGULAR TEMPLE-TOMBS Since the Greek dead were heroized and the Roman departed accorded the title of di Manes it was natural that some Hellenistic and Roman tombs should assume the form of shrines. A Hellenistic mausoleum at Mylasa in Caria, for instance, has a high podium with steps at its base on all four sides, a cornice along its top, and a door giving entrance to the sepulchral chamber; while above the podium is what might be termed a peristyle without a cella, topped by a pyramidal roof.+*7 The ‘peristyle’ consists of square pilasters at the corners and two elliptical columns on each side between those pilasters. By contrast, the early-imperial Tomb of the Volumnii at Padua presents a cella without a peristyle or columned porch.4** Reared on a high base it comprises solid walls at back and sides and a Corinthian pilaster at each of the four corners. Above the open front is a pediment carved with a chariot race in relief and surmounted by a Sphinx. The family busts, originally ten in all, are ranged in tiers on the insides of the walls of this temple-like aedicula, whose total height is 3-90 metres. A type of early-imperial tomb that might be described as a pseudo-temple is exemplified by the monument of Aulus Murcius Obulaccus from the Pian di Bezzo necropolis of Sar- sina.**? Its full height is 8-92 metres from the bottom of its stepped podium, on which its inscription is cut, to the finial on its pyrami- dal roof. Above the podium, in front, are two free-standing Corinthian columns supporting an entablature, while at the back is a solid wall, flanked by two square Corinthian pilasters andINDEX Aachen 212 Abascantus, Titus Flavius 267, n. 110 Abba, Julius Aurelius 226 “Abd ‘astér (i) 229; (ii) 230 ‘Abissai, Julius Aurelius 226 Abkou de l’oued Sahel 167 Abundantia 194 Achilles 165, 224 Achilles 249 Acilii Glabriones 155 Adalia 156 Adam and Eve 162 Adiutor, Lucius Cocceius 76, 2. 270 255 Aclius Caesar (Verus) $7, 60, 61, n. 244 Aclius Lamia 56, n. Aeneid 143 Africa, African 158, 164, 166, 167, 176 Agamemnon 13 ‘Agathias, Marcus Antonius 78, nn, 284, 285 Agitoni, Julia Aurelia 227 Agrigento 131 Agrigentum, sce Agrigento Agrippa, Marcus 128, n. 160 = (Elder) st 277 pina (Younger) 277 ae Phas (eee 278, n. 678 Alcestis 175 Alexander VI 42 Alexandria 95, 96 Algarve 253 Aer, Algerian 166 ea 080 a. 142 Alisca 274 All Soule? Day 64 Alps 212 Altinum nn. 321, 344 Altmann, W. 254, 265, 266, 280, nn. 385, 636, 671-3, 677, 680-4, 686-95, 697-701, 706-11, 713, 718 Amand, M 183, nN. $40, $49, $68 Amaryllis 250 Amuté, Julia Aurelia 227 Amazon, Amazons 194, 195 Amdaj 229 Amelung, W. n. 718 Amemptus 26, Pl. 82 Amiternum 46, Pl. 11 Ammé 226 Ammon 256, 265 fies 13 Andematinun (Civitas Lingonum), ‘Andezson photo nn. 137, 293 Andreae, B. n. 730 Andromeda 165 ‘Anglo-Saxon 278 Annia Regilla 133, Pl. 40 Antigonus, ‘Cactennius 266 Antioch-on-the-Orontes 167 Antoing 183, 184, PL. 68 Antonine 50, 83-6 Antoninus Pius $7, 61, 115, 157, 158) 246 Aphthonetos 250 Apollo 142, 274 Apollonj-Ghetti, B. M. n. 295 Apostles 163, 209, 274 Appian $7, nn. 214, 241 Appius Claudius, n. 218 Agamate 228 Aquila 46, n. 142 Aquileia, Aquileian 46, 79-82, 88, QI, 12}, 126, 176, 250, 254, 255, 279, nn. 400, 660, Pl. 21, Fig. 2 Aquincum 42 Arabia 188, 193 Anentic ic 190, 233, I (Phan) 198 Rapids Argyrus, ‘Tibertas Claudius 256 Ariadne 141, 256 ‘Ariccia 129 Arlon 251, 252, n. 664, Pl. 80 Amth Volumnius 23, 24 Arria Trophime 250 Artemidoros Artemidorus, “Sins Volcacius 266 Artemidorus, Marcus Ulpius 77, n. 282INDEX Arturius Seneca 275 Asfionius Rufus 131, Pl. 37 Ashby, T. nn. 370, 379, 408, 410, 411 Ashmolean Museum (Oxford) 280, 1 Asia Minor, Asiatic (Anatolian) 96, 272-4, n. 728 Asklepias 250 ‘Assar n. 405 “Assyrian” 191 *Atenatan (owner of tower-tomb, Palmyra) 170 ‘Atenatan (owner of hypogeum, Palmyra) 224 ‘Atentirl 227, 230 Athens 246, 278, n. 629, Pl. 76 Atia (=Attia) 57 Atistia 128 Atratinus, Lucius Sempronius 154 Atria Fortunata 77, n. 282 Attalia, see Andalia Attia Agele 267 Attianus 252 Attica, Attic 248, 249, 272-4, 1. 727 Atticus, Gaius Annacus 102 Atys (=Attis) 166, 252 Augustin. 348 Augustus, Augustan 23, 37, 46, 48, $6-8, 95, 119, 124, 126, 127, 143, 144, 156, 157, 163, 180, 183, 184, 198, 279, nn. 225, 238 urelia Philematio 246 Aurelia Prima 200 Aurelia Severina 175, n. 528 Aurelian Wall 103, 113, 15, 117, 127, 199, 254 — 199, 200, 212, 234, Figs. 19, ‘Aurelius Eutyches 250 Aurelius Felicissimus 200, 209, 211 ‘Aurelius Hermia 245 Aurelius Onesimus 200 ‘Aurelius Papirius 200 Aurigemma, S. nn. 292, 413, 419, 420 Auscia Euchenis n. 281 Ausonius 63 Austria 186, 247 Avemas-le-Bauduin 183 Avigad, N. 2. 576 Bacchus, Bacchic 80, 161, 187, 247, 256, 277, Pl. 87 Baghuz (‘Abu-Zimbel’, ‘Abu-Gelal’, and ‘Erzi’ Tombs) 168 Baiae n, 125 Banditaccia necropolis (Caere) 18, 19 323 Banti, L. nn. 2, 6, $6, 58, 61, 62 Bar ‘A 227 Barcelona 165 Bartlow (Essex) 181, Pl. 67 Bartoccini, R. nn. 1, 2 5, 6, 8 14, 4S, 42 Bassus 103 Bavay 183 Beauvais 0. 743 ja 253, 0. 670 Belém Museum (Lisbon) 253 Belgium, Belgian, Belgic 180, 183, 186, 251, nn. 162, $40, $45 Bendinelli, G. 209, 210, nn. $89, s9x Beneventum nn. 320, 324 Benndorf, O. and Schéne, R. n. 127 Benoit, F. nn. 645, 666, 743 Bianchi Bandinelli, R. nn. 142, 425 Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris n. 21 Bibulus, Gaius Poplicius 127 Bingen ror Bizye, see Vize Blake, M. E. nn. 454, 456, 457 Bonn n. 197 Bonné 229 Boretto (near Reggio Emilia) 81 Boulogne-su-Mer n. 743 Bourguet, P. dun. 617 Bovillae 58 Brabant 94, 183 Brad n. 405 Briord (Ain) n. 343 Britain, British 49, 59, 92, 94, ror, 180-4, 186, 275-8, 280, nn. $40, 749 British Museum 61, 246, 249, 278, n. 10, Pls. 15, 16, 79, 88, 89 Brueckner, A. nn. 757, 765 Brunn, E, and Kérte, G. n. 18 Brunnow, R. E. and Domazewski, A. von n. 582 Brusin, G. nn. 291, 660, 678, 679 Brusin, G. and Grassi, V. de'n. 406 Brutus, Marcus n. 218 Bucci 126 Budapest 274 Biicheler, F. nn. 68, 69324 Burckhardt 191 Buzenol-Montauban 251, 252, nn. 274, 667 Cacia Daphne 256 Caecilia Metella 155, 184, 0. 462, Pl. st Caclius, Marcus (i) 54, 0. 197; (ii) m 1 97 Caelius, Publius n. 197 Caere (Cerveteri) 16, 18-21, 143, 215 nn. 31, 37 Caerleon (M (Mon.) s2, Pl. 14 Cagliar n. oF Cagnat, R. and Chapot, U. n, 189 ion, Lucius Domitius 78, n, 282 Callistus (Pompeian freedman) 119 Callistus, Publius Afranius 77, 0. 282 Calza, G. 83, nn. 168, 277, 283, 294, 35%, 358, 360-5, 440, 441, 671 Cambridge 278 Campania, Campanian 12, $6, 155, 156, 158, 195 ‘Campus Martius 48, 57-60, 144 Camucia Tomb 16 Camulodunum, see Colchester Canina, L. 129, nn. 395, $39, $63 Canopic ums 15 Canopus 95 Capena nn. 328, 331-4 Capitol 127 Capitoline Muscum (Museo Capitolino) 254, 268, 269 Capodimonte ee {Scudillo) (near Naples) 156 Capri 57 Capua 247, 249 Caracalla $9, 157, 199 Carcopino, J. mn. 435-7, 439, 589-91 Caria 130 Carnuntum 42, n. oF Carrington, R. C. n, 265 Carthage 239 Carvoran (Northumberland) 181 Casaglia Tomb 22 Casal Tomb 22, Pl. 7 “Casal Rotondo’ 155 Castel Sant'Angelo (Mausoleum of Hadrian) 157 Castignoli, F. n. 296 Catullus, Marcus Rufius 97 Ceius Labeo 126 Celeia (Claudia Celeia) 172-7, mn. 525, $26 Celerinus, Marcus Valerius 215 INDEX Celtic 251, 278 Cemenelum, see Cimiez Centaur, Centaurs, Centauress 38, 266 Centcelles 161-3, Fig. 15 Cerrinius Restitutus 122 Cerva (i) 175, n. $27; (ii) 175, 2. $29 Cestius, Gaius 127, 128, Pl. 33 Charbonneaux, J. and Peters, E. 1. 757 Charito, Marcus Aebutius 78, n. 286 Charon 44, 49, 119, 138 3 Chiusi 129, n. 12 ‘Christ 244, 274, Pl. 36 Christians, Christian, Christianity 33, 49, 49, 87, 13, 134, 139, 140, 161-3, 199, 200, 219, 234-44, 271, 273, 274 Christus-Helios 140, Pl. 47 Cicero 35, 39, nn. 66, 75.77, 99, 108, 123, 129, 137, 148, 158, 163, 176, 378, 182, 199, 211, 212 ea 17 ane SS i nsylvanis) 186, Fig. 18 Circus Maximus $7 Cirta, see Constantine Clapham, A. W. nn. $62-4 Clapton n. 741 Claudia (dead woman) 102 Claudia Antonia Sabina nn. 430, 728 Claudia Peloris 98, n. 348 Claudia Satumina 77, 2. 279 Claudia Tyche 77, n. 279 Claudius $6, $7, 114, 119, 154, n. 228 Clivus (St Peter’s necropolis) 88, 90 Clodia, Marcia, Annia families 118, Pls. 29, 30 Clusium n. 36 Clytaemnestra 13 Cocmiterium ad Catacombas 235 Cognita Optata 77, n. 281 Coimbra 253 Colchester $2, $3, 94, 101, 180, 278, 1. $45, oe 22, 2 Colledge, M. A. R. nn. $07, $22, 605 Collignon, M. 2. 757 Collingwood, 1 A.nn. $59, 561°INDEX Coop 212, 215, 216, 274, 275, 279, ‘clombas di Vigna Codini” ‘Colonnaded Palace’ (Ptolemais) 195 Commagene n. 405 Commodus 6r Concordii 81, 91, Pl. 20 Conimbriga 253 Constans I 163 Constantina (daughter of Constantine 1) x61 Constantine I, Constantinian 139, 143, 159, 240, 0.723 Constantine II 163 Constantine (Numidia) 158 Constantius (boy) 275 Conze, A. nn. Copenhagen 246, 23% nn. 636, 683 Corbridge 92, 94, 279 ‘Corinthian Tomb’ 193, 196, 197 Comelia (ie of Lucius Aemilius Paullus) 36 Comelia (daughter of Lucius Scipio) 1 27 Cornelia Getulica 113 Cornelia Glyce 266 Comelii Scipiones 39, 103, 104, Fig. 9 Corstopitum, see Corbridge Cortona 16, 22 Corynaeus i. 174 Cotta, Valerius Messala 155 Crassus, Marcus Licinius 155 ‘Crema, L. nn. 384, 395, 400, 405, 406, 412, 415, 416, 421, 422, 426, 427, 430, 434, 444, 451, 454~7, 460, 463, 464, 466, 467, 470-80, 484, 500, 501 Crook, J. A. n. 276 Cumont, F. nn. 65, 82, 83, 88-91, + 631, 638, 639, 701, 704, 113, Cupid, Cupids 38, 39, 138, 141, 142, 166, 173, 236, 238, 254-6, 266, 272, 274, 275, 277, 280, nn. 94, 660, 719 Cybele 270 Cyrenaica 195 Cyrene n. 395 Dacia, , Decane 155, 186, 187, 278 On 226 Dalton, O. M. n. 596 Damascus 234 325 Dana n. 405 Daniel 162 Danube, Danubian 180, 186, 216, 248, 274, 278, n, 631 Daphnus, Marcus Cocceius 78, nn. 284, 285 Daremberg, C. and Saglio, E. nn. 114, 119, 200, 201 Dau Duktar 191 Davies, J. G. 2479 Decalogue 23: ‘Deir Tomb! Gebel el Deir) 193, 195, 196, Pl. 69 Delphic 274 Demetrius of Phaleron 248 Dérobert, L. and Reichlen, H. nn. IIL, 113 Desideratus 275 Dessau, H. nn. 71, 197, 203, 204, 253, 259, 271, 272, 276 279 Diaspora 235, 236 Die n. 346 Di Manes 35, 37, $1, 139 Dinsmoor, W. B. n. 417 Diocaesarea 171 Dio Cassius 57, nn. 159, 160, 198, 223, 230, 234, 235, 237, 238, 241, 242, Dionysus, Dionysiac 38, 30, 141, 236, PL 87 Dioscurus, Dioscuri 38, 174, 194, Pls. 62, 86 Domine Quo Vadis? church 133 Domitia nn. 125, 467 Domitia Baetica n. 282 Domitia Eutychia 78, n. 282 Domitia Plotina n. 282 Domitian 267, n. 110 Domitilla catacomb (‘Gallery of the Flavians’) 240 Domitius Callistus n. 282 Domitus, Marcus Ulpius 78, n. 284 Doppelfeld, O. nn. 394, 630, 637, 638, 678,753 Down, A. n. 167 Dragendorff, H. and Kriiger, E. n, 486 Drusus (Elder) 48, 54, 56, 114 Drusus (Younger) 7, $8 Ducal Palace, Urbino 267 Ducati, P. n. 457 » G. C.n. $40 Dura-1 Duran 164, 167, 168, 170, 219-23, 234, Figs. 23-5326 Durostorum, see Silistria Dusares 192, 197 Ebora, see Evora Efferen 103 Egypt, Egyptian 41, 42, 96, 128 Elahbél 170, 171, Pl. 58 El Bara 172 Elysium, Elysian Fields 12, 14, 17, 35,36 Embadi 230 Emesa, see Homs Endymion 138 Ennia Oppidana 173, n. 524 Ennii 173, 174, 176, Pl. 6x Ephesus n. 158 Epicadus Velox n. 634, Pl. 78 Epicureans 34 Erinyes 14 Espérandieu, E. nn. 119, 743, 755. 756, 774 Esquiline Treasure n. 596 Etcocles 13 Etruria, Etruscan, Etruscans, Ch. I passim and 34, 35, 38, 40, 47, $3, 56, 74, 84, 143, 179, 180, 214, 268, Pls. 1-7 Bucharist 240 Euhodus 77, n. 280 Euphrates 171 Europe, Paropean 166,18 juropean 166, 180 , Marceius Vergileus 128, Pls. 34, = Eutychia 24 Eutychus, ‘Tiberius Claudius 98, n. 348 Evora 253 Ewig, E. n. $49 Fabara 131 Fabrica Severina £0 Faenius Telesphorus n. 305 Faleroni 52 Faustina (Elder) 61, 141, 173, 269 Faustina (Younger) 6r Faustinus n. 305 Faustus, Gaius Munatius 125 Faustus, Marcus Anniolenus 166 Favor geod) 48, 57 Felix, Decimus Lucilius 254 Felix, Quintus Socconius n. 711 Felix, Titus Terentius 119 Fellmann, R. n. 454 Feralia 64 INDEX Ferri, S. nn. 633, 636, 660, 733-6, 758, 759, 762 Ferrua, A. mn. 295, 430, 624 Festus nn. 169, 17 Finitimus, Gaius Spectatius 173, n. $25 Finley, M. I. nn. 621, 623 Fiora, River (Vulci) 21 Firmus, Lucius Statius 80 Firmus, Titus Annius n. 634, Pl. 77 Fiumicello (near Aquileia) 126 Flamininus, Titus Quintius $6, n. 222 Flavia Hilaritas 79, 0. 287 Flavia Marcellina 79, n. 287 Flavia Olympias 142, 143 Flavian, Flavians 44, 74, 81, 132, 240, 266, 268, 269, 278, nn. 175, 385, 416, 696 Flavius Sabinus 56, n. 227 Flavius Sedatus 167 Flavius Urbicus 167 Flaxweiler 184 Florence, Archaeological Museum nn. 11, 24 Uffizi Gallery n. 696 “Florentinus Tomb’ 193, 197 Fortuna 238 Forum (Roman) 39, 47, $7, $8, 60, 159 Fossa Traiana 82 Fosse Way 181 Fox, C. mn. 540, 54¢ France 179 Franciscis, A. De nn. 396, 405 Franciscis, A. De and Pane, R. nn. 380, 388, 393, 395, 399 401, 402, 414, 416, 458, 459, 463-5, 472 Frangois Tomb 21, nn. 14, 16, Fig. 1 Fremersdorf, F. nn. $40, $92, $94, 667, ‘137s 759s 784 Fremersdorf (Treviran region) 184 Frey, J. B. 238 Frova, A. nn. 430, 432-4, 444, 454, 455, 457, 450, 466, 467, 469, 473-81, $07, S13, $95, 605 Frugi, Marcus Licinius Crassus 277 Fiihrer, J. and Schultze, V. n. 621 Fulvius, Quintus n. 218 Fusaro, Lake n. 380 Gabinius Adiectus 79, n. 288 Gacta 154, Pl. 52 Gaia Spectatia Tusta 173, 0. $25 Gaius (Caligula) 57, 154 Gaius Caesar 154 Gajus Spectatius (son of Cerva) 175, 2. $27 Galgestius Vitalis 77, . 278 Gallatis n, 335INDEX 327 Gallia Aquitania 102 Haidra 131 Gamart 239 Hairan on of tower-tomb, Pal- Ganymede 165, 173, 224, 279 a, 170 Garrucci, R. 238 Hiren (brother of ‘Atenatan) 324 Gaul, Gaulish, (Gallic) 42, $4, 92, 98, Hairan, Julius Aurelius 226 126, 127, 155, 164, 180, 252, 274, 275, 278, nN. 176, 203, 321, 345,630 Gavia Marciana n, 216 Géligneux (Ain) n. 342 Genius Saeculi, 138 Gens Cornelia 30, 113 Gentili, G. V. nn. 413, 419, 420 Gerke, F. nn. 731, 732 Germanicus $7, 154, n. 232 ry, German, Germanic 53, 101-3, 155, 163, 186, 275, 276, 278, n. 631 Ghirza 176-8, Pls. 63-5 Giglioli, G. Q. nn. 26, 27, 29, 31-3, 36, $93 Gilbert, P. n. 630a Girton College 278 Glanum, see St Rémy Glimes 183 Gnostic 199 Godmanchester (Hunts.) 181, 278 Goethert, G. W. nn. 711, 712 Golini Tomb n. 7 Goodenough, E. ee 615 Good Shepherd, see Pastor Bonus Gordians 159 Gospels 244 Gothic 163 Graces 277 Grave y (St Peter’s necropolis) st Greece, Greck, Graeco-Roman, (Hell- enic) 14, 35, 36, 38, 95, 96, 130, 134, 184, 188, 195, 198, 199, 223, 224, 227, 236, 246, 248, 249, 270, 272, 273, 278, nn. 78, 395 Grenier, A. n. $47 Grimal, P. nn. 306, 349 Gsar Ummel-Ahmed 178 Gsell, S. nn. 469, 478, 488-99 Guarducci, M. n. 442 Guildhall Museum 278 Habinnas 75 Hades 35, 36, 175, n. 23 1, Hadrianic 40, 51, $7, 83, 84, 85, 87, 114, 141, 157, 184, 215, 270, mn. 125, 240, 269, 467 R. nn. 606, 607, Hallstatt 179, 184, 186 Harding, G. Lankester n. 582 Harpenden (Herts) 92, 94, 182 Harris, J. n. 111 Hatra 172 Hatt, J. J. nn. 176, 203, 669 Haurin 171 Hawkes, C. F. C. and Hull, M. R. n. 545 Hawkes, J. and C. nn. $41, $43, $44 Haynes, D. E. L. nn. 30-2, $34-8 Heaven 36 Hegra (Medain Saleh) 198 Helena (mother of Constantine I) 99, 160 Helena (daughter of Constantine 1) 161 Helena (queen of Adiabene) 190 Helius, Gaius Galgestius 77, n. 278 Hell 14, 36 Hell, M. n. 549 Hellenistic 13, 38, 130, 164, 192, 195, 197, 248, 249 Henchir el Hamman 167 Heracla, Gaius Popilius n, 254 (cont.) Herbig, R. nn.10-15, 17, 21-6, 28, 38, 40 Herculaneum 19s Herculaneum Gate (Pompeii) 73, 119 Hercules, Herculean $3, 138, 141, 165, 175, 178, 244, 269, 274, 278, 279, Pls. 25, 85, 90 Herma, Gaius Valerius $3, 142 Hermel 171, Pl. 0 Hermes (god) 236 Hermes (man) 80 Hermes, Marcus Clodius 134, Pl. 4t Hermes, Quintus Marcius 141 Hermitage (Leningrad) n, 22 Herodes Atticus 133, n. 427 Herodian 50, 60, 188, n. 243 Hertling, L, and Kirschbaum, E. 239, nm. 617 Hesione 274 Hesper, Gaius Tullius 76, n. 276 Hever Castle (Kent) n. 751 Hezir 189 High Rochester (Northumberland) 182 » Lucius 256 Hilarus, Marcus Ulpius 77, n. 282 Hippolytus 236328 INDEX Hirtius and Pansa n. 160 Julia Macs s Hispallus 113 Julia Ri ‘Tarraconensis 131, n. 321 Bebe (Kent) 181, 276, 277, n. 107 Hollingworth, E. J. and O'Reilly, M. M. n. 761 Holloway, R. R. 143, 144, 154, 155 poms a HoninsG @ and (i) 226 Horace 75 Hottomont 183 Hovingham (Yorks) 181 Hoyningen-Heune and Robinson, D. M. n. $07 Huelsen, C. nn. 347-9 “Hunsriick-Eifel culture’ 185 Hurstbourne Tarrant (Hants.) 2. $45 Hydra PL. 25 Hypa (woman doctor) 114 Hypaos 142 Iambelicus 170 {gel 164, 166, PL. $7 iad 143 i Tomb 22 Rea HL 224, 237 Tntercisa 42 Tol Caesarea, see Cherchel Iphigencia 174 Isis, Isiac 42, 142, 143 ola Sacra cemetery, see Portus Is Tealy, Italian, passin Ithaca 210 Izates 190 Jerusalem 188-91, Pl. 70 Jessup, R. F. nn. 297-300, 302-4, $40 Jews, Jewish 40, 49, 190, 191, 200, 234- 9, 2. 606 ies, A. N. Zadche-Jouphes na, 151, Jonah 140, 162 Jones, H. Stuart nn. 675, 711 Josephus 190 Josi, E. n. 295 Juba Il 159 Jugoslavia 172 Julia Donace 250, n. 660 Julia Fortunata n. 740 jie Ingenua 174, 0. $26 Jala Vietorna ® 267; (ii) 275 Julii (Aquileia) 8: Juli (Se Poses ‘necropoli) 138, 140, 141 juli (St Rémy) 126, 129, Pl. 31 Joioctavaay hy 113, 114, 154, 198, 277 Julius Achilleus n. 95 Julius Caesar (Divus lulius) $7, 58 Julius Paulus n. 169 Julius Rufus 248 Junia (wife of Gaius Cassius) 48 Junia Procula n. 696 Juno 124 Javenal n. 124 Kaibel, G. n. 71 Kalendina, 173 n. $24 Kamen, An. 582 Kelron Valley 188-90 Kennedy, A. B. W. n, $82 Kerameikos 278, 279 Keston (Kent) 182-4 Khamissa 166 Khazne 193-6, 198, 199, n. $82, Pl. 73 Kirschbaum, E. n. 295 Kithét 170 Klauser, T, nn. 619, 731 Klemene, J. nn. $23-7, $29 275 Késtendorf 186 Koethe, H. 184, 185, n. $40 Koninksem 183 Kornemann, C. n. 202 Kesar el Ahmar 166 Ksar Tebinet 167 Ksar Tenaceft 166 Kurnub 49 ‘La Conocchia’ (Capodimonte) 156 ‘La Conocchia’ (Santa Maria Capua Vetera) 129, Pl. 38 Ladeuze 94 Laevini, Publius, Marcus n. 220 Laevinus, Marcus Valerius 56, n. 220 Lambaesis 166 Lambrechts, P. 2. 40 La Montagnola, Tomb (Quinto Fioren- tino) n. $7, Pl. 5 Langley (Kent) 94 Langres 62, nn. 336, 339 Lanuvium $5 Lapidario Maffeiano (Verona) n. 115INDEX 329 Lar, Lares s1, 75, 2. 269 Lucretius 39, 4 Larth Volumnius 23 Lucullus, Lucius Licinius 154 Larvae 35, 64, 0. 76 Liileburgaz 187 La Tane 179, 185, 186 Lateran collection 44, 132, 256, 269, 270, 2. OF Laurentine cemetery (Ostia) 116 Lawrence, M. 0. 731 Lazarus, Raising of 132, 162, 244, PL 36 ‘Le Carceri Vecchie’ (Santa Maria Capua Vetera) 158 Leclercq, H. nn. 606, 608, 610, 611, 615, 616, 620 Legio X Gemina 215 Lehmann-Hartleben, K. and Olsen, E. C. nn. 92, 93, 724 Leiden 281, nn. 88, 107 Lemures, Lemuria 35, 64 Leon, H. J. n. 606 Lepidi, Lucius, Marcus, Quintus n. 219 Lepidus, Marcus Aemilius 56, n. 219 Lexden (Essex) 180 Libella, Marcus Alleius Lucius n. 399 Liberalis, Quintus Ennius 173, n. 524 Libitina n. 130 Libo Drusus 48 Liburnian 74, n. 668 Licinia Chrysis n. 718 Licinian Tomb 265, 271, 277 Licinianus, Gaius Licinius 255 Licinjus Paternus n. 215 Licinius, Publius 56, n. 221 Lidge 183 Limbourg 183 Linckenheld, E. 1. n. 669 Lincoln 181 ‘Lions Tomb’ 192, PI. 72 LiSam$ (i) 228; (ii) 228, 229, Fig. 26 Lisbon 253 Livia $7, 59, 114, 266, 277 Livy 35, nn. 77, 160, 207, 210, 213, 218-22 Lockham (Langley, Kent) 182 Lollii 158 Londinium, see London London 254, 278, nn. 175, 274 Lorania Cypare n. 712 Louvre 256, 265-7, nn. 119, 385, 712 Lucilius Longus 56 Lucina catacomb (double chamber) 240 Lucius Caesar 154 Lucius Fabius n. 634 Lucius Verus $7, 61 Lugli, G. 154, nn. 370-3, 375, 379, 380, 408-11, 467 jingstone (Kent) $2 Luna marble 62 Lupus, Lucius Aemilius 131 Luxembourg n. 569 Lycomedes 224 Maastricht 183 Macer, Lucius Arrius 250 Macteris 1 67 Maenad, Maenads 173, 174, 236, 252, Pl. 87 Maffei, S.n. 115 Magna Mater 138 Maia Severa 250, n. 660 Mainz n. 645 Maiuri, A. n. 265 Malachus, Julius Aurelius 234 Malé 223, 224 Malé, Julius Aurelius (i) 224; (ii) 225, 227; (iii) 225, 226, 227 Malkd, Aurelius 229 Malton (Yorks.) $3 Mamastis 131 Mamia 122, 123, 125 Mandrione’ di Cavalupo necropolis (Vulci) 20 Manes Paterni n. 263 Manscl, A. M. 2. $50 Magqaai, Julius Aurelius 225 Marano 156 Marcella I 114 Marcella Il 114 Marcellus 154 Marcia Felicitas 141 Marcia Procula 215 Marcia Thrasonis 141 Marconi, P. nn. 426, 485 Marcus Aurelius $7, 61 Marianus, Manius Acilius 77, n. 281 Marién, M. E. nn. 274, 662-7 Mark Antony $7 Markos Ortorios Eleutheros 96 Marne 179 Mars 165, n. 194 Marti 226 Martial nn. 122, 131-3, 141, 170, 305 Martres d'Artie, Riom (Puy-de-Déme) 2 Marucchi, O. 238, nn. 606, 617 Massow, W. von nn. 274, 661330 Mattingly, HL. nn. 244-52 Mau, H. and Kelsey, F. W. nn. 187, 386-95, 397-9, 401-4 Mauretania 159 Mausoleum of Augustus 48, $7, 59, 184, Pls. 49, $0, Fig. 14 Mausoleum of Hadrian $7, 59, 157, 184 Maxentius 159 Maxglan 186 Maximus (son of Pomponia Mous:) 96 May, T. 0. 353 Mdhourouch (Madauri) 167 ‘Medracen’ (near Constantine) 158, 159 Medusa 23, 24, 53) 134, 173-5, 254, 265, 27, Pl. & E. van der, and Mohrmann, C. mn. 429 Meiggs, R. nn. $2, 275, 381-3 Meleager 265 Melfi 273 26 Mercury n. 9. Merrifield, Rt nn. 274, 670a Mersea Island (Mersea Mount) (Essex) n. 553 Mesonia Satulla 122 Mesopotamia 171, 172 Messerschmidt, F. nn. $4, $5 Metrodorus n. 320 Mettius Rufus 96 Meuse 183 Milan 248 Milky Way 35, 0. 78 Minatia Polla, 254 Minerva 53, 142, 277, 0. 94 inius, Marcus Alleius 123 Minotaur 274 Moesia, Moesian 155, 216 Momnigliano, A. n. 276 Mons Vaticanus 88, n. 198 ‘Monte del Grano’ (near Rome) 158 Monteverde catacomb 238 Moon-goddess 165 Mogtmé (i) 227; (ii) 228 Morey, C. R. nn. 430, 728, 729 Moriés (Bouches du Rhéne) 278 Morsott 167 Mosel 251, n. 274 178 Musaios 250 Muse, Muses 138, 252, 277, 0. $96 Musée de Cluny (Paris) n. 119 Musée de I'Homme (Paris) 42 Musée Luxembourgeois (Arlon) 251 INDEX ‘Museo Campano (Capua) 247 ‘Museo Nazionale Romano delle Terme 131, 246, 266, 269, 271, nn. 95, 704, 718 Museo Torlonia n. 14 ‘Museum of Fine Arts, Boston n. 21 Myla 130 Nabataeans, Nabatacan 49, 188, 192, 193, 196-9 Nuevoleia Tyche 125 Na‘m‘an 224 Namur 183 Naples 156, 240, 249, n. or Narbonnese Gaul 126 Nash, E. nn. 98, 370, 374-80, 384, 408-11, 444, 467, 477 ‘Nasrallat 227 Nennig 184 Nereids 38 Nero 40, 57 Nero Caesar 154 Nerva 154, 0. 227 Neumagen 2s1, 252, n. 274 New Capitoline Muscum 48 Nicanor 256 Nice (Musée Villa des Artnes) n. 634 Nickenich 185 Nike (woman) 250 Nimes n. 341 Noah 162 Nocera Gate (Pompeii) 123, n. 405 Nock, A. D. nn, 106, 107 Nogara, B. nn. 25-7, 34, 38, 43, 44, 49, 58-60 Nola 58 Noricum 172 Numerius Fistius Ampliatus 124 Numerius Istacidius Helenus 122 Numerius Istacidius Tanuarius 122 Numidia, Numidian 158, nn. 213, 215 Ny-Carlsberg Museum 255, nn. 636, 683 Nymphs 272 ‘Obelisk Tomb’ 192, PL. 71 Oberkail 184 Obulaccus, Aulus Murcius 130 Ocean, Oceanus 38, 45, 142, 247, 0. 91 Octavia 154 Octavia Paulina n. 94 Odenburg 248 Ocnomaus 13 *Oggi, Julius Aurelius 226 ius, Lucius 97 Old Testament 244INDEX Olympianus, Gaius Valerius 142 Olympias 250 Optatus 37 ‘Oratorio di Falaride’ 131 Orolanum, see Arlon Orpheus 238, 247 Ortoria Eutychis 96 Ortorios Eleis 96 Ou i a7 Ose (Kent) $2, 53 Ostia, Ostian, Ostienses 20, 75-7, 79, 83, 86, Tor, 115, nn. 217, 270, 221, 334, 339, 383, Pl. 27 Overton Down (Wilts.) 183 Ovid 35, 64, nn. 120, 199, 263 Paconius 246 Padua 130 Pactus, Aulus Cacsonius 118 Paetus, Publius Verginins 129 ‘Palace Tomb’ 193, 196, 197 Palatine $8 Palazzo dei Conservatori 267 Palazzo Farnese 269 Palestine 191, 236, 276, 277, n. 749 Pallottino, M. n. 47 Palmyra, Palmyrene, Palmyrenes 164, 168, 170, 17%, 219, 223-34, 239, Pls, $8, 60, Figs. 26-8 Pamphylia 156 Pannonia 42 Pantheon 159 Parentalia 63, 64, 97 Paris 42, nn. 21, 119, Pl. 10 Part, P, J. 0. $88 Parthian 225 Pasiphae 266 Passullena Secundina 79, n. 289 Pastor Bonus 140, 162, 209 Patroclus 13 Paulla Cornelia 113 Paullus, Lucius Aemilius 36 Pauly-Wissowa nn. 179, 202, 258 Pax Julia, see Beja Peffingen n. 744 Pegasus 238 Pelops 13 Penteville 183 Pentheus 139, 140 Pera, Decinms Janis Brutus $6, n. 218 Persept lone 140, 266, n. 23 Perseus 165 Persia 191 Persius nn. 126, 140 Pertinax $6, 61, 0. 229 331 ae 23, 98, 104, nn. 9, 12, Pl. 6, Pest G Bot Petra, Petran 188, 191-9, n. $82, Pls. 69, 71-3 Petronius nn. 180, 268, 305 Peta 247 Pettigrew, T. J. n. 113 Philemo, Aulus Caesonius 118 Pian di Bezzo cemetery (Sarsina) 129, 130 Pidal, R. M. nn. 423, 487 Pisidia 131, 192 Piso, Lucius 56 Plancus, Lucius Munatius 154, Pl. 52 Plautii 154, 155 Plautus, 34,35 Pliny (Elder) 39, 47, 126, 129, nn. 118, 171 Pliny (Younger) nn, 172, 227 Plotius Hermes 79, n. 287 Plutarch n. 160 Pobé, M. and Roubier, J. n. 407 Poctovio, see Pettau Polemaeanus, Gaius Julius Celsus n. 158 Polybius 47 Polynices 13 Polyxena 13, Pl. 3 Pompeii, Pompeian 73, 119-26, 195, 254, nn. 17, 405, Pl. 32 Pompey the Great 58, 277 Pomponia Mousa 96, n. 345 Pomponius Chrysopolis 77, n. 278 Pomponius Hylas 115 Ponte Lucano (Tivoli) 154 Ponte Lungo 96 Ponte Rotto necropolis (Vulci) ax Ponte Sisto 254 Pontia Prima 76 Poppaea 40, 41, $7, 154 Populonia 22 Porcius, Marcus 123 Porsenna 129 Porta Appia 73, 103 Porta Celimontana (Arch of Dolabella and Silanus) 117 Porta Esquilina 49 Porta Flaminia 210 Porta Maggiore 117, 128, 199 Porta Nuova (Milan) 248 Porta Ostiensis 127 Porta Pinciana 127 Porta Portese 238 Porta Romana (Ostia) n. 383 Porta Salaria 127332 Porta Viminalis 270 Portugal 253 Portus Augusti (Isola Sacra cemetery) 2S: Th 78, 82-7, 90, 91, 101-3, 129, 134-41, 270, mn. 269, 294, 671, Pls. 18, 19, 26, 43, 44, Fig. 3 Poulsen, F. nn. t, 7, 8, 14, 15, 19, 231 34, 39, 41, 42 Pozzuoli (San Vito) 155, 156 ‘Pranger’ 247 Prisciani 173, 178, Pl. 62 Priscianus, Gaius Spectatius 173, n. $25 Priscilla n. 110 — catacomb (‘Cappella Greca’) Projects B. 596 Propertius nn. 80, 81 Provence 247 Psyche, Psyches 39, 277, n. 718 Ptolemais 195 Publicius Calistus 98, n. 346 Pulborough (Sussex) 182 Puteoli nn. 216, 318, 339 Pythion n. 335 Qanaouat (Kanatha) 171 Qasr Bint Far‘un Temple (Petra) 199 Quarto di Marano (near Naples) 129 Quietus, Gaius Calventius 124 Quinctia 117 Quinctia Agatea 117 Quinctii 118 Quinctius, Publius 117 Quintus Sulpicius 268 Ravenna 163, 274, n. 636 Reburrus, Lucius Cacius n. 217 ‘Recinto’ (Banditaccia _ necropolis, Caere) 19, 20 Regolini-Galassi Tomb (Sorbo necro- ee Caere) 18 Regulus n. 172 Reinach, S. 0. 119 Rheinisches Rheinisches Landesmuseum, Trier 250 Rheinzabern 102 Rhine, Rhineland 56, 179, 216 Rhoeteus n. 196 Richborough (Kent) 181 Richmond, I. A. 198, nn. 6s, 87, $58, 584 INDEX Riis, P. J. nn. 1, 2, 7. 9, 27, 46 Riseholme (Lincs.) 181 Rixa, Gaius Octius n. 660 Robertson, D. S. nn. 478, 481 Rémisch-Germanisches Museum, Cologne 215 Romanelli, P. n. $3 Romano-British 279 Romanus, Gaius Clodius 78, 2. 286 Rome, Roman, passim Romulus 58 Romulus (son of Maxentius) 159, 160 Rondanini catacomb 238 Rosalia 63, 64 Rost M. nn. 502-6, $82, $97 Rougham (Suffolk) 181 ibria Maximilla n. 668 me 247 Rufinus, Quintus Satius n. 658 Rumania 186, nn. 630, 678 Rusticius Albinus (2) 175, n. $28 Sabeis 170 Sabinjanus, Marcus Julius n. 658 Sabinus Taurius 103, Pl. 26 Sa‘edi 223 St Auban (Basses Alpes) n. 7. St Calizin 236; catacomb "oe! ‘Sacta- its Chapel’) 240 St "George, church of of (Salonika) 160, PL 53 St Januarius, catacomb of 240 St Paul n. 198 St Paul-outside-the-Walls, church of 246 St Peter s1, 87, 102, n. 198 St Rémy 126, 129, 130, PL 31 tes n. 320 alman 228 Salmat, Julia Aurelia 230 Salonze nn. 320, 333 oe 160, PL. $3 Sa Stepan, Gaius Julius 172 J. E. and Campbell, S. G. nz 103 San Giovanni catacomb 240, 242, Fig. 29 San Sebastiano, church of 133, 136, 139, 235 Sant’Agnese, church of 280 Senta Comenes, chanchof 160,261,205 Pl. 54 Santa Lucia catacomb 240, 242 — Maria Capua Vetera 129, 158, 1. 38INDEX 333 Sant’ Urbano, church of 132 Sileni 140 Sardis n. 430 Silistria 216-19, 279-80, Fig. 22 Sarsina 129-31, 176, Pl. 37 Sim‘on 224 Sarteano n. 13 Simpelveld 281, nn. 88, 107, Pls. or, Saturninus, Gnaeus Vibius 119 Saturnus n. 273 Satyr, Satyrs 173, 174, 252, 272, Pls. 62, 87 Scarbantia, see Walbersdorf Scaurus, Aulus Umbricius 124 Saheb, A. mn, 631, 632, 637-9, 644, Schoo mn. 407, 486, 636 Aemiliani Scipio Barbas, Eeius Comelivs 113, Scipiones, Cornelii 104, 118, Fig. 9 Scorpus 267 Scribonia (mother-in-law of Lucius Acmilius Paullus) 36 Scudillo (near Naples) 156 Scullard, H. H. nn. 2, 6, 7, 20, 27, 29, 32, 36, 37, 40, 45, 47, $7, 3% 61, 63, 08 Seasons 138, 162, 163, 174, 175, 215, 236, 238, Pl. 74 Sccundiani 175, 176 Secundianus, Gaius Spectatius 175, n. $27 Secundinii 164, 165, Pl. 57 Secundinius Aventinus 164 Secundinius Securus 165 “Sedia del Diavolo’ 133 Selene 138 Scleukos 228 Semitics, Semitic 49, 188, 190, 219 Sempetru 172 Seneca $7 .m. 116, 130, 145, 146 Sentia Severa 80 Septimius Lupianus 275 Septimius Severus $6, $7, 59-61, 154 Sepulcretum (Roman Forum) 39 Serapis 42 Servian Wall 115, 117, 127 Servius nn. 119, 129, 307 Setif (Setifis) 166 Severan 83-7 Severus Alexander 61 Sextus Florentinus 197 Shorden Brae (near Corbridge, Northumberland) 92, 94, Fig. 6 Sicca n. 215 Sicily, Sicilian 13x, 132 Sienna n. 13 Silanus, Marcus Tunius 113 92, Sirmium 274 Sixtus IV 42 Smyrna 280 Soueida 171 Sousse n. 623 Southfteet (Kent) 92-4, Fig. § Spain 161, 164, n. 631, Pl. sé Spectatia Severina 175, n. $28 Spectatius Avitus 175, n. $28 Sphaerus 56, n. 223 Sphinx, Sphinxes 130, 265, 277-80 Split (Spalato) 160, n. 668 Squarciapino, F. M, n. 383 Stabian Road (Pompeii) 122 Starky, J. nn. $07, 598 Statii 80-2, Pl. ar Statius nn, 110, 173 Statutius Secundianus 175, n. $29 Statutius Secundus 175, 0. $29 Stein, P. n. 310 Sterrett, J. R. S.n. 311 Stevenage (Herts.) 181 Stoics 34 Storax, Gaius Lusius 131 Strabo 198, nn. 444, $82 Strong, D. E. nn. 127, 725 Strong, E. nn. 65, 142, 293, 423, 696, 113 Strotzbiisch 184 Styger, P. 240, n. 617 Styx 165 Successus, Gaius Vindonus 174, n. 926 Successus, Lucius Volusius 78, n. 286 Successus, Publius Vitellius 267 Successus, Titus Pompeius (elder) 79, nm. 290 Successus, Titus Pompeius (younger) 72, 2. 290 Suetonius 48, $7, nn. 132, 144, 198, 208, 230, 231, 237, 238, 241, 242, 445-8 Sulla 39, 55, n. 160 Sulpicius Quirinus n. 225 Sun-god 165 Sutton Valence (Kent) 94 Syk (Petra) 193 Syphax n. 213 Syracuse $2, 240, Fig. 29 Syria, Syrian 164, 171, 172, 219, 275, 277, HN. 495, 749334 Taai 230, 231, Fig. 27 Tacitus 34, 40, 41, 48, 154, nn. 180, 208, 210, 224-8, 230-2, 236, 238, 242 Taibbol 226 Taim@ 228 Talmud 190 Tammi 227 Taracena, B. nn. 423, 487 Tarquinia 16, 17, 20, nn. 1-6, 8, 14, tT 16, 22-4, 3S < ‘arragona 161, 165 Tebessa 167 Telgennia Philumina 118 ‘Tempio di Portuno’ (Porto) 158, 160 ‘Temple of Deus Rediculus’ 133 Tenaceft 166 Terentea Kallotycenis n. 273 Terentius Lucifer n. 273 ‘Termessos 131, 192 ‘Terra Mater (Earth, Earth-goddess) 37; 142, n. 80 Tertius, Marcus Caetennius 256 Tetrarchic 159 Teut Forest $4, 0. 208 Theodoric 163, Pl. 5 ‘Theophilus, Julius Aurelius 234 ‘Theophilus, Marcus Antonius 96 Theseus 274 Thiaminus, Marcus Caelius n. 197 Thrace, Thracian 180, 187, 188 Thubursicum Numidarum, see Khamissa Thylander, H. nn. 269 273, 278-80, 282 284 Tiber 82, 83, 144, 157, 210, nn. 445,467 Tiberius 56-8, 114, 115, 154, 0. 225 Tibullus n. 181 Ticinum 56 Tilurium, n. 634 ‘Timgad 166 Timisoara 274 Tivoli 154 Toll, N. P. nn. $02-6, 597 Tomb A, Heracla (St Peter’s necropo- lis) 88, 90, or, n. 254 (cont.) ‘Tomb of Absalom’ 188, 189, 191, Pl. 70 Tomb of the Alcove 16 Tomb of the Atian Family 1, 30, Pl. 4 Tomb of the Augurs nn. 3, 25, 4 Tomb of the Axe 134, Pls. 41, 42 ‘Tomb B, Fannia (St Peter’s necropolis) 88, 90, 139 ‘Tomb of the Bigae nn. 1, Tomb C, Tullii (St Peter’s necropolis) SI, 79, 9, 2. 723, Pl. 48 INDEX Tomb of the Calpumii Pisones and Volusii 26s, 270, 271 Tomb of the Capitals 19 “Tomb of the Christian’ 159 Tomb of the Curtii n. 400 Tomb D, ‘Reticulate’ (St Peter's necropolis) 88, 90, 139 Tomb of te Dying oF Deed Man 16, Tomb E, Aclii (St Peter’s necropolis) 90, 254 Tomb F, First of the Caetennii (St Peter’s necropolis) 51, 90, 91, 139, 256, 266, 267, Pl. 83 Tomb G, ‘Steward’ (St Peter’snecropo- lis) 90, 139, 140, 142 Tomb H, Valeri (St Peter's necro- polis) $3, 79, 88, 90, 139, 141-3, nn. 88, 91, Pl. 46 Tomb of the Haterii 44, 81, 132, 265, 268, 277, 279, Pls. 9, 17 Tomb of Helena 99 Tomb I, “Quadrigs® (St Peter's necro~ Polis) 90, 140, PL. 45 ‘Tomb of the Innocentii, 134 Tomb of the Inscriptions nn. 4, s. 4r ‘Tomb of Jacob’ 189 “Tomb of Jehoshaphat’ 188, 189 ‘Tomb of the " 190 Tomb L, of the Caetennii (Gt Peter’s necropolis) 90 Tomb of the Leopards nn. 1, 6, Pl. 1 Tomb of the Lionesses 17, nn. 1,6 Tomb M, Julii (St Peter’s necropolis) 88, 90, 138, 140, PL. 47 Tomb of Marcus Clodius Hermes 134, PL. 4 Tomb N, Aebutii (St Peter's necro~ polis) 78, 90 Tomb O, Matuccii (St Peter's necro- polis) st, 90, 91, 139 Tomb of Orcus nn. 14, 16, 23 ‘Tomb of the Pancratii’ 133, 141, n. 432 Tomb @, Marci (St Peter’s necropolis) 139, 140, 141, PL. 87 Tomb of the Platorini 254-6 Tomb ¥ (St Peter’s necropolis) 88, 90, or ‘Tomb of Pythagoras’ 22 Tomb Q (St Peter’s necropolis) 90, or Tomb R, Flavius Agricola (St Peter's necropolis) 88, 90 Tomb R? (St Peter’s necropolis) 88, 90 Tomb of the Reliefs 16, 19 “Tomb of the Roman Soldier’ 193, 197ANCIENT STUDIES AJOHNS HOPKINS PAPERBACK “Throughout this book one is continuously conscious of the richness of the material and the difficulties the author must have encountered in trying to keep her work within manageable proportions. This she has accomplished in masterly fashion, giving us enough on each topic to prevent her treatment from ever being described as summary, and yet making us aware of unresolved questions and filled with the desire to know the answers . . . This is most certainly a book which will inspire further research.” — Times Literary Supplement Never before available in paperback, J. M. C. Toynbee’s study is the most comprehensive book on Roman burial practices. Ranging throughout the Roman world—from Rome to Pompeii, from Britain to Jerusalem-—Toynbee’s book examines funeral practices from a wide variety of perspectives. Toynbee first examines Roman beliefs about death and the afterlife, revealing that few Romans believed in the Elysian Fields of poetic invention. She then describes the rituals asso- ciated with burial and mourning: commemorative meals at the gravesite were common, with some tombs having built-in kitchens and rooms in which family could stay overnight. Toynbee also includes descriptions of the layout and finances of cemeteries, the tomb types of both the rich and the poor, and the types of grave markers and monu- ments, as well as tomb furnishings. J.-M. C. Toynbee was Lawrence Professor of Classical Archeology at Cambridge University and an honorary Fellow of Newnham College. Before her death in 1985, she served as a Fellow of the British Academy and of the Royal Numismatic Society and as a member of the faculty of the British School in Rome. Her many books include Animals in Roman Life and Art, also available in paperback from Johns Hopkins. THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY PRESS Baltimore and London Cover design: Julie Burris ISBN 0-8018-5507-1 Cover illustration: Marble relief from the | | aT ‘Tomb of the Haterii, depicting a lying-in-state 1 9 "780801'855078 ma house.