1

Applications of Natural Fiber

Composites for Constructive
Parts in Aerospace,
Automobiles, and Other
Areas
Dr.-Ing. Dipl.-Chem. Ulrich Riedel1, Dipl.-Ing. Jrg Nickel2
1
Institut fr Strukturmechanik, Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft- und Raumfahrt,
Lilienthalplatz 7, D-38108 Braunschweig, Germany; Tel.: 49-531-2952865;
Fax: 49-531-2952838; E-mail: ulrich.riedel@dlr.de
2
Institut fr Strukturmechanik, Deutsches Zentrum fr Luft- und Raumfahrt,
Lilienthalplatz 7, D-38108 Braunschweig, Germany; Tel.: 49-531-2952859;
Fax: 49-531-2952838; E-mail: joerg.nickel@dlr.de
1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Historical Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3
3.1
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2

Natural Fiber-reinforced Construction Materials

Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thermoplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thermosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

5
5
6
9
12

4
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.2

Manufacturing Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impregnation of Nonwovens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wet Impregnation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commingled Procedures, Hybrid or Mixed Nonwovens . .
Film Stacking Procedure for Manufacture of Semiproducts
Powder Impregnation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Manufacture of Structural Components . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

15
15
16
17
17
17
18

Properties of Quasiisotropic Biocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4

Application Research . . . . . . . . . . . .
Designer Office Chairs . . . . . . . . . . .
Door Paneling Elements . . . . . . . . . .
Pultruded Support Slats . . . . . . . . . .
New Thermosets based on Vegetable Oils

19
20
20
21
21

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

1 Applications of Natural Fiber Composites for Constructive Parts in Aerospace, Automobiles, and Other Areas

6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8

Safety Helmets . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interior Paneling for Track Vehicles .
h.I.p.: Hand-friendly Image Products
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.

22
22
23
24

Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

8
8.1
8.2
8.3

Patents . .
Fibers . . .
Resins . . .
Composites

.
.
.
.

24
24
25
25

Outlook and Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

10

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

DP-RTM
FRP
GFRP
GMT
h.I.p.
PHB
PTP
SLI
UD

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

differential pressure resin transfer molding

fiber-reinforced polymers
glass-fiber-reinforced plastic
glass mat-reinforced thermoplastics
hand-friendly Image product
polyhydroxybutyric acid
polymer from triglycerides and poly-carboxylic anhydrides
single line injection molding
unidirectional

Introduction

Although fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP )

have until now been largely applied to the
area of aerospace technology, these construction materials have also been used in
many technical applications, especially
where high strength and stiffness are
required, but with low component weight.
The good specific (i.e., weight-related) properties are due to the low density of the
applied matrix systems (unsaturated polyesters, polyurethanes, phenolic or epoxy resins) and to the embedded fibers that provide
the high strength and stiffness (glass,
aramid, and carbon fibers). Furthermore,
great use is made of the fact that composite

parts can be tailor-made during production

specifically by orientating the reinforcing
fibers in the directions of the applied load. In
this way, the compound material is itself a
direct result of structural manufacture and
many different technologies have been
developed in order to achieve this.
Unfortunately, classic fiber-reinforced
polymers often pose considerable problems
with respect to their re-use or recycling at the
end of their usable lifetime, mainly because
of the compounding of miscellaneous and
usually very stable fibers and matrices.
Simple landfill disposal of these materials
is becoming increasingly impossible due to
problems of environmental sensitivity. Consequently, environmentally compatible alternatives are now being investigated and

2 Historical Outline

examined, including recovery of the raw

materials (e.g., gasification to methanol),
CO2-neutral thermal utilization, or biodegradation under certain circumstances. An
interesting option might be where construction materials made of renewable resources
that consist of natural fibers are embedded
in so-called biopolymers, as these also
involve economically and ecologically acceptable manufacturing technologies. At present, these topics are all undergoing extensive
research at the DLR Institute of Structural
Mechanics.

Historical Outline

The consumption of raw materials such as

coal, petroleum and natural gas fossil
resources have increased steadily since the
early days of industrialization. In addition to
energy and heat production, fossil resources
have beenand still areused as basic
materials for the chemical industry, the
products of which have replaced many of
the renewable (generally agricultural) raw
materials that have been used since antiquity
(e.g., natural fibers and lamp and lubricating
oils). As a result, the focus on agriculture has
shifted increasingly to a highly efficient food
production in order to be able to keep up
with international costs and competitive
pressures. One urgent problem, not only
for the German agricultural economy, is the
considerable surplus production that must
be compensated with subsidized land setaside measures which, in turn, leads to
considerable additional costs.
It was not until the second half of the
twentieth century that a new public awareness of renewable resources first arose, and a
variety of reasons have been suggested for
this, including:

. the two major oil crises and, as a result, a

sharpened awareness for the finite nature
of fossil resources;
. a critical increase in the release of CO2
`greenhouse' gases into the atmosphere as
a result of burning fossil resources; and
. a drastic increase in the volume of waste.
Although it is unlikely that the use of
products made from renewable resources
will provide a complete solution to the
pressing problems of industrial society, a
number of new approaches have begun to
emerge which might lead to the agricultural
production of alternative materials.
One example in the material sector is the
use of fiber composite construction materials made from renewable resources. These
include not only reinforcement fibers (e.g.,
flax, ramie and hemp) but also the matrices
(e.g., starch, cellulose, or vegetable oil
derivatives), and can be produced from
agricultural products in the nonfood sector.
Natural fibers such as flax, ramie and
hemp possess excellent mechanical properties of breaking length, as well as elastic
moduli characteristics such as E-glass.
Deviations from values reported in the
literature are the result of different testing
conditions (clamping length, bundling research or single fiber research, tested in
composites or as dry fibers, etc.) ( Wagner,
1961; Flemming et al., 1995; Haudek and
Viti, 1980; Satlow et al., 1994; Herrmann
et al., 1998).
Although ramie and flax are suitable as
reinforcement materials and are also amply
available in good quality, this is not the case
for qualitatively comparable semi-finished
products made from hemp. Reports indicate
that natural fiber-reinforced polymers are
being developed, but that a consistent
ecological approach of polymers with a
biogenetic basis is rare (Scherzer, 1997).
This is especially the case for thermoplastic

1 Applications of Natural Fiber Composites for Constructive Parts in Aerospace, Automobiles, and Other Areas

matrices, though thermosets made from

renewable resources have recently become
available.
In August 1998, with the introduction of
laws in Germany regarding the Regulation
for the Prevention of Packaging Waste as
well as Recycling and Waste Management
Law, a legal basis was created to support the
development of biodegradable polymers.
The above-mentioned regulations and laws
for waste (i.e., for materials whose technical and economical use has been exhausted)
stipulate the following:
. waste prevention;
. waste recycling (in preference to materials
recycling); and
. waste management by means of lowemission inertization and concentration
as well as ecologically harmless disposal.
In where alternative disposal or recycling
methods are problematic (e.g., extremely
soiled films), biodegradable polymers may
make a valuable contribution as they can be
disposed of in an ecologically sound manner
either by aerobic (composting) or anaerobic
(methanization) decomposition. In addition, they can also be used to create useful
products such as compost or methane.
Although biodegradable polymer systems
of low mechanical strength are used widely
as packaging materials, it is possible that
high-quality fiber composites made from
renewable resources might also be produced
in the development of ecologically consistent
materials (Aichholzer, 1997).
The development of biodegradable matrices was accelerated by the above-mentioned
legislation, and for the most part these
systems are based on natural resources
(Eicher and Fischer, 1975; Utz, 1992; Fritz
et al., 1994; Franz Rauscher, 1997; Fritz,
1997; Rapthel and Kakuschke, 1997; Witt
et al., 1997). However, the industry has also
paved the way for creating biodegradable

petrochemical-based polymers (e.g., polyesteramides, copolyesters), and as a result the

prerequisites to develop a fiber composite
from renewable resources have been met.
Unfortunately, the thermoplastic material
polymers available at the time had been
developed primarily for the packaging industry, and consequently their material
properties did not meet matrix system
requirements for fiber composite. In particular, the overly high breaking elongation and
the high processing viscosity proved to
disadvantageous for the intended use.
These first-generation systems were prepared from cellulose or starch derivatives,
and were sold under the tradenames of
Bioceta, Sconacell A, and Mater Bi.
At a later date, when technical polylactic
acid was developed, initial investigations
showed this material to be easily processed
using pressing techniques (very low processing viscosity), whilst its mechanical
features (high stiffness and strength) were
above average when compared with other
biopolymers. However, polylactic acid
proved to be easily hydrolyzed, with autocatalytic hydrolysis being initiated at temperatures of only 608C when the polymer
moisture content was a few ppm. Moreover, the end product of hydrolysis (lactic
acid) was readily biodegradable, and this led
to severe problems with the polymer's
mechanical properties.
As mentioned previously, there is a considerable need for development in the area of
thermosets made from renewable resources.
Polyurethanes, which were the first such
materials available commercially, were composed of petrochemical-based isocyanate
(55%) and natural polyolefines (45%); consequently, current research is now seeking
the development of an isocyanate with a
biological background, while vegetable oilbased epoxy acrylates and epoxy resins are
also under development.

3 Natural Fiber-reinforced Construction Materials

When composite materials prepared only

from renewable resources are detailed in the
literature, they are shown to have clear
deficits in their material properties compared with glass-fiber reinforced plastic
(GFRP ) and to the theoretically calculated
values of fiber properties.
It is suggested that biocomposite materials might have interior applications such as
furniture and packaging for electrical appliances. As fire-resistant properties are essential in certain application, for example in the
interior cladding of railway carriages and
aircraft bodies, flame-retardant measures for
biocomposites are undergoing stringent
evaluation. Mineral alternatives to flameretardant agents that contain halogens have
been described, and these seem especially
applicable when the biocomposite concept
is taken into account (Troitzsch, 1990).
Further investigations on the development
of fiber polymer composites made from
renewable resources for use as construction
materials and which have high fire safety
requirements are described in the next
section.

Natural Fiber-reinforced Construction

Materials

Biocomposites are construction materials

that consist of biopolymers as embedding
matrices for directed or undirected natural
reinforcing fibers (Fig. 1).
3.1

Fibers

In a fiber-reinforced polymer, the fibers serve

as a reinforcement and show high tensile
strength and stiffness, while the matrix
holds the fibers together, transmits the
shear forces, and also functions as a coat-

Fig. 1

Components of biocomposite.

ing. The materials behavior of matrices is

usually characterized by a functional relationship of time and temperature, a considerably lower tensile strength, and a comparatively higher elongation. Therefore, the
mechanical properties of fibers determine
the stiffness and tensile strength of the
composite. Very thin fibers with a large
surface-to-volume ratio generally provide
good adhesion between the fibers and the
matrix.
Depending on the fiber orientation, the
materials behavior of composites can be
either: quasi-isotropic (with all (short) fibers
randomly orientated, and no privileged
direction of mechanical properties); anisotropic (with all fibers orientated in one or
more directions with corresponding mechanical properties); or orthotropic (fibers
orientated mainly in two directions rectangular to each other and showing corresponding materials behavior).

1 Applications of Natural Fiber Composites for Constructive Parts in Aerospace, Automobiles, and Other Areas

The selection of suitable fibers is determined by the required values of stiffness and
tensile strength of a composite (Michaeli
and Wegener, 1990; Carlsson and Byron
Pipes, 1989; Ehrenstein, 1992). Further
criteria for the choice of suitable reinforcing
fibers include:

ramie fibers can compete with E-glass fibers

(Al-B-silicate glass; Flemming et al., 1995)
that serve as a reference because of their
major importance in composite technology
( Wagner, 1961; Flemming et al., 1995).

.
.
.
.
.
.

Biopolymers

elongation at failure;
thermal stability;
adhesion of the fibers and matrix;
dynamic behavior;
long-term behavior; and
price and processing costs.

Natural fibers can be further subdivided

into vegetable, animal, and mineral fibers
(see Fig. 2). Mineral fibers due to their
carcinogenic propertiesare only used in
very small amounts (if at all) in any technical
developments.
Vegetable fibers (e.g., cotton, flax, hemp,
jute) are composed of cellulose, while fibers
of animal origin consist of proteins (e.g.,
hair, silk, wool). Vegetable fibers can be
generally classified as bast, leaf, or seed-hair
fibers, depending on their origin. In plants,
bast and leaf fibers provide mechanical
support to the stem or leaf, respectively, as
is the case in flax, hemp, jute, or ramie. In
contrast, seed-hair fibers such as cotton and
milkweed are attached to the plant's seeds
and aid in wind dispersal ( Wagner, 1961;
Flemming et al., 1995; Satlow et al., 1994;
Haudek and Viti, 1980).
Many natural fibers have a hollow space
(the lumen), as well as nodes at irregular
distances that divide the fiber into individual
cells. The surface of natural fibers is rough
and uneven and provides good adhesion to
the matrix in a composite structure. As
mentioned above, the specific mechanical
properties of natural fibers are important
when used in composites. When comparing
the tenacity and elongation at failure of both
natural and synthetic fibers, hemp, flax, and

3.2

The above-mentioned natural fibers are

embedded in a biopolymer matrix system,
the task of which is to hold the fibers
together. This provides and stabilizes the
shape of the composite structure, transmits
the shear forces between the mechanically
high-quality fibers, and protects them
against radiation and other aggressive media. Polymers (except elastomers) are usually
subdivided into thermosets and thermoplastics, both of which are suitable as matrix
systems for construction materials made
from biocomposites.
In the following section, polymers and
their basic components (which are constructed predominantly from renewable
resources) are termed biopolymers. In
addition, these basic parts can be formed
either by the main chain, by the side
chain(s), or even by monomers as basic
polymer elements. The consequence of this
form of construction is that numerous
variations exist for optional biopolymer
structures.
Polymers of natural origin (e.g., starch and
cellulose) must be modified either physically
or chemically in order to make them suitable
for processing as thermoplastic resins. For
example, the structure of starch can be made
thermoplastic by using adjuvants such as
glycerol and water (Aichholzer, 1997; Fritz,
1997). A frequently used option to improve
these properties is to add copolymers, and
these may be of petrochemical origin (MaterBi is one such product) (Bastioli, 1998).
However, this effect can also be achieved by

Classification of natural fibers (DIN 60 001, 1990).

3 Natural Fiber-reinforced Construction Materials

Fig. 2

1 Applications of Natural Fiber Composites for Constructive Parts in Aerospace, Automobiles, and Other Areas

partial or complete esterification of the

hydroxyl groups in the side chains with
short-chained organic acids (e.g., acetic acid)
or perhaps by the addition of plasticizers
(e.g., the product Sconacell A ) (Rapthel and
Kakuschke, 1997). Other physical, chemical,
mechanical, and thermal properties of the
biopolymers are also influenced by these
modifications. The esterification of hydroxyl
groups at the side chain is preferred to
convert cellulose into a thermoplastic material that retains its cellulose chain structure
(e.g., the product Bioceta) (Eicher and
Fischer, 1975; Franz Rauscher, 1997;
Kuhne, 1998).
In the biotechnological synthesis of biopolymers (often by fermentation), those
produced by microorganisms in particular
are often synthesized in vivo as an energy
storage systems (in plants, energy is stored
in the form of starch). Polyhydroxybutyric
acid (PHB) and its copolyesters are perhaps
the most important examples of fermented
biopolymers (e.g., BIOPOL ) (Schack, 1998).

Fig. 3

Classification of biopolymers.

In general, polymers are constructed from

so-called monomers, which in turn are
created from smaller components by chemical synthesis (Fig. 3). Monomers are either
synthesized in a completely natural manner,
as with lactic acid, or are only slightly
modified in their chemical structure, as in
the case of various epoxidized sunflower,
rape, or soybean oils.
Until now, the above-mentioned basic
components have been cross-linked with
hardeners of petrochemical origin (e.g.,
Elastoflex) (Scherzer, 1997), but other natural raw materials such as cellulose, shellac,
and lignin (which have similar functions)
can also be cross-linked and additional raw
materials can also be added.
Various options exist by which the available matrices may be modified (Utz, 1992;
Fritz et al., 1994; Witt et al., 1997; Herrmann
et al., 1998; Riedel and Gensewich, 1999;
Riedel, 1999; Raschke et al., 2000), and so
the material selection must be adapted to the
given requirements. The criteria to select a

3 Natural Fiber-reinforced Construction Materials

suitable matrix system for high-performance

construction materials include the temperature used, the mechanical loading, and the
manufacturing technology. An important
requirement for the matrix is an adequately
low viscosity to ensure good impregnation of
the reinforcing fibers. Additional basic
qualities such as good adhesion to the
natural fibers must also be presented. Apart
from further matrix qualities, the abovementioned criteria are essential for optimum fiber-reinforced composites.
At the DLR Institute of Structural Mechanics, the available biopolymers are tested
with respect to their suitability as matrices
for biocomposites (Table 1). In addition to
the performance of various biopolymers,
their potential for application to new manufacturing techniques is currently under
examination (e.g., new resin injection procedures, i.e., the differential pressure resin
transfer molding (DP-RTM ) and single line
injection molding (SLI ) technologies which
were developed at the DLR Institute of
Structural Mechanics) (Pabsch et al., 1997;
Sigle, 1999; Kleineberg et al., 2000).
Polymers made from renewable resources
frequently do not sufficiently fulfil requirements to be used as matrices in biocomposites. This deficit is based on the historical
development of these polymers as they were
originally designed for the packaging sector.
In particular, they show either too high
values of elongation at failure, or their
rheological behavior restricts their use in
biocomposites.

3.2.1

Thermoplastics
An essential requirement for a good fiber
matrix adhesion is optimized impregnation
of the reinforcing system. A well-established
ultrasonic test method is used to evaluate the
degree or quality of impregnation of compo-

site plates. Exposure of the specimens to

water during testing (some biopolymers
react critically to moisture) may cause much
more rapid swelling than do petrochemical
matrix systems found in classic composites.
The thermoplastic matrix system BAK
1095 (a type of polyesteramide) has been
studied in depth with respect to moisture
sensitivity (minimal moisture pick-up).
Furthermore, as it covers a large range of
viscosity depending on the temperature, this
polymer has been selected to serve as a
model substance to determine a limiting
value of viscosity as a criterion for the
manufacture of biocomposites using the
film-stacking procedure. The limiting value
of viscosity is defined here as the maximum
viscosity of a thermoplastic polymer that still
results in well-impregnated flax fiber nonwovens, and is a fundamental requirement
for the good adhesion of fibers and matrix.
This makes clear that the impregnation of
fibers in a composite structure, and especially that of thermoplastic resins, depends
on the viscosity of the matrix which can be
influenced by temperature. Applying the
above-mentioned procedure, laminates with
a 30% fiber content were made from
polyesteramides and flax fiber nonwovens.
By varying the processing temperature, the
viscosity of the matrix was set to corresponding values that had been determined using
rheological tests. The press temperature was
increased in steps of 108C from 1158C to
1558C. As no further significant changes
were identified, no additional increase in
temperature was tested. Subsequently, ultrasonic tests were performed on the laminate
plates produced in this way. Based on these
results, specimens for tensile and bending
tests were cut from these plates and examined.
The ultrasonic scan in Figure 4 shows
bright areas which represent high ultrasonic
damping, and dark areas which represent

10

1 Applications of Natural Fiber Composites for Constructive Parts in Aerospace, Automobiles, and Other Areas

Tab. 1

Examined matrix systems

Type

Name of material

Manufacturer

Cellulose ester

Bioceta
Cellidor B 501 07A
HPCP, HPCS, HPCL

Mazzucchelli
Cellulose diacetate
Albis Plastics
Cellulose ester
Wolff Walsrode Hydroxycellulose

Biomer P types
209, 226 H, 240
Biopol types
C 400 GN, XB 407
BAK types
105 004, 105 005,
402 006, 1095
BAK types
106 005, 106 006
Biomax M 6924
Eastar 14766
Bionolle types
1020, 3020
Capa types
650, 660, 680
Tone-Polymer types
767, 787
Tone-Polymer 787

Biomer

Polyhydroxy-butyrates

Monsanto

Polyhydroxy-butyrates/valerate

Bayer

Polyesteramide, Mica

Bayer

Polyesteramide, Wollastonite

DuPont
Eastman
Showa Denko

Polyester
Copolyester
Aliphatic polyester

Solvay

Polycaprolactone

Union
Carbide
Union
Carbide
Biomer
Cargill Dow
Mitsui Toatsu
Chemicals
Neste
BIOP

Polycaprolactone

Hydroxypropyl-cellulose derivatives
Polyhydroxy-butyrates

Polycondensates

Polycaprolactone

Polylactic acid

Biomer L 5000
EcoPLA 3010
Lacea H 100

Neste PLA
BIOPar types
F 4257, G 6479, G 6480
Bioplast GS 902
Getrex TP II
Mater-Bi YI 01 U/2
Supol types
133, 173, 177
Starch derivatives
Floralat 10 %,
Floralat 30 %
Sconacell A
Wood and various nat- Fasal types
ural materials
386, 486
Lignopol
Treeplast F368
Polyurethane
Elastoflex
Starch blends

Components

Polycaprolactone
Polylactic acid
Polylactic acid
Polylactic acid
Polylactic acid
Potato starch, additives

Biotec
IGV
Novamont
Supol

Starch, polyester
Rye flour, modifier
Starch, cellulose derivatives
Wheat starch, linseed oil-based resins

Xintech
Systems
BSL
IFA Tulln

Starch acetate, natural fibers

Borregaard
Treeplast
BASF

Sovermol types

Cognis

Merginate

Hobumer
Fettchemie

Starch acetate
Splints, maize, natural resins, polyolefin
Lignin, proteins, alcohol, plant fibers
Wood flour, maize, natural resins, additives
Polyols from
epoxidized vegetable oils
Polyols from
epoxidized vegetable oils
Polyols from epoxidized vegetable oils

3 Natural Fiber-reinforced Construction Materials

Tab. 1

(cont.)

Type

Name of material

Manufacturer

Components

Epoxi-resins

PTP
Tribest/ B 4
Merginamide

Epoxidized plant oils

Plant oil-based resin
Epoxidized plant oils

Acrylates

Tribest types:
L 380, L 381,
S 350, SF 7030
Merginat UV types

Preform
Cognis
Hobumer
Fettchemie
Cognis

Hobumer
Fettchemie
DLR

Acrylates from epoxidized plant oils

Shellac

Fig. 4

Shellac

Acrylates from epoxidized plant oils

Shellac-based resin

Ultrasonic scan of composites from polyesteramides; hot-pressed at 1258C (left) and at 1558C

(right).

low damping, i.e., there is homogeneous

fiber matrix distribution. Although ultrasonic scans of all specimens were generally
similar, they differed in terms of their
brightness. Plates produced at higher processing temperatures resulted in darker
ultrasonic images, as a lower viscosity of
the matrix yielded a better impregnation of
the nonwovens. This interdependence was
proven by the results of both tensile and
bending tests (Figure 5).
When comparing the properties of specimens made at a processing temperature of
either 1458C or 1558C, there was only a slight

Fig. 5 Influence of the pressing temperature on the

properties of BAK composites.

11