Chapter 1 Answers

1.1. Converting from polar to Cartesian coordinates:

!ej7r ='!COS7r = -!, !e-j7r = !cos(-7r) =-!

ej~ = cos (~) + j sin (~) = j, e-j~ = cos (~) - j sin (~) = -j

ej5~ = ej~ = j, V2eji = V2 (cos a) + j sin (%)) = 1 + j

In gb!_ In is: In -9j" In zis:

v ze 4 = v 2e 4 = 1 + j, v 2e 4 = v 2e 4 = 1 - j

V2e-=¥- = 1 - j

1.2. Converting from Cartesian to polar coordinates:

5 = 5ejO, -2 = 2d7r, -3j = 3e-j~

! -j4 = e-ji, 1 + j = V2eji, (1- j)2 = 2e-g

j(l - j) = eji !:::tlll~J: = d~, V2+jV2 = e-jf2

, l+jV3

1.3. (a) Eoo = roo e-4tdt = t, Poo = 0, because Eoo < 00

Jo -

(b) X2(t) = ej(2t+i), IX2(t)1 = 1. Therefore, Eoo = I:IX2(tWdt = I: dt = 00, Poo =

lim 2~jT IX2(tWdt = lim 2~jT dt = lim 1 = 1

T-,;oo -T T-,;oo -T T-,;oo

(c) .X3(t) = cos(t). Therefore, Eoo = I:'X3(tWdt = I: cos2(t)dt = 00,

. 1 jT . 1 jT (1+COS(2t»)

Poo = )~~ 2T -T cos2(t)dt = )~~ 2T -T 2 dt = !

00 00

(d) xl[n] = (!t urn], IXl[n]12 = nt u[n]. Therefore, e; = L IxdnW = L (tt = ~,

n=-oo n=O

Poo = 0,

because Eoo < 00.

00

(e) x2[n] = ej("2n+~), 1~2[n]12 = 1. Therefore, Eoo = L IX2[n]12 = 00,

n=-oo

N N

r: = lim 2N1 1 L IX2[n]12 = lim 2N1 1 L 1 = 1.

N-';oo + n=-N N-,;oo + n=-N

00 00

(f) x3[n] = cos(%n). Therefore, e; = L IX3[nW = L cos2(~n) = 00,

n=-oo n=-oo

. 1 ~ 27r . 1 ~(l+COS(~n») 1

Poo = J~oo 2N + 1 L...J cos (4n) = J~oo 2N + 1 L...J 2 = 2

n=-N n=-N

1.4. (a) The signal x[n] is shifted by 3 to the right. The shifted signal will be zero for n < 1

and n > 7.

(b) The signal x[n] is shifted by 4 to the left. The shifted signal will be zero for n < -6 andn > 0.

1

(c) The signal x[n] is flipped. The flipped signal will be zero for n < -4 and n > 2.

(d) The signal x[n] is flipped and the flipped signal is shifted by 2 to the right. This new signal will be zero for n < -2 and n > 4.

(e) The signal x[n] is flipped and the flipped signal is shifted by 2 to the left. This new signal will be zero for n < -6 and n > O.

1.5. (a) x(l - t) is obtained by flipping x(t) and shifting the flipped signal by 1 to the right.

Therefore, x(l - t) will be zero for t > -2.

(b) From (a), we know that x(l-t) is zero for t > -2. Similarly, x(2-t) is zero for t > -1.

Therefore, x(l - t) + x(2 - t) will be zero for t > -2.

(c) x(3t) is obtained by linearly compressing x(t) by a factor of 3. Therefore, x(3t) will be zero for t < 1.

(d) x(t/3) is obtained by linearly stretching x(t) by a factor of 3. Therefore, x(t/3) will be zero for t < 9.

1.6. (a) Xl(t) is not periodic because it is zero for t < O.

(b) x2[n] = 1 for all n. Therefore, it is periodic with a fundamental period of 1.

(c) x3[n] is as shown in the Figure S1.6.

41 pi pi

. . .

1-1

-J.

Figure S1.6

-1

Therefore, it is periodic with a fundamental period of 4.

1.7. (a)

1 1

£v{xlln]} = "2 (Xl [n] + Xl [-n]) = "2 (u[n] - urn - 4] + u[-n]- u[-n - 4])

Therefore, £v{xlln]} is zero for Inl > 3.

(b) Since X2(t) is an odd signal, £V{X2(t)} is zero for all values of t. (c)

£v{x3[n]} = ~(xl[n] + xl[-n]) = ~[(~tu[n - 3]- (~)-nu[-n - 3]] Therefore, £v{x3[n]) is zero when Inl < 3 and when Inl-t 00.

(d)

1 1

£V{X4(t)} = "2(x4(t) + X4( -t)) = "2[e-5tu(t + 2) - e5tu( -t + 2)

Therefore, £V{X4(t)} is zero only when Itl-t 00.

2

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s new

right.

> -1.

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1.8. (a) Re{Xl(t)} = -2 = 2eOt cos(Ot + 71")

(b) Re{x2(t)} = v'2cos(f) cos(3t + 271") =cos(3t) = eOt cos(3t + 0) (c) Re{x3(t)} = e:' sin(3t + 71") = e-t cos(3t +~)

(d) Re{x4(t)} = -e-2tsin(100t) = e-2tsin(100t + 71") = e-2tcos(100t +~)

1.9. (a) Xl(t) is a periodic complex exponential.

Xl(t) = jei10t = ei(lOt+~)

The fundamental period of Xl(t) is ~~ = %.

(b) X2 (t) is a complex exponential multiplied by a decaying exponential. Therefore, X2 (t) is not periodic.

(c) x3[n] is a periodic signal.

X3[n] = ej77rn = ei7rn

x3[n] is a complex exponential with a fundamental period of 2; = 2.

(d) x4[n] is a periodic signal. The fundamental period is given by N = m(3;/5) = me30).

By choosing m = 3, we obtain the fundamental period to be 10.

(e) x5[n] is not periodic. x5[n] is a complex exponential with Wo = 3/5. We cannot find any integer m such that m(~:) is also an integer. Therefore, x5[n] is not periodic.

1.10.

X(t) = 2cos(10t + 1) - sin(4t - 1)

Period of first term in RHS = ~~ = % Period of second term in RHS = 2: = ~

Therefore, the overall signal is periodic with a period which is the least common multiple

of the periods of the first and second terms. This is equal to 71".

1.11.

Period of the first term in the RHS = 1

Period of the second term in the RHS = m(4;/7) = 7 (when m = 2)

Period of the third term in the RHS = m(2;j5) = 5 (when m = 1)

Therefore, the overall signal x[n] is periodic with a period which is the least common multiple of the periods of the three terms in x[n]. This is equal to 35.

1.12. The signal x[n] is as shown in Figure S1.12. x[n] can be obtained by flipping urn] and then shifting the flipped signal by 3 to the right. Therefore, x[n] = u[-n + 3]. This implies that

M = -1 and no = -3.

3

r jt { 0,

y(t) = x(r)dt= (8(i+2)-8(r-2))dt= 1,

-00 -00 0,

t <-2

-2 ::; t ::; 2 t.> 2

i

.... III II II

-3--1 0 1 z..2

•••

Figure 81.12

1.13.

Therefore,

e; = j2 dt = 4 -2

1.14. The signal x(t) and its derivative g(t) are shown in Figure S1.14.

J

,c-t) I"

. ..

o

1. z.

....

-I

t

-I

...

o

t

-2.

...

-~ Figure 81.14

Therefore,

00 00

g(t) = 3 L 8(t - 2k) - 3 L 8(t - 2k -1)

k=-oo

k=-oo

This implies that Al = 3, tl = 0, A2 = -3, and t2 = 1.

1.15. (a) The signal x2[nJ, which is the input to 82, is the same as yIlnJ. Therefore,

1

x2[n - 2] + '2x2[n - 3]

1

= YI[n - 2] + '2yIln - 3]

1

= 2xtln - 2] + 4xl[n - 3] + '2(2xI[n - 3] + 4xIln - 4])

= 2xI[n - 2] + 5xI[n - 3] + 2xIln - 4]

The input-output relationship for 8 is

y[n] = 2x[n - 2] + 5x[n - 3] + 2x[n - 4]

4

(b) The input-output relationship does not change if the order in which 81 and 82 are connected in series is reversed. We can easily prove this by assuming that 81 follows 82. In this case, the signal Xl [n], which is the input to 81, is the same as Y2[n]. Therefore,

Ydn] 2x1[n] + 4x1[n - 1] 2Y2[n] + 4Y2[n - 1]

1 1

= 2(x2[n - 2] + iX2[n - 3]) + 4(x2[n - 3] + iX2[n - 4])

= 2x2[n - 2] + 5x2[n - 3] + 2x2[n - 4]

The input-output relationship for 8 is once again

y[n] = 2x[n - 2] + 5x[n - 3] + 2x[n - 4]

1.16. (a) The system is not memoryless because y[n] depends on past values of x[n]. (b) The output of the system will be y[n] = c5[n]c5[n - 2] = O.

(c) From the result of part (b), we may conclude that the system output is always zero for inputs of the form c5[n - k], k E I. Therefore, the system is not invertible.

1.17. (a) The system is not causal because the output y(t) at some time may depend on future values of x(t). For instance, y( -71') = x(o).

(b) Consider two arbitrary inputs Xl (t) and X2(t).

X1(t) ---+ Y1(t) = Xl (sin(t» X2(t) ---+ Y2(t) = X2 (sin(t»

Let X3(t) be a linear combination of X1(t) and X2(t). That is,

where a and b are arbitrary scalars. If X3(t) is the input to the given system, then the corresponding output Y3(t) is

Y3(t) = X3 (sin(t))

= aXl (sin(t)) + bX2 (sin(t)) = aY1(t) + by2(t)

Therefore, the system is linear.

1.18. (a) Consider two arbitrary inputs x1[n] and x2[n].

n+no

x1[n]---+ Ydn] = L x1[k]

k=n-no

5

n+no

X2[n] -+ Y2[n] = L x2[k]

k=n-no

Let x3[n] be a linear combination of x1[n] and x2[n]. That is,

where a and b are arbitrary scalars. If x3[n] is the input to the given system, then the corresponding output Y3[n] is

n+no

Y3[n] = L x3[k]

k=n-no

n+no n+no n+no

= L (ax1[k] + bX2[k]) = a L x1[k] + b L x2[k]

k=n-no

k=n-no

k=n-no

Therefore, the system is linear.

(b) Consider an arbitrary input Xl [n]. Let

n+no

ylln] = L X Ilk]

k=n-no

be the corresponding output. Consider a second input x2[n] obtained by shifting x1[n] in time:

X2[n] = xlln - n1] The output corresponding to this input is

n+no n+no

Y2[n] = L x2[k] = L x1[k - n1] =

k=n-no

k=n-no

k=n-nl-no

Also note that

n-nl+nO

Y1[n - n1] = L x1[k].

k=n-nl-no

Therefore,

Y2[n] = Ylln - n1] This implies that the system is time-invariant.

(c) If Ix[n]1 < B, then

y[n] ::; (2no + l)B

Therefore, C::; (2no + l)B.

6

the

dn]

1.19. (a) (i) Consider two arbitrary inputs Xl(t) and X2(t).

Xl(t) -t Yl(t) = t2Xl(t -1) X2(t) -t Y2(t) = t2x2(t - 1)

Let X3(t) be a linear combination of xdt) and X2(t). That is,

X3(t) = aXl (t) + bX2(t)

where a and b are arbitrary scalars. If X3(t) is the input to the given system, then the corresponding output Y3(t) is

Y3(t) = t2x3(t - 1)

= t2(axl(t - 1) + bX2(t -1» = aYl(t) + by2(t)

Therefore, the system is linear.

(ii) Consider an arbitrary input Xl(t). Let

Yl(t) = t2Xl(t - 1)

be the corresponding output. Consider a second input X2(t) obtained by shifting Xl(t) in time:

X2(t) = Xl(t - to) The output corresponding to this input is

Y2(t) = t2X2(t - 1) = t2xl(t - 1- to)

Also note that

Yl (t - to) = (t - to)2Xl (t - 1 - to) =f. Y2(t) Therefore, the system is not time-invariant.

(b) (i) Consider two arbitrary inputs xl[n] and x2[n).

xl[n) -t ydn] = x?[n - 2] x2[n] -t Y2[n] = x~[n - 2]

Let x3[n] be a linear combination of xdn] and x2[n]. That is,

x3[n] = axdn] + bX2[n]

where a and b are arbitrary scalars. If x3[n] is the input to the given system, then the corresponding output Y3[n] is

Y3[n] = x~[n - 2]

= (axl[n - 2] + bX2[n - 2])2

= a2x?[n - 2] + b2x~[n - 2] + 2abxl[n - 2]x2[n - 2] =f. aydn] + by2[n]

Therefore, the system is not linear.

7

Also note that

Yl[n - no] = xi[n - 2 - no]

(ii) Consider an arbitrary input xI[n]. Let

Yl[n] = xi[n - 2]

be the corresponding output. Consider a second input x2[n] obtained by shifting xdn] in time:

x2[n] = xl[n - no] The output corresponding to this input is

Y2[n] = x~[n - 2] = xi[n - 2 - no]

Therefore,

Y2[n] = Y1[n - no] This implies that the system is time-invariant. (c) (i) Consider two arbitrary inputs xl[n] and x2[n].

xl[n]--* Yl[n] = xl[n + 1]- xl[n - 1] x2[n]--* Y2[n] = x2[n + 1]- x2[n - 1] Let x3[n] be a linear combination of xl[n] and x2[n]. That is,

where a and b are arbitrary scalars. If x3[n] is the input to the given system, then the corresponding output Y3[n] is

Y3[n] = x3[n + 1]- x3[n - 1]

= aXl[n + 1] + bXl[n + 1]- aXl[n - 1]- bX2[n - 1] = a(xl[n + 1] - xI[n - 1]) + b(x2[n + 1]- x2[n - 1]) = aYl[n] + by2[n]

Therefore, the system is linear.

(ii) Consider an arbitrary input xI[n]. Let

be the corresponding output. Consider a second input x2[n] obtained by shifting Xl [n] in time:

x2[n] = xI[n - no] The output corresponding to this input is

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Also note that

Therefore,

Y2[n] = Yl[n - no] This implies that the system is time-invariant. (d) (i) Consider two arbitrary inputs Xl(t) and X2(t).

Xl(t) --+ Yl(t) = Od{Xl(t)} X2(t) --+ Y2(t) = Od{X2(t)}

Let X3(t) be a linear combination of Xl(t) and X2(t). That is,

where a and b are arbitrary scalars. If X3(t) is the input to the given system, then the corresponding output Y3(t) is

Y3(t) = Od{X3(t)} Od{axl(t) + bX2(t)}

= aOd{xl(t)} + bOd{X2(t)} = aYl(t) + bY2(t)

Therefore, the system is linear.

(ii) Consider an arbitrary input Xl(t). Let

be the corresponding output. Consider a second input X2(t) obtained by shifting xdn] in time:

X2(t) = xdt - to) The output corresponding to this input is

= Od{X2(t)} = X2(t) - X2( -t) 2

Xl(t - to) - Xl(-t - to)

2

Also note that

( ) Xl(t-tO)-Xl(-t+tO)_J. ()

Yl t - to = 2 r Y2 t

Therefore, the system is not time-invariant.

9

1.20. (a) Given

x(t) = e12t -7 y(t) = e13t X(t) = e-j2t -7 y(t) = e-j3t

Since the system is linear,

Xl(t) = cos(2t) -7 Yl(t) = cos(3t)

Therefore,

(b) We know that

Using the linearity property, we may once again write

Xl(t) = cos(2(t -1/2» -7 Yl(t) = cos(3t - 1) (;ii')The signals are sketched in Figure S1.21.

\'·--·~(t -I) Jl.(l-t)

Therefore,

-I

%-(zt+l)

-I

-1

Figure S1.21 8 The signals are sketched in Figure 81.22.

1.23. The even and odd parts are sketched in Figure S1.23.

10

a(~-Lf.] x{j-I-l] -x.~n] 'X.r~I1+IJ
f.t JL
I
." 11- _, 0 n
-IlL .
(1.\) (b) (C) (d.) "[1'1) .1.\[tI-ll :: xfh1

Ce)

~

e '2. t\

(f)

?l((t\-IY' J

.. .1 11 ..

012. ?1.

(h)

2- -f;
(iN
fCI,. H) ')(.o(-t- )
V~
-2- -I
2- t 0 2- t
-(/2. -
(b) (e) Figure 81.23

11

·-lill I ll_~ I ~ ~. n

•••

Ca.)

r

~[",) J I

.. lit • . • .'1111'/2-,. ..

Ih,. l' T _ I 1.

1/,. • • 1 •

1/2- . ] ..

-i

• •

·-1.·'~11··

_, -v."

~,.

_~ 0 I ~

· I · -Vl.

-{

VI. (c)

Figure 81.24

1.24. The even and odd parts are sketched in Figure 81.24.

1.25. (a) Periodic, period = 2n/(4) = n/2. (b) Periodic, period = 2n/(n) = 2 .

. (c) x(t) = [1 + cos(4t - 2n/3)]/2. Periodic, period = 2n/(4) = n/2.

(d) x(t) = cos(4nt)/2. Periodic, period = 2n/(4n) = 1/2.

(e) x( t) = [sin( 4nt)u(t) - sin(4nt)u( -t)]/2. Not periodic.

(f) Not periodic.

1.26. (a) Periodic, period = 7. (b) Not periodic.

(c) Periodic, period = 8.

(d) x[n] = (1/2)[cos(3nn/4) + cos(nn/4)]. Periodic, period = 8.

(e) Periodic, period = 16.

eY (a) Linear, stable.

(b) Memoryless, linear, causal, stable.

(c) Linear

( d) Linear, causal, stable.

(e) Time invariant, linear, causal, stable.

(f) Linear, stable.

(g) Time invariant, linear, causal.

12

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1.30. (a) Invertible. Inverse system: y(t) = x(t + 4).

(b) Non invertible. The signals x(t) and Xl(t) = x(t) + 27f give the same output. (c) Non invertible. 8[n) and 28[n] give the same output.

(d) Invertible. Inverse system: y(t) = dx(t)/dt.

(e) Invertible. Inverse system: y[n] = x[n + 1) for n 2: 0 and y[n] = x[n) for n < O. (f) Non invertible. x[n) and -x[n) give the same result.

(g) Invertible. Inverse system: y[n) = x[1 - n].

(h) Invertible. Inverse system: y(t) = x(t) + dx(t)/dt.

(i) Invertible. Inverse system: y[n] = x[n)- (1/2)x[n - 1]. (j) Non invertible. If x(t) is any constant, then y(t) = O. (k) Non invertible. 8[n] and 28[n] result in y[n) = O.

(1) Invertible. Inverse system: y(t) = x(t/2).

(m)Non invertible. xl[n] = 8[n) + 8[n -1) and x2[n] = 8[n) give y[n) = 8[n). (n) Invertible. Inverse system: y[n) = x[2n].

1.31. (a) Note that X2(t) = Xl(t) - Xl(t - 2). Therefore, using linearity we get Y2(t) = Yl(t)Yl(t - 2). This is as shown in Figure 81.31.

(b) Note that X3(t) = Xl(t) + Xl(t + 1). Therefore, using linearity we get Y3(t) = 1/l(t) + Yl(t + 1). This is as shown in Figure 81.31.

t

-2.

Figure S1.31

1.32. All statements are true.

(1) x(t) periodic with period T'; Yl(t) periodic, period T/2.

(2) u, (t) periodic, period T j x ( t) periodic, period 2T.

(3) x(t) periodic, period T; Y2(t) periodic, period 2T.

(4) Y2(t) periodic, period T; x(t) periodic, period T/2.

1.33. (1) True. x[n) = x[n + N]j Yl[n] = Yl[n + No). i.e. periodic with No = N /2 if N is even, and with period No = N if N is odd.

15

(2) False. Yl [n] periodic does no imply x[n] is periodic. i.e. let x[n] = g[n] + h[n] where

g[r] = { ~:

and h[n] = { ~1/2)n,

n even

n odd .

n even n odd

Then Yl[n] = x[2n] is periodic but x[n] is clearly not periodic. (3) True, x[n + N] = x[n]; Y2[n + No] = Y2[n] where No = 2N

(4) True. Y2[n + N] = Y2[n]; x[n + No] = x[n] where No = N/2

8 (a) Consider '--~

00 00

L x[n] = x[O] + L{x[n] + x[-n]}.

n=-oo

n=l

If x[n] is odd, x[n] + x[-n] = O. Therefore, the given summation evaluates to zero. (b) Let y[n] = Xl [n]x2[n]. Then

y[-n] = xl[-n]x2[-n] = -xl[n]x2[n] = -y[n].

This implies that y[n] is odd. ( c) Consider

00 00
L x2[n] = L {xe[n] + xo[n]}2
n=-OO n=-oo
00 00 00
= L x~[n] + L x~[n]+2 L xeln]xo[n].
n=-oo n=-oo n=-oo Using the result of part (b), we know that xe[n]xo[n] is an odd signal. Therefore, using the result of part (a) we may conclude that

00

2 L xe[n]xo[n] = O.

n=-oo

Therefore,

00 00 00

L x2[n] == L x~[n] + L x~[n].

n=-oo

n=-oo

n=-oo

( d) Consider

j_: x2(t)dt = j_: x~(t)dt + j_: x~(t)dt + 2 j_: xe(t)xo(t)dt.

Again, since xe(t)xo(t) is odd,

Therefore,

16

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1.35. We want to find the smallest No such that m(21f/N)No = 21fk or No = kN/m, where k is an integer. If No has to be an integer, then N must be a multiple of m/k and m/k must be an integer. This implies that m/k is a divisor of both m and N. Also, if we want the smallest possible No, then m/k should be the GCD of m and N. Therefore, No = N/gcd(m, N).

1.36. (a) If x[n] is periodic ejwo(n+N)T = ejwonT, where Wo = 21f/To· This implies that

21f NT = 21fk To

:::}

T k . 1 b

To = N = a rationa num er.

(b) 1fT/To = p [q then x[n] = ej2'Trn(p/q). The fundamental period is q/gcd(p,q) and the fundamental frequency is

21f 21f P Wo woT

-gcd(p,q) = --gcd(p,q) = -gcd(p,q) = -gcd(p,q).

q p q p p

(c) p/gcd(p, q) periods of x(t) are needed.

1.37. (a) From the definition of <pxy(t), we have

<pxy{t) = f: x(t + r)y{r)dr = f: y( -t + r)x{r)dr = <pyx { -t).

(b) Note from part (a) that <Pxx(t) = <Pxx{ -t). This implies that <Pxx{t) is even. Therefore, the odd part of <Pxx{t) is zero.

(c) Here, <PXy{t) = <Pxx(t - T) and <pyy(t) = <Pxx(t).

B(a) We know that 2,,,(2.) = ',,/Al). Therefore,

lim tSa(2t) = lim -21 tSfl/2{t).

fl--tO fl--tO

This implies that

tS{2t) = ~tS(t). (b) The plots are as shown in Figure S1.38.

1.39. We have

lim Ufl(t)tS(t) = lim Ufl(O)tS{t) = O.

fl-tO fl-tO

Also,

17

~(t)

-4fL A/z. 0
£ v.tLt)


liz.,.
J -t -A A
-!1 6.
U~Lt) '-tiC-t)
"- _t/A
I-J.e..
z.
-{1 A t Figure S1.38

We have

g(t} = 100 u(r}8(t - r}dr = roo u(r)8(t - r}dr.

-00 l«

Therefore,

{ 0,

g(t) = 1, undefined

t<O t>O

for t = 0

·:8(t-r)=0

"." u(r)8(t - r) = 8(t - r)

1.40. (a) If a system is additive, then

0= x(t) - x(t) -+ y(t) - y(t) = O.

Also, if a system is homogeneous, then

0= O.x(t) -+ y(t).O = O.

(b) y(t) = x2(t) is such a system.

(c) No. For example, consider y(t) = J~oox(r)dr with x(t) = u(t) -u(t-l). Then x(t) = 0 for t > 1, but y(t) = 1 for t > 1.

18

(g) Since rl > O,r2 > 0 and -1 ::; cos ( {It - (}2) ::; 1, (IZII-lz21)2 = rf + r~ - 2rlr2

< rf + r~ + 2rlr2 COS«(}l - (}2)

IZI + z212

and

1.54. (a) For a = 1, it is fairly obvious that

N-l

L:: an = N.

n=O

For a =f 1, we may write

N-l N-l N-l

(1 - a) L:: an = L:: an - L:: an+ 1 = 1 - aN.

n=O n=O n=O

Therefore,

(b) For lal < 1,

lim aN = O.

N-too

Therefore, from the result of the previous part,

N-l 00

lim L:: an = Lan = _1_.

N-too 1- a

n=O n=O

. (c) Differentiating both sides of the result of part (b) wrt a, we get

:a (~aN) = d~ C ~ a)
00 1
L:: nan-1 = (1- a)2
n=O (d) We may write

00 00 k

~ an = ak~ an = _a_ for lal < 1.

c: z: I-a

n=k n=O

1.55. (a) The desired sum is

9 1 J·1r1O/2

L:: ·1rn/2 _ - e - .

e3 - . /2 - 1 + J.

1 - eJ1r

n=O

27