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An Overview . . .
Basic components of a biomedical system
Electrodes

Amplifiers
ECG
EEG
EMG
ERG
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Block Diagram of a Generalised Bio Medical Instrument System

o
Biological
System

Transducer

Signal
Processor

Measurement

Monitoring

o
o

Diagnosis

Surgery
Feedback
Transform

Surgical
Tool

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Therapy

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Each switch position connects an instrument for measurement, for

monitoring, for diagnosis, for therapy or for surgery with the signal
processor
Transducer converts one form of energy or signal to another, its
output is always an electrical signal
Signal Processor amplifies, modifies or changes the electrical
output of the transducer
In the case of therapy, the signal is fed back to the biological system
through the feedback transform
In the case of surgery, a surgical tool is in contact with the biological
system
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Electrodes
Employed to pick up the electrical signals of the body

Hall cell potential voltage developed at an electrode electrolyte interface

Perfectly polarised electrodes no net transfer of charge occurs across the
metal electrolyte interface
Perfectly non polarisable electrodes unhindered exchange of charge is
possible across the metal electrolyte interface
Electrolyte paste - used to reduce the contact impedance
Types

Microelectrodes
Depth and Needle Electrodes
Surface Electrodes
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Microelectrodes
Have smaller diameter
No damage to the cells during insertion
To measure the potential they, located within the cell
Reference electrode is outside the cell
Types

Metallic
Non Metallic (Micropipet)
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Metal Microelectrode

RA
o

RS

RB

CD

CWA

CWB

RFA

RFB
RWA

RWB

EA

EB
RIN

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EC( t)

REX

 RA denotes the resistance of the connecting wire (negligible)

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RS denotes the resistance of the shaft of the microelectrode (also negligible)

RFA, RWA and CWA constitute the impedance of the microelectrode tip
intracellular fluid interface
RIN is the resistance of the intracellular fluid
RB denotes the resistance of the connecting wire to the reference electrode
(negligible)
RFB, RWB and CWB constitute the impedance of the reference electrode tip
extra cellular fluid interface
REX is the resistance of the extra cellular fluid

CD is the distributed capacitance between the insulated shaft of the

microelectrode and the extra cellular fluid
The capacitance between the tip of the microelectrode and the intracellular
fluid is negligible

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Equivalent Circuit

RFA

o A
CWA

EC

RWA

CD

o B
E = EA - EB

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Since the area of the reference electrode is many times greater than
the metal electrodes tip whose area of cross section is very small, its
impedance is negligible
The impedance of the microelectrode tip is inversely proportional to
the area of the tip and frequency
When the electrode output is coupled with an amplifier, the low

frequency components of the bioelectric potential will be attenuated

if the input impedance of the amplifier is not high
Thus when the input impedance of the amplifier is not high enough,

it behaves as a high pass filter

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Micropipet

RFA

ED

RT

EA

RA
RWA

RIN

EC

CWA

CD
RFB

REX

EB

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RWB

CWB

RB

 RA denotes the resistance of the connecting wire

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RFA, RWA and CWA constitute the impedance of the electrode

electrolyte interface in the stem of the micropipet

RT is the resistance of the electrolyte filling the tip of the micropipet

(very large)
RIN is the resistance of the intracellular fluid

RB denotes the resistance of the connecting wire to the reference

electrode
RFB, RWB and CWB constitute the impedance of the reference
electrode electrolyte interface
REX is the resistance of the extra cellular fluid
CD is the distributed capacitance between the fluid in the pipet and
the extra cellular
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fluid

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Equivalent Circuit

RT
o A

EC

CD

o B
E

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CD is the equivalent of distributed capacitances

When the micropipet is coupled with the amplifier terminals A and
B, the membrane potential EC is coupled with it via a high series
resistance RT and a moderate shunt capacitance CD along with
electrode potentials
The impedance of the electrode places a limit on the response time
of the circuit
It behaves as a low pass filter when the input impedance of the
amplifier is not high enough

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Simple Differential Amplifier

Rf

V1

V2

Ri
o

e1

o
Ri

e2
Vo
Rf
o

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Since the input current to an ideal amplifier is zero and by the principle
of superposition, the voltage existing at the input terminal 1 is,
e1

Rf
Ri + Rf

V1

Ri
Rf + R i

Vo

Voltage at input terminal 2 is,

e2

Rf
Rf + R i

V2

Since the potential difference between the two input terminals of an

ideal amplifier is forced zero by the feedback through Rf, the voltage e1
must be equal to e2
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Therefore,

Rf
Ri + R f

(or)

V1

Ri

Rf + Ri

Vo

Vo

Rf
Ri

Rf
Rf + Ri

V2

(V2 - V1)

Thus the circuit amplifies the difference of the input signals V1 and V2
There is no virtual ground at the input to the amplifier in this circuit

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Modes of operation of the differential amplifier

Single ended mode either V1 (non inverting mode) or V2
(inverting) equal to zero
Differential mode the two input signals are equal but have

opposite polarity
Common mode the input signals are identical both in amplitude
and phase

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Isolation Amplifier
Used to increase the input impedance of the monitoring system in
order to isolate the patient from the bio medical instrument
Used so that any electrical fault in signal conditioning or other
circuits does affect the patient
Some isolation amplifier circuits . . .
Darlington Pair
Bootstraping Circuit
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Darlington Pair

o - VBB

o - VCC

RB

RL

.Y

Q1

Zi
Q2

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Darlington Pair
High input impedance with high current gain
Two transistors Q1 and Q2 are connected in common emitter
compound connecting circuits
The emitter terminal of transistor Q1 is directly connected to the

base of transistor Q2
The collectors of both transistors share a common load RL
Q2 provides negative feedback that serves to gain stabilize the

composite circuit
The input impedance is very much higher greater than that of a
single common emitter stage
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Bootstraping Circuit

+ VBB

R1
C

Q1
o

R4

Q2

o
INPUT
R3

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Re

R2

Re

OUTPUT

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Bootstraping Circuit
A feedback network is connected in between the emitter of Q2 and
the collector of Q1
The feedback voltage created b the bootstrap voltage dividing
network R1 and R2 is injected into the collector circuit of Q1
An increase in signal level at the input of the circuit causes an
increase in signal through the divider at the collector, changing the
transistors bias point
This further increases the input impedance
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ECG Isolation Amplifier Circuit

STD
1mV

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Guard
Transformer

Modulator

.
D.C.
Amp

Driver

Synchronous
Modulator

Synchronous
Demodulator

Lead Selector

High Voltage and

Over Voltage
Protection

+V
RA

LA

LL

RL

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Electrosurgery
Filter

Floating
Common

Rect.
&
Filter

100 kHz
Oscillator

-V
Isolated Power
Transformer

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The signals from the different leads are given to the low pass filter having a
cut off frequency of about 10 kHz
This is followed by high voltage and over voltage protection circuits

The signals are now into the lead selector switch which is used to derive the
required lead configurations
Its output is given to a d.c. amplifier ( also used for calibration purposes )
The primary of an isolated low capacitance power transformer is connected

with the 100 kHz oscillator

The secondary of that transformer along with the rectifier and filter is used to
obtain isolated power supply of + 6V
The synchronous modulator modulates the ECG signal from the d.c. amplifier
Another transformer is used to deliver the output from the modulator to the
synchronous demodulator
Its output is input to the power amplifier

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Medical Preamplifier Circuit

aR1

R2

V1
o

bR2

Vo

R1
-

aR1

o
Vout

R2

V2

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Vo

bR2

 Amplifies the differential signal and rejects the common modewww.eeecube.com

signal
Consists of three operational amplifiers
First two are working in non inverting mode, but their inverting terminals
are not grounded
The feedback loops are connected with the inverting terminals
The third acts as a differential amplifier
With this configuration we get
High Stability
High Fidelity
High CMRR

High input impedance

By means of virtual ground, the inverting terminal of op amp 1 is fed by
voltage V2 through R1 and the inverting terminal of op amp 2 is fed by
voltage V through R1

1
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Chopper Amplifier
Used to convert the d.c. or low frequency signal into a high
frequency signal
Then this modulated high frequency signal is amplified by

conventional a.c. amplifier

The amplified signal is demodulated and filtered to get amplified
d.c. or low frequency signal

Types
Mechanical Chopper Amplifier
Non Mechanical Chopper Amplifier
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Chopper Amplifier Using a Mechanical Switch

P
o

M
o

A
C

o
Vi

o
Q

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S1

Vo

o
N

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The chopper S1 is an electromagnetically operated switch or relay

It connects alternatively the input terminal of the a.c. amplifier A to the
reference terminal Q, which is usually connected to ground

When the amplifier input terminal is connected with Q, it is short circuited

and the input voltage is zero
When the chopper S1 is open, the amplifier receives the signal voltage from P
Therefore the input to the amplifier consists of an a.c. voltage varying from
zero to the value of the input voltage
A steady d.c. or slowly varying signal is chopped into a train of square wave
pulses having a frequency equal to the rate of the chopper

After amplification the chopped signal is rectified with a diode D

The rectified signal is then filtered and amplified d.c. is obtained at the
output terminals M and N
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Non Mechanical Photoconductive Chopper Amplifier

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Modulator

o
Low Level
DC Input

Demodulator
AC
Amp.

PC1

Low Pass
Filter

Amplified
DC Output

PC4
Photo Diodes

PC2

PC3

Neon Bulb
(1)

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Oscillator

Neon Bulb
(2)

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The photoconductors or photodiodes are used as non mechanical

choppers for modulation and demodulation

When there is no light on the photoconductor, its resistance is so many

mega ohms, it is in the reverse bias and no current is allowed to flow
through it
When there is incident light on the photoconductor its resistance is very
low, it is in the forward bias and current can easily flow through it

Thus it acts as a switch by means of incident light

An oscillator is present which drives two neon bulbs into illumination on
alternate half cycles of oscillation
The neon bulb (1) gives flash of light on photoconductors PC1 and PC2
which are respectively connected at the input and the output
The neon bulb (2) gives flash of light on photoconductors PC3 and PC4
Low level d.c. is present at the input
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Whenever light falls on PC1 its resistance decreases and input capacitor
charges

When there is no light on PC1 and there is light on PC3, the input flows
through PC3
By the alternate incident light, a square wave is produced across the
capacitor
Its amplitude is proportional to the input and frequency is equal to the

frequency of the oscillator

An amplified square wave voltage is obtained at the output of the amplifier
The two photoconductors PC2 and PC4 in the amplifier output circuit
recover the d.c. signal by their demodulating action and the output
capacitor becomes charged to the peak of the output voltage
Then this d.c. voltage is passed through a low pass filter to remove any
ripples and finally amplified d.c. output is obtained
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Electrocardiography

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ECG deals with the study of the electrical activity of the heart muscles

Heart is divided into four chambers

The top two are atria and the lower two are ventricles
The right atrium receives blood from the veins and pumps it into the

right ventricle
The right ventricle pumps the blood into the lungs where it is purified
and oxygenated

The oxygen enriched blood enters the left atrium from which it is
pumped into the left ventricle
Then the left ventricle pumps the blood into arteries through aortic
valve for circulation throughout the body

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Each action potential in the heart originates at the Sino - Atrial (SA)
node which is situated in the wall of the right atrium and near the
entry of the vena cava
Also called as Cardiac Pacemaker and generates impulses at the
normal rate of the heart, about 70 beats per minute at rest
The action potential contracts the atrial muscle and the impulse

spreads through the atrial wall during a period of about 0.04 second
to the Atrio Ventricular (AV) node
The AV node acts as a delay line to provide timing between the

action of the atria and the ventricles

Then a special conduction system carries the action potential to the
ventricular muscles
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This system consists of a short common part (the bundle of His),

two bundle branches on each of the septum and fine Purkinje fibers

which arborize in the ventricular muscle

The atria and ventricles are functionally linked only by the AV node
and the conduction system
The AV delay is provided so that the atrial contraction can complete
the ventricular filling before the contraction of ventricles

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Physiological Nature of ECG Waveform

Origin

P Wave

Atrial depolarisation or contraction

Amplitude

Duration

(mV)

(seconds)

0.25

0.12 to 0.22
(P R interval)

R Wave

Repolarisation of the atria and the

(QRS

depolarisation of the ventricles

1.60

0.07 to 0.1

0.1 to 0.5

0.05 to 0.15

complex)
T Wave

Ventricular repolarisation
(Relaxation of myocardium)

ST

(S.T interval)

Ventricular contraction

interval
U Wave

Slow repolarisation of the

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< 0.1

0.2
(T U interval)

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ECG Lead Configurations

Usually surface electrodes are used with jelly as electrolyte between skin

and electrodes
The potentials generated in the heart are conducted to the body surface
The potential distribution changes I a regular an complex manner during
each cardiac cycle
So standardised electrode positions are chosen
Types of electrode systems
Bipolar Limb Leads (or) Standard Leads
Augmented Unipolar Limb Leads
Chest Leads (or) Precordial Leads
Frank Lead System (or) Corrected Orthogonal Leads
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Bipolar Limb Leads

In standard leads, the potentials are tapped from four locations
Right Arm
Left Arm

Right Leg
Left Leg
The right leg electrode is used as ground reference electrode

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Standard Bipolar Limb Leads

Lead I

Lead II

Vout

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Vout

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Lead III

+
Vout

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Lead I Position gives voltage drop from the left arm to the right arm
Lead II Position - gives voltage drop from the left leg to the right arm
Lead III Position gives voltage drop from the left leg to the left arm

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The Einthoven Triangle

Lead I

Right Arm

+
Left Arm

Lead III

Lead II

+
+
Left Leg

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The closed path RA to LA to LL and back to RA is called the

Einthoven Triangle
According to Einthoven, in the frontal plane of the body the cardiac

electric field vector is a two dimensional one

The ECG measured from any one of the three limb leads is a time
variant single dimensional component of that vector

Along the sides of this triangle the three projections of ECG vector
are measured
Further the vector sum of the projection on all the three sides is

equal to zero
Thus, following Kirchoffs law, the R wave amplitude of Lead II is
equal to the sum of the R wave amplitudes of leads I and III
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Augmented Unipolar Limb Leads

Lead aVR

Lead aVL

+
-

Vout

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Vout

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Lead aVF

+
Vout

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Augmented Unipolar Limb Leads

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The ECG is recorded between a single exploratory electrode and the

central terminal which has a potential corresponding to the center of

the body
Two equal and large resistors are connected to a pair of limb electrodes
The center of this resistive network acts as central terminal and the

remaining limb electrode acts as the exploratory electrode

A slight increase in the ECG voltage can be realized
The lead connections are

augmented Voltage Right arm (aVR)

augmented Voltage Left arm (aVL)
augmented Voltage Foot (aVF)
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1 mV
Calibration
o
o

ECG Recording Set Up

1V

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1M
1k

Lead
Selector

Defibrillator
Protection
Circuit

Output
Unit

aVR

aVL

1
OFF

Bioamp

aVF
C

CM Reduction
Amplifier
o
a.c.
Power
o

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Isolation
Transformer

Isolated
Power
Supply

Power
Supply

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Electroencephalography
Deals with the recording and study of electrical activity of the brain

By means of electrodes attached to the skull of a patient, the brain

waves are picked up and recorded
Helps to diagnose

Level of consciousness
Sleep disorders
Brain tumors

Epilepsy
Brain death
Multiple sclerosis
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Block Diagram of EEG Recording Set Up

Input

Input

Input

Stage 1

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Pre
Amplifier

Stage 2

Amplifier

Writer

Control
Unit

Stage 3

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Trace

Driver
Amplifier

Stage 4

Stage 5

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Electromyography
Science of recording and interpreting the electrical activity of

muscles action potentials

The electrical activity of the underlying muscle can be measured by
placing surface electrodes on the skin

To record the action potentials of individual motor units, the needle

electrode is inserted into the muscle
The EMG indicates the amount of activity of a given muscle or a

group of muscles and not an individual nerve fiber

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Block Diagram of EMG Recording Set Up

Oscilloscope

.
Input

EMG
Amp.

Tape
Recorder

Speaker

A.F.
Amp.

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The surface or needle electrodes pick up the potentials produced by

the contracting muscle fibers
Types of electrodes
Bipolar two surface electrodes
Unipolar one surface and one needle electrode
The signals are displayed on a cathode ray oscilloscope
The signals are also recorded in the tape recorder for future
reference
The sounds from the loud speaker can be used to diagnose the
neuromuscular disorders

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Determination of conduction velocities in motor nerves

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The nerve function is examined directly at the various segments of the nerve by means of
stimulating it with a brief electric shock

By measuring the latencies the conduction velocity is calculated

Latency elapsed time between the stimulating impulse and the muscles action potential

Procedure

The EMG electrode and the stimulating electrode are placed at two points on the skin,
separated by a known distance l1

A brief electrical pulse is applied through the stimulating electrode

When the excitation reaches the muscle, this contracts with a short twitch

The elapsed time t1, between the stimulating impulse and muscles action potential, is

measured

Process is repeated for distance l2 < l1, the duration is t2 seconds

The conduction velocity, v = l1 l2

t1 t2

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Electroretinography

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Recording and interpreting the electrical activity of eye

All sense organs are connected to the brain but the eye has a special
relationship as the retina is the extension of the cerebral cortex
Potentials within the eye can be easily recorded because of its
exposed position
If the illumination of the retina is changed, the potential changes
slightly in a complex manner
The recording of these changes is called the electroretinogram
When light falls on the retina, the absorption of photons by photo
pigments localized in the outer segment of the retinas
photoreceptors takes place

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This causes the breakdown of photo pigments which results in the

liberation of ions that cause a change in the membrane potential
This in turn results in the development of action potential that is
transmitted down the optic nerve
This action potential is picked up by the electrodes and fed to the
bio amplifier and recorder
The recording set up is similar to ECG

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