Springer 2008

Journal of Business Ethics (2008) 82:213231

DOI 10.1007/s10551-007-9572-4

A Stakeholder Approach to Corporate

Social Responsibility: A Fresh Perspective
into Theory and Practice

ABSTRACT. Stakeholder theory has gained currency in

the business and society literature in recent years in
light of its practicality from the perspective of managers
and scholars. In accounting for the recent ascendancy
of stakeholder theory, this article presents an overview
of two traditional conceptualizations of corporate
social responsibility (CSR) (Carroll: 1979, A ThreeDimensional Conceptual Model of Corporate Performance, The Academy of Management Review 4(4), 497505
and Wood: 1991, Corporate Social Performance
Revisited, The Academy of Management Review 16(4),
691717), highlighting their predominant inclination
toward providing static taxonomic CSR descriptions.
The article then makes the case for a stakeholder approach
to CSR, reviewing its rationale and outlining how it
has been integrated into recent empirical studies. In light
of this review, the article adopts a stakeholder framework
the Ethical Performance Scorecard (EPS) proposed by
Spiller (2000, Ethical Business and Investment: A Model
For Business and Society, Journal of Business Ethics 27,
149160) to examine the CSR approach of a sample
of Lebanese and Syrian firms with an interest in
CSR and test relevant hypotheses derived from the
CSR/stakeholder literature. The findings are analyzed
and implications drawn regarding the usefulness of a
stakeholder approach to CSR.
KEY WORDS: corporate social responsibility (CSR),
stakeholder theory, Lebanese and Syrian context

Introduction
The topic of the social responsibilities of business has
been a subject of intense controversy and interest
over the past three decades. In part, this debate is an
outgrowth of the proliferation of different conceptualizations of corporate social responsibility (CSR).
The term CSR has indeed been defined in various

Dima Jamali

ways from the narrow economic perspective of

increasing shareholder wealth (Friedman, 1962), to
economic, legal, ethical and discretionary strands of
responsibility (Carroll, 1979) to good corporate
citizenship (Hemphill, 2004). These variations
stem in part from differing fundamental assumptions
about what CSR entails, varying from conceptions of minimal legal and economic obligations
and accountability to stockholders to broader
responsibilities to the wider social system in which a
corporation is embedded.
Resulting from these divergent fundamental
assumptions is a lingering skepticism in the field of
business and society, inviting Frankental (2001) to
argue for example that CSR is a vague and
intangible term which can mean anything to anybody, and therefore is effectively without meaning.
The confederation of British industry has similarly
argued that CSR is highly subjective and therefore
does not allow for a universally applicable
definition. Social responsibility has been variously
described as an elusive concept (Lee, 1987), a vague
and ill-defined concept (Preston and Post, 1975),
a concept with a variety of definitions (Votaw,
1973), a concept lacking theoretical integration and
empirical verification (DeFillipi, 1982; Post, 1978;
Preston, 1978), a concept lacking a dominant paradigm (Jones, 1983), and a concept susceptible to
subjective and value-laden judgments (Aupperle
et al., 1983).
Along the same lines, Clarkson (1995) has forcefully argued that a fundamental problem in the field
of business and society has been the notable absence
of definitions of corporate social performance (CSP),
corporate social responsibility (CSR1) and corporate
social responsiveness (CSR2), and the lack of consensus about the meaning of these terms from an

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operational or managerial viewpoint (Clarkson,

1995). He makes the case that CSP can be analyzed
more effectively by using a framework based on the
management of a corporations relationships with its
stakeholders than by using CSR models and methodologies given that corporations are the nexus of a
complex web of stakeholder relationships and indeed
manage relationships with specific stakeholder
groups rather than with society at large.
Maignan et al. (2005) similarly find that senior
management and many marketers still struggle with
the notion of CSR. The crux of the problem
stems from the meaning of the word social and
how it links to daily business activities. Indeed,
because of the level of abstraction of the word
social, managers may have problems evaluating
how their own organization can contribute to the
well being of society as a whole (Clarkson, 1995;
Maignan et al., 2005). Indeed as suggested by
Clarkson (1995) society is a level of analysis that
is more inclusive, more ambiguous and further up
the ladder of abstraction than a corporation itself.
Based on casual observation, the term society is
often used interchangeably with the community
stakeholder group in the business and society literature, raising a legitimate concern as to whether
the societal level of abstraction is indeed helpful or
justified.
Hence, there is clearly some merit to a stakeholder approach to CSR, which will be further
probed and explored in this article. Indeed as proposed by Maignan et al. (2005), even though
businesses in general are accountable toward society
at large, an individual business can be deemed
responsible only toward stakeholders, or the
definable agents with whom it interacts. The article
starts by presenting an overview of two popular
conceptualizations of CSR, highlighting their predominant inclination toward providing static taxonomic CSR descriptions. The article then makes
the case for a stakeholder approach to CSR,
reviewing its inherent logic and outlining how it
has been integrated into recent empirical studies. In
light of this review, the article adopts a stakeholder
framework the Ethical Performance Scorecard
(EPS) proposed by Spiller (2000) to examine the
CSR approach of a number of Lebanese and Syrian
firms that are considered active in CSR. The
findings are presented and relevant implications

drawn regarding the usefulness of a stakeholder

CSR approach.

Traditional CSR conceptualizations

Various CSR conceptualizations are on offer in the
literature. This section will shed briefly the light on
two robust CSR conceptualizations that are wellgrounded in the literature. The first is Carroll (1979)
four-part definition of CSR that was embedded into
a conceptual model of CSP. The other is the CSP
model by Wood (1991), which placed CSR into a
comprehensive framework, emphasizing principles
guiding responsibility behavior, processes of
responsiveness and outcomes of performance. The
purpose is to show that despite their groundbreaking
insights, the models on offer still qualify as taxonomic, helping in turn accentuate or bring to light
the dynamism inherent in a stakeholder approach as
well as its practicality from a managerial perspective.

Carrolls 1979/1991 conceptualization

In 1979, Carroll differentiated between four types of
CSR: economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary.
The first category that Carroll (1979) delineated is a
responsibility that is economic in nature, entailing,
for example, providing a return on investment to
owners and shareholders; creating jobs and fair pay
for workers; discovering new resources; promoting
technological advancement, innovation, and the
creation of new products and services. Business from
this perspective is the basic economic unit in society
and all its other roles are predicated on this fundamental assumption (Carroll, 1979).
The legal responsibility is the second part of the
definition and entails expectations of legal compliance and playing by the rules of the game. From
this perspective, society expects business to fulfill its
economic mission within the framework of legal
requirements set forth by the societal legal system.
But, while regulations may successfully coerce firms
to respond to an issue, it is difficult to ensure that
they are applied equitably (Pratima, 2002). Moreover, regulations are reactive in nature, leaving little
opportunity for firms to be proactive. Laws, therefore, attempt to circumscribe the limits of tolerable

A Stakeholder Approach to Corporate Social Responsibility

business behavior, but they neither define ethics nor
do they legislate morality (Solomon, 1994).
In essence, ethical responsibility overcomes the
limitation of law by creating an ethics ethos that
companies can live by (Solomon, 1994). It portrays
business as being moral, and doing what is right, just,
and fair. Therefore, ethical responsibility encompasses activities that are not necessarily codified into
law, but nevertheless are expected of business by
societal members such as respecting people, avoiding
social harm, and preventing social injury. Such
responsibility is mainly rooted in religious convictions, humane principles and human rights commitment (Novak, 1996). However, one limitation to
this type of responsibility is its blurry definition and
the consequent difficulty for business to concretely
deal with it (Carroll, 1979).
The final type of responsibility is where firms
have the widest scope of discretionary judgment and
choice, in terms of deciding on specific activities or
philanthropic contributions that are aimed at giving
back to society. The roots of this type of responsibility lie in the belief that business and society are
intertwined in an organic way (Frederick, 1994).
Examples of such activities might include philanthropic contributions, conducting in-house training
programs for drug abusers, or attempts at increasing
literacy rates (Carroll, 1979). This type of responsibility is the most controversial of all since its limits
are broad and its implications could conflict with the
economic and profit-making orientation of business
firms.
Carroll (1991) revisited his four-part definition of
CSR and organized the notion of multiple corporate
social responsibilities in a pyramid construct (Figure 1). In this pyramid, economic responsibility is
Total Responsibility
Discretionary Responsibility

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the basic foundation and discretionary the apex. This

revised conceptualization implies that the four
responsibilities are additive or aggregative. From this
perspective, economic and legal responsibilities are
socially required (i.e., mandatory), ethical responsibility is socially expected, while philanthropy is
socially desired (Windsor, 2001) and each of these
responsibilities comprises a basic component of the
total social responsibility of a business firm.
The other components of the CSP model originally proposed by Carroll (1979) entailed an identification of the social issues that business must
address and a specification of the philosophy of
responsiveness to the issues. Recognizing that social
issues may change over time depending on the
industry in which firms exist, an effective responsibility performance entails a systematic attempt at
fleshing out the social issues that are of most
interest to the firm. A strategy or mode of responsiveness must also be identified, although this component was vaguely addressed in Carrolls (1979)
conceptualization, with a simple differentiation
between reactive, defensive, accommodative or
proactive responsiveness strategies.
Carrolls (1979) conceptualization was useful and
timely, and represented a significant advance in CSR
research by specifying the different types or
dimensions of social responsibility. However, his
contribution qualifies primarily as taxonomic, outlining the range of responsibilities that managers are
expected to fulfill. Details and guidelines regarding
process and measurement however remain scant for
both managers and scholars. As per Clarkson (1995),
Carrolls model in the form of a three dimensional
cube was complex and difficult to test. It did not
lend itself to the development of a methodology that
could be used in the field to collect, organize, and
evaluate corporate data. Herein lies the caveat of
any taxonomic approach, which can be potentially
remedied with a more practical stakeholder
approach.

Ethical Responsibility
Legal Responsibility
Economic Responsibility

Figure 1. A hierarchy of CSR (adapted from Carroll,

1991)

Wood 1991 conceptualization

In 1991, Wood revisited the CSP model and
introduced important refinements by going beyond
an identification of the different types of responsibilities to examine issues relating to the principles

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motivating responsible behavior, the processes of

responsiveness and the outcomes of performance.
Her refined postulation, therefore, placed CSR into
a broader context than just a stand-alone definition,
and conceptualized CSP as the product of a business
firms particular configuration of principles of social
responsibility, processes of social responsiveness, as
well as observable outcomes as they relate to the
firms societal relationships (Table I).
The model offered by Wood (1991) constitutes a
significant advance in CSR research. A researcher
using the model would first consider the principles
that motivate a firms social responsibility actions at
three levels of analysis: institutional, organizational
and individual. Therefore, the motivation for a
firms social responsibility actions may stem from the
principle of legitimacy (institutional level), i.e., from
a desire to maintain credibility and legitimacy as a
responsible societal actor in a shared environment.
Alternatively, the motivation could stem from an
organizational sense of public responsibility, particularly for outcomes related to the firms primary and
secondary areas of involvement. Finally, the motivation could stem from the choices of individual
managers and their personal responsibility preferences and inclinations. There is also room for
interactivity among two or more of these principles
in motivating CSP.
Responsiveness according to Wood (1991) constitutes an action dimension that is needed to complement the normative and motivational component
of social responsibility. It is conceptualized as comprising three facets environmental assessment,
TABLE I
The CSP model (Wood, 1991)
Principles of CSR1
Institutional principle: legitimacy
Organizational principle: public responsibility
Individual principle: managerial discretion
Processes of CSR2
Environmental assessment
Stakeholder management
Issues management
Outcomes of corporate behavior
Social impacts
Social programs
Social policies

stakeholder management and issues management,

which are effectively interlocked. Responsiveness is
rooted in knowledge about the external environment and in rigorous environmental scanning/analysis. This knowledge could then be used to devise
strategies for adapting to the environment or conversely changing it. Stakeholder management is another tenet of responsiveness and can be investigated
by examining particular kinds of stakeholder management devices (e.g., employee newsletters, public
affairs officials, and corporate social reporting). Issues
management on the other hand entails an investigation of the firms approach to devising and monitoring responses to social issues.
The outcomes of corporate behavior are in turn of
direct and obvious interest in the assessment of CSP.
According to Woods CSP model, outcomes are
divided into three types: the social impacts of corporate behavior, the programs companies use to
implement responsibility and the policies developed
by companies to handle social issues and stakeholder
interests. Whether corporate behavior is having
positive or negative impact should objectively be
assessed (positive impact as in the provision of jobs,
the creation of wealth or technological innovation
and negative impact as in toxic wastes or illegal
payments to politicians). The nature of programs
selected for investment of resources to achieve specific ends is also important as is the extent of the
integration of social issues and impacts within the
body of company policy.
Although Woods (1991) CSP model integrates
much of the earlier work into a coherent model for
assessing an organizations corporate social performance, it does not, according to Waddock (2004),
fully consider the significance of stakeholder impacts. Stakeholder management is indeed accorded
only limited attention in discussion of responsiveness
processes. More fundamentally, Woods (1991)
model may suffer from a certain level of abstraction
from the perspective of practicing managers in view
of its scholarly language of principles of CSR and
processes of corporate social responsiveness. As
articulated by Meehan et al. (2006) While Woods
1991 model represents a significant piece of scholarship, it nevertheless failed to address the needs of
practicing managers charged with implementing
CSR/CSP programs and crucially measuring their
impacts.

A Stakeholder Approach to Corporate Social Responsibility

Both frameworks hence seem more oriented
toward advancing theory and research in the field
rather than influencing practice. The complex and
dynamic nature of the social environment faced by
most modern organizations, implying the need for
on-going stakeholder management, is also difficult
to capture with such taxonomic descriptions.
Inherent in a stakeholder approach or model is an
exchange perspective for social responsibility management, recognizing the changing/evolving needs
of different groups of stakeholders which need to be
continuously monitored and addressed in a fluid and
dynamic manner. The potential usefulness/added
value of a stakeholder approach will be further
explored in the next section.

A stakeholder approach to corporate social

responsibility (CSR)
Some of the central concepts associated with what is
known today as stakeholder theory began to gain
currency during the mid-1980s (Freeman, 1984;
Freeman and Reed, 1983). Freemans (1984) work
helped to re-conceptualize the nature of the firm to
encourage consideration of new external stakeholders, beyond the traditional pool shareholders,
customers, employees, and suppliers legitimizing in
turn new forms of managerial understanding and
action (Jonker and Foster, 2002). Organizations
from this perspective are expected to manage
responsibly an extended web of stakeholder interests
across increasingly permeable organization boundaries and acknowledge a duty of care towards traditional interest groups as well as silent stakeholders
such as local communities and the environment
(Simmons, 2004).
Stakeholder theory hence offered a new way to
organize thinking about organizational responsibilities. By suggesting that the needs of shareholders
cannot be met without satisfying to some degree the
needs of other stakeholders, it turned attention to
considerations beyond direct profit maximization. In
other words, even when a firm seeks to serve its
shareholders as a primary concern, its success in
doing so is likely to be affected by other stakeholders (Foster and Jonker, 2005; Hawkins, 2006).
Some even argue that an inclusive stakeholder
approach makes commercial sense, allowing the firm

217

to maximize shareholder wealth, while also

increasing total value added (Hawkins, 2006; Phillips
et al., 2003; Wallace, 2003).
By the end of the decade, many researchers were
using stakeholder ideas and terminology (Wood,
1991). Several authors have indeed favored a stakeholder approach when examining CSR. In their
assessment of CSR and CSP in the context of a
sample of Italian SMEs, Longo et al. (2005) identified the demands of key stakeholders regarding the
creation of value by the business, resulting in a grid
of values (Table II), which associates each stakeholder with value classes that satisfy their respective
expectations. These value classes have been derived
based on studies and models already covered in
existing literature, as well as on the basis of the
analysis of various social audit and sustainability
reports. Companies in their study are considered as
socially responsible if they demonstrate social
behavior satisfying the expectations of at least half of
the value classes identified for each stakeholder.
A similar approach was used by Abreu et al.
(2005) in their exploration of the CSR experience
and practice of enterprises in Portugal, whereby five
key stakeholders were identified, including consumers, suppliers, the community, the government
and the environment. Internally, they also examined
workplace practices vis-a-vis employees. Their
TABLE II
The grid of values (Longo et al., 2005)
Stakeholder

Expectations divided into value classes

Employees

Health and safety at work

Development of workers skills
Wellbeing and satisfaction of worker
Quality of work
Social equity
Partnership between ordering company
and supplier
Selection and analysis systems of suppliers
Product quality
Safety of customer during use of product
Consumer protection
Transparency of consumer product information
Creation of added value to the community
Environmental safety and production

Suppliers

Customers

Community

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research suggests a clear inclination on the part of

firms operating in Portugal to attend to the external
dimension of CSR. Another study in the Spanish
context (Uhlaner et al., 2004) also utilized a stakeholder approach, defining CSR effectiveness as the
ability to satisfy a wide range of constituents within/
outside the organization. Two categories of stakeholders, economic and social, were identified with
the findings suggesting the salience of the economic
stakeholders clients and employees over the social ones including sports clubs, the church, and the
environment. The researchers confirm on the basis
of their study the utility of a stakeholder approach in
the context of CSR.

A stakeholder approach was also used by Papasolomou et al. (2005) in the context of Cypriot
businesses. Their rationale for using a stakeholder
approach is that stakeholders invariably affect or are
affected by business organizations and therefore can
be seen as imposing on them different responsibilities. They identify six groups as key stakeholders
including employees, customers, investors, suppliers,
the community and the environment and delineate
relevant CSR actions vis-a-vis each cluster respectively as illustrated in Table III. Their findings suggest that Cypriot firms accord the most attention to
employees and consumers in their pursuit of CSR,
moderate attention to the community stakeholder,

TABLE III
CSR actions vis-a-vis key stakeholders (Papasolomou et al., 2005)
Stakeholder

Actions vis-a-vis key stakeholders

Employees

Provides a family friendly work environment

Engages in responsible human resource management
Provides an equitable reward and wage system for employees
Engages in open and flexible communication with employees
Invests in employee development
Encourages freedom of speech and promotes employee rights to speak up and report their concerns at
work
Provides child care support/paternity/maternity leave in addition to what is expected by law
Engages in employment diversity in hiring and promoting women, ethnic minorities and the physically
handicapped
Promotes a dignified and fair treatment of all employees
Respects the rights of consumers
Offers quality products and services
Provides information that is truthful, honest and useful
Products and services provided are safe and fit with their intended use
Avoids false and misleading advertising
Discloses all substantial risks associated with product or service
Avoids sales promotions that are deceptive/manipulative
Avoids manipulating the availability of a product for purpose of exploitation
Avoids engagement in price fixing
Fosters reciprocal relationships between the corporation and community
Invests in communities in which corporation operates
Launches community development activities
Encourages employee participation in community projects
Strives for a competitive return on investment
Engages in fair and honest business practices in relationships with shareholders
Engages in fair trading transactions with suppliers
Demonstrates a commitment to sustainable development
Demonstrates a commitment to the environment

Consumers

Community

Investors
Suppliers
Environment

A Stakeholder Approach to Corporate Social Responsibility

and limited attention to suppliers, investors and the
environment.
The bulk of the studies encountered in the
literature and outlined above fall within the scope of
descriptive stakeholder theory, which seeks to
outline the views of participants of the mission/
objectives of their organization and its actions vis-a-vis
different stakeholders (Brickson, 2007). This methodology can yield interesting insights particularly
that organizations are socially constructed and act in
accordance with shared perceptions (Brickson,
2007). There are also flavors in the literature of
assessments along the lines of instrumental or normative stakeholder theory. Instrumental stakeholder
theory assumes that the corporation is an instrument
for wealth creation with CSR conceived as a strategic tool to promote economic objectives (Garriga
and Mele, 2004). Normative stakeholder theory on
the other hand delineates philosophically based
moral obligations towards stakeholders (Brickson,
2007), focusing on the ethical requirements that
cement the relationship between business and society (Garriga and Mele, 2004).
While the tenet of stakeholder theory is that all
stakeholders matter and that organizations should
integrate their responsibilities to the various stakeholder constituencies, this balancing exercise has
proven difficult to enact in practice (Galbreath,
2006; Vos and Achterkamp, 2006). Rather than
producing every kind of social value for every
stakeholder,
organizations
find
themselves
constrained in practice by limited resources and
bounded rationality, and thus tend to prioritize their
stakeholders according to instrumental and/or normative considerations. Such stakeholder classification or prioritization usually draws on managerial
discretion, their specific instrumental or normative
inclinations as well as their assessment of relational
stakeholder attributes of power, legitimacy and
urgency (Mitchell et al., 1997), legitimizing in turn
the usefulness of a descriptive stakeholder theory or
methodology.
Overall, stakeholder theory in all its three veins or
branches brought to the fore a set of new insights for
CSR academics and practitioners. It accentuated the
notion that corporations must be viewed as operating at the center of a network of interrelated
stakeholders that create, sustain and enhance value
creating capacity (Post et al., 2002) challenging in

219

turn an exclusive focus on shareholders. The language of stakeholder theory was also easier to grasp
by managers/practitioners as most organizations
understood and defined obligations and responsibilities vis-a-vis their traditional stakeholders (Clarkson,
1995). Stakeholder theory seems also easier to
maneuver in collecting and analyzing CSR data as
evidenced by the proliferation of empirical studies
that have essentially integrated a stakeholder approach as outlined in the previous section. This
stream of research has also led to the delineation of
relevant stakeholder issues and associated measures of
impacts, which, with further refinement, can serve as
useful guidelines for managers in their pursuit of
CSR actions and interventions (Davenport, 2000).
The next section highlights how a stakeholder CSR
approach the EPS proposed by Spiller (2000) was
used to collect and analyze CSR data in the context
of a sample of Lebanese and Syrian firms, allowing in
turn to draw relevant implications regarding the
usefulness of a stakeholder CSR approach.

Research methodology
Research hypotheses
The research methodology is consistent with
descriptive stakeholder theory, which seeks to
outline participants views of what the business
organization is doing vis-a-vis its stakeholders, as
well as the mechanisms through which different
views come into being (Brickson, 2007). This
descriptive stakeholder methodology will be supplemented in turn by reference to the two other
veins of stakeholder theory, namely instrumental
stakeholder theory and normative stakeholder
theory. In the framework of these three branches of
stakeholder theory, the following research hypotheses are derived and tested after being presented here
in the context of the corresponding CSR literature
in which they are respectively anchored.
Developing country firms prioritize their stakeholders based primarily on
instrumental considerations.

Hypothesis 1 (H1)

H1 draws on a large body of literature that shows

unequivocally that stakeholder management is often

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conceived and approached instrumentally in relation

to its implications for the bottom line and firm performance. Windsor argues in this respect that a
leitmotiv of wealth creation progressively dominates
the managerial conception of responsibility
(Windsor, 2001). Firms tend to accord systematic
attention to primary stakeholder management in
anticipation of expected bottom line benefits. This
is also consistent with the view that firms prioritize their stakeholders and investments based on
stakeholder attributes of power, legitimacy and
urgency or indirect instrumental considerations
(Mitchell et al., 1997). A wide range of empirical
studies in various contexts provide support for this
hypothesis (please see Uhlaner et al., 2004 and
Papasolomou et al., 2005 who highlight the salience
of the economic stakeholders in their respective
studies; de Madariaga and Valor, 2007 who report
differential firm attention across stakeholder groups
particularly in relation to customers, employees and
shareholders; Snider et al., 2003 who report that three
stakeholder groups stand out in their study as essential
to firm success namely customers, employees and
owners; and Galbreath, 2006 who makes the case for
an instrumental stakeholder management approach in
his empirical study). H1 is applicable globally and in
developing countries more specifically in view of the
scarcity of resources and the salience of resource
dependency theory in this particular context.
Developing country firms are
according systematic attention to a limited range
of stakeholders.

Hypothesis 2 (H2)

H2 is related to H1 and consistent with an instrumental stakeholder management process. In view of

limited resources and bounded rationality considerations, firms identify or prioritize a small number of
what they consider to be core or focal stakeholders,
with their stakeholder management process revolving around these key stakeholders. This hypothesis
is grounded in the literature, with Clarkson (1995)
differentiating between primary and secondary
stakeholders and highlighting the inclination of firms
to focus on primary stakeholders. It is also reflected
in the writings of Carroll and Buckhholtz (2003),
who make a distinction between core, strategic and
environmental stakeholders. There is ample empirical evidence suggesting that firms channel their

stakeholder management efforts around specific

stakeholders, with Knox et al. (2005) arguing for
example that the majority of FTSE companies in
their sample focused on less than three stakeholders;
de Madariaga and Valor (2007) arguing that their
sampled Spanish companies focus on three core
stakeholders and Galbreath (2006) revealing through
his study the criticality of focusing on few primary
internal stakeholders. H2 is applicable globally and in
developing countries more specifically where managerial resources and attention are stretched thin in
light of limited budgets, competing pressures and less
favorable contextual conditions.
Instrumental stakeholder management inclinations are counter-balanced or
nuanced by normative flavors, particularly vis-a-vis
the community stakeholder.

Hypothesis 3 (H3)

H3 draws on a large body of literature that argues that

firms need to maintain credibility and legitimacy as
responsible societal actors in a shared environment.
This is consistent with Woods (1991) legitimacy
principle and Davis (1960) iron law of responsibility.
H3 is also grounded in integrative theories and the
integrative social contract theory specifically (please
see Donaldson, 1982 and Donaldson and Dunfee,
1994), which assume that an implicit social contract
exists between business and society, implying indirect
obligations of business toward society. It is also
anchored in the corporate citizenship postulation, a
new notion connoting a sense of belonging and
responsibility to a community (Matten et al., 2003).
Finally, it is anchored in normative stakeholder theory which postulates that the interests of all stakeholders are of intrinsic value and merit consideration
based on ethical motives and principles (Freeman and
Philips, 2002). Normative stakeholder interpretations
are frequently encountered in the literature, with
various empirical studies reporting on firms strong
sense of obligation to the community stakeholder
group whose freedom and well-being is affected by
their activities (see Jamali and Mirshak, 2007; Margolis and Walsh, 2003; Papasolomou et al., 2005).
Stakeholder management is
affected by the relational attributes of specific
stakeholders (power, legitimacy, urgency) as well
the pressures they can exert on corporations.

Hypothesis 4 (H4)

A Stakeholder Approach to Corporate Social Responsibility

H4 draws on a large body of literature which argues
that managers will prioritize stakeholder claims
according to their relative power, legitimacy and
urgency. It is thus consistent with Mitchells et al.s
(1997) theory of stakeholder identification and salience which proposes that the cumulative number of
the three attributes of power, legitimacy and urgency
contributes to a stakeholder s claim being salient
from the perception of management. More recently,
Neville et al. (2004) have argued that an increase in
the degree of any of the three attributes will result in
an increase in stakeholder salience. H4 is also
consistent with the issues management and crisis
management literatures. H4 is finally consistent with
institutional theory that emphasizes that institutions
and stakeholders in the firms external environment
place pressures on firms, molding responses ranging
from passive conformity to active compromise,
defiance or strategic manipulation (Oliver, 1991).
In this respect, it draws on the institutional
isomorphism body of theory, and coercive institutionalism in specific, which argues that firms will be
coerced to respond to the pressures exerted by
institutionalized stakeholders and that a tendency to
homogenization can be detected when formal and
informal pressures come to bear on business firms via
stakeholder activism and emerging cultural expectations (Shepard et al., 1997).
Multinational corporations have
a more balanced stakeholder management process, translating into attention to a wider range of
stakeholders.

Hypothesis 5 (H5)

H5 draws on a large body of literature that seems to

suggest that MNCs are diffusing their responsibility
practices across countries in which they set shop
(Hawkins, 2006). It is also grounded in the body of
literature that seems to suggest the increased
sophistication of MNCs in relation to CSR generally
and stakeholder management specifically (Snider
et al., 2003). With the advent of globalization,
MNCs have unprecedented access to markets and
lower production costs. They also have come under
intense scrutiny by stakeholders and are thus
expected to be increasingly more proficient at
identifying and reconciling multiple stakeholder
interests. It is frequently mentioned that MNCs are
making systematic efforts at nurturing a wide

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spectrum of trust-based stakeholder relationships

grounded in their greater appreciation and sensitization to risks and repercussions associated with nonresponsible action and the competitive advantages of
responsible social action. Various empirical studies
provide support to this hypothesis, suggesting that
MNCs are more prone to establish real dialogue with
their stakeholders (Foster and Jonker, 2005) and to
tailor their corporate community involvement
activities in response to the preferences of societal
stakeholders (Brammer and Millington, 2003).
Research sample
The first step in the research entailed an identification of potential companies in both Lebanon and
Syria with an interest in CSR who could take part in
the research. The companies were contacted first by
phone, and then a formal introductory letter highlighting the aims of the research and its queries was
sent to the companies, with the EPS form enclosed.
An in-depth interview was then scheduled and
conducted by the author and two graduate assistants
(one in each country) with the person(s) responsible
for CSR. The interviewees were all managers,
occupying top managerial positions in their respective organizations (e.g., heads of public relations or
communications units; marketing managers and
development regional directors).
The companies that finally confirmed their participation spanned different industries, including
banking and financial services, Internet/multi-media
services, telecommunications, energy and petrochemicals, food and beverage, hospitality, tobacco,
pharmaceuticals and sales/distribution (Table IV).
From a targeted pool of 20 companies operating in
Lebanon, 14 confirmed their participation in the
study by March 2006. Similarly, from a targeted pool
of 13 companies operating in Syria, 8 confirmed
their participation by late March, 2006. Interestingly, the sample comprised companies that are both
national and international. Such sample composition
is potentially interesting, allowing a comparison of
the extent to which the CSR practices of local
companies (Lebanese or Syrian) differ from their
international counterparts as well as the extent to
which local subsidiaries are influenced by the CSR
approach of their mother firms.

Dima Jamali

222

TABLE IV
Sample profile
Company name

Type of industry

Lebanese sample
Company A*
Company B
Company C*
Company D
Company E
Company F
Company G*
Company H
Company I*
Company J*
Company K*
Company L*
Company M*

Financial services
Banking and financial services
Banking and financial services
Banking and financial services
Insurance
Internet services
Multimedia services
Food and beverage
Food and beverage
Hospitality
Hospitality
Tobacco
Pharmaceuticals

Company N

Sales and distribution

Syrian Sample
Company O
Company P
Company Q

Telecommunications
Telecommunications
Management information systems

Company
Company
Company
Company
Company

Energy and petrochemicals

Energy and petrochemicals
Metal and contracting
Food and beverage
Food and beverage

R
S
T
U
V

Line of business

International banking and investment

Commercial, retail and investment banking
International banking and investment
Banking services
Financial protection and insurance
Regional internet services/connections
Provider of news and financial information
Casual dining and fast food restaurant
Global food service retailer
Accommodation and recreational activities
Accommodation and recreational activities
Distribution and sales of tobacco products
Development, manufacturing and marketing
of leading prescription medicines
Sales and distribution of consumer products
(personal care, cosmetics and perfumery)
GSM telephone lines and pre-paid cards
GSM telephone lines and pre-paid cards
Information and computer technology
services
Oil/natural gas exploration and production
Oil/natural gas exploration and production
Metals and contracting services
Manufacturing and distribution of soft drinks
Manufacturing of consumer packaged biscuits
and beverage products

* Subsidiaries of International Corporations

Research tool and protocol

The EPS proposed by Spiller in 2000 was selected
for the primary component of this research.
According to Spiller (2000), the EPS extends the
Balanced Scorecard focus on satisfying shareholders
and customers to take account of the other primary
stakeholders comprising employees, suppliers, the
community and the environment. While the EPS
accords attention to the vision and purpose of the
firm and its ethical principles, the primary focus of
this diagnostic tool is on the companys practices
vis-a-vis primary stakeholders. These have been
categorized in terms of the six main stakeholder
groups and considered in terms of an inventory of

60 best practices that the author compiled based on

an extensive review of international case studies and
investment analysis (Table V).
According to Spiller (2000), the EPS can be
prepared at varying levels of depth. It can simply be
an account of publicly available information vis-a-vis
key stakeholder issues. Quantitative measures can be
considered from the level of donations disclosed in
the companys accounts to financial results as well as
qualitative assessments such as stakeholder perceptions of company performance included in media
reports, or through additional consultation with
stakeholders. Company involvement is, however,
key in terms of provision of relevant information,
as well as opportunity for discussion and justification

A Stakeholder Approach to Corporate Social Responsibility

223

TABLE V
The EPS (Spiller, 2000)
Stakeholder

Key business practices

Community

Generous financial donations

Innovative giving
Support for education and job training programs
Direct involvement in community projects and affairs
Community volunteer programs
Support for the local community
Campaigning for environmental and social change
An employee-led approach to philanthropy
Efficient and effective community activity
Disclosure of environmental and social performance
Environmental policies, organization and management
Materials policy of reduction, reuse and recycling
Monitoring, minimizing and taking responsibility for releases to the environment
Waste management
Energy conservation
Effective emergency response
Public dialogue and disclosure
Product stewardship
Environmental requirements for suppliers
Environmental audits
Fair remuneration
Effective communication
Learning and development opportunities
Fulfilling work
A healthy and safe work environment
Equal employment opportunities
Job security
Competent leadership
Community spirit
Social mission integration
Industry-leading quality program
Value for money
Truthful promotion
Full product disclosure
Leadership in research and development
Minimal packaging
Rapid and respectful responses to customer comments/concerns
Customer dialogue
Safe products
Environmentally and socially responsible product composition

Environment

Employees

Customers

224

Dima Jamali

TABLE V
continued
Stakeholder
Suppliers

Shareholders

Key business practices

Develop and maintain long-term purchasing relationships
Clear expectations
Pay fair prices and bills according to terms agreed upon
Fair and competent handling of conflicts and disputes
Reliable anticipated purchasing requirements
Encouragement to provide innovative suggestions
Assist suppliers to improve their environmental/social performance
Utilize local suppliers
Sourcing from minority-owned suppliers
Inclusion of environmental/social criteria in the suppliers selection
Good rate of long term return to shareholders
Disseminate comprehensive and clear information
Encourage staff ownership of shares
Develop and build relationships with shareholders
Clear dividend policy and payment of appropriate dividends
Corporate governance issues are well managed
Access to companys directors and senior managers
Annual reports provide a picture of companys performance
Clear long-term business strategy
Open communication with financial community

of areas of strength and concern from the perspective

of practicing managers. It is precisely such discussions with managers relating to different conceptions
of the stakeholder management process relative to
specific stakeholder issues and the ability to gauge
variations in prioritization in light of instrumental vs
normative managerial inclinations and changing
societal expectations that help account for the
superiority and dynamism of a stakeholder approach
to CSR over more taxonomic models.
As illustrated in Table V, the terminology used in
the EPS is simple. The interview entailed a discussion with the manager concerned of the relevant
practices across stakeholder groups as per Table V.
Numeric ratings to assess each of the 60 practices
were then respectively reflected upon and decided
by the managers interviewed, with a major strength
recorded as 2, a strength as 1, no strengths/concerns

as 0, a concern as )1 and a major concern as )2,

allowing in turn to obtain as per Spiller (2000) an
overall quantitative EPS score with the EPS scores
ranging between 120 where each of the 60 practices
is a major strength and )120 where each of the 60
practices is a major concern. The interviews were
tape recorded with the ratings as dictated by the
managers noted down by the researcher and discussion of specific ratings often dwelled upon in the
context of the interview in way of further clarification.
It should be noted that, while the EPS may
provide interesting insights in the context of an
exploratory research study, this approach is not
without its caveats or limitations. One such limitation stems from the equal initial weighting of all 60
issues as reflected in the 5-point scale across issues
which could at the outset be contested based on

A Stakeholder Approach to Corporate Social Responsibility

subjective value judgments or normative inclinations. More fundamentally, however, is that the total
EPS score calculated may be construed to reflect
aggregative assumptions about the social impact or
social performance of the firm, a concept that is also
highly contestable (please see Norman and MacDonald, 2004). The EPS scores are thus used in the
context of this study to conjure basic trends in
relation to stakeholder management practices and
not to provide an aggregative weighing of the
overall social performance of the firm.
The EPS methodology was nevertheless deemed
useful for various reasons. First, it reflected a simple
and comprehensive illustration of a stakeholder
approach to CSR. The EPS provides in this respect a
valuable tool for operationalizing the stakeholder
approach to CSR. Second, it provides an opportunity for gauging the practices of a company vis-a-vis
its key stakeholders and allows a comparative
benchmark assessment of the patterns of firm performance vis-a-vis different stakeholders relative to
other firms. This is particularly true when the EPS
scores derived are supplemented by discussions with
managers to gauge their assumptions, inclinations
and changing perspectives with regard to various
stakeholders and stakeholder issues.

225

Research findings
The EPS ratings for each of the case study companies
are presented in Tables VI and VII. These ratings
are not intended as a definitive statement of the
performance of the companies vis-a-vis core stakeholders, but simply report the findings compiled
based on the interviews conducted. The EPS results
reflect the pioneering work of Company A, which
stands out for its successful balancing of the interests
and concerns of all six stakeholder groups. It also
reflects the consistent efforts of Company L at
managing successfully the spectrum of stakeholder
relationships. A question arises here as to whether
the legitimacy of CSR practices can and should be
questioned because of the nature of the industry in
question (e.g. tobacco).
As illustrated in Table VI, the EPS scores for the
companies operating in Lebanon (both national and
international) have ranged from a low of 40 to a high
of 114, with an average EPS score of 73. The purpose here is not to consider the EPS scores as
reflective of aggregate social performance, but rather
to gauge stakeholder management patterns vis-a-vis
the different stakeholders. Companies operating
in Lebanon seem to be according the most attention

TABLE VI
Ethical performance scores Lebanese sample
Company Name
Company A*
Company B
Company C*
Company D
Company E
Company F
Company G*
Company H
Company I*
Company J*
Company K*
Company L*
Company M*
Company N
Lebanese sample averages

Community

Environment

Employees

Customers

Suppliers

Shareholders

Total EPS

14
2
9
12
10
5
3
13
9
15
10
10
10
13
10

20
)2
13
)5
)9
0
0
7
12
4
4
18
2
12
5

20
14
15
8
16
17
12
20
18
18
18
20
20
17
17

20
13
14
13
16
18
9
20
19
16
12
18
18
10
16

20
7
6
7
13
4
6
17
17
14
5
18
14
11
11

20
16
13
9
20
6
10
18
15
16
12
19
16
13
15

114
50
70
44
66
50
40
95
90
83
61
103
80
76
73

* Subsidiaries of International Corporations

Dima Jamali

226

TABLE VII
Ethical performance scores Syrian sample
Company Name
Company O
Company P
Company Q
Company R
Company S
Company T
Company U
Company V
Syrian sample averages

Community

Environment

Employees

Customers

Suppliers

Shareholders

Total EPS

13
18
10
12
)1
11
6
5
9

1
10
)2
6
14
9
12
)16
4

17
18
20
16
8
4
15
6
13

13
18
17
6
9
9
19
16
13

11
14
17
7
0
10
13
10
10

17
20
4
13
0
5
10
9
10

72
98
66
60
30
48
75
30
60

to the traditional stakeholders, namely employees,

customers and shareholders, respectively, and only
limited attention to the silent stakeholders, including
the community and the environment. This is possibly because silent stakeholders tend to be less
easily identifiable and less coherent in articulating
demands and hence relegated to lower priority in a
developing country context.
Results for the Syrian sample are comparable,
with consistently lower EPS scores across all stakeholder groups (Table VII). The highest EPS score
for the Syrian sample is 98 and the lowest is 30, with
an average EPS score of 60. Similar to the Lebanese
sample, the weakest performance is in the environmental dimension, followed by the community
dimension or in other words vis-a-vis the silent
stakeholder groups. The highest consideration is
accorded on the other hand to what Uhlaner et al.
(2004) refer to as the economic stakeholders, namely
customers and employees. It is clear from both tables
that stakeholders are accorded systematic attention
when they represent rational and/or economic
motives for the firm.

A comparative assessment of the EPS scores of

Lebanese and Syrian firms is shown in Table VIII.
When excluding the subsidiaries of international
corporations that may have potentially skewed the
EPS scores of the Lebanese sample, we notice that
the CSR performance of Lebanese and Syrian
companies vis-a-vis key stakeholders are comparable,
with Lebanese companies exhibiting a slightly
better performance vis-a-vis organizational and economic stakeholders (e.g. employees, customers and
shareholders) but worse performance vis-a-vis the
environment. Overall, the findings suggest the
salience of an instrumental stakeholder approach in
developing countries (i.e. firms addressing stakeholder interests that most directly affect performance).

Discussion of findings
An investigation into the application of the
stakeholder approach in the Lebanese and Syrian
contexts suggests a number of interesting findings
and insights. This section will dwell on the findings

TABLE VIII
A comparative benchmark Lebanese vs Syrian samples
Community Environment Employees Customers Suppliers Shareholders Total EPS
Lebanese sample (including *) 10
Syrian sample
9
Lebanese sample (excluding *) 9
Syrian sample
9
* Subsidiaries of International Corporations

5
4
1
4

17
13
15
13

16
13
15
13

11
10
10
10

15
10
14
10

73
60
64
60

A Stakeholder Approach to Corporate Social Responsibility

obtained in more detail in relation to the hypotheses
derived from the literature. An articulation and
explanation of the main findings will be supplemented as appropriate by the opinions and perspectives of the managers interviewed, which have been
recorded and compiled during the interviews and
can add much value here in terms of highlighting
relevant nuances. The identities of the respective
managers however will be kept anonymous.
Developing country firms prioritize their stakeholders based primarily on
instrumental considerations.

Hypothesis 1 (H1)

Our findings suggest that Lebanese and Syrian firms

seem to prioritize their stakeholders based on
instrumental considerations as reflected in the
higher EPS scores in relation to organizational and
economic stakeholders, namely employees, customers and shareholders respectively (Tables VI and
VII). Discussions with managers from both contexts
suggest that they indeed tend to selectively address
stakeholder issues for instrumental reasons. One of
the managers dwelled on this point our primary
mandate is to serve customers who in turn significantly
influence the performance of our business. Firms exist in
the first place to meet the needs of their customers.
Another manager highlighted the critical importance of good employee management in the sense
that productivity gains resulting from enlightened employee management policies yield substantial performance
advantages over non responsible firms. A similar view
was expressed by another manager noting that how
employees are treated affects firm performance.A Lebanese manager summed it up nicely, firms have to
manage stakeholder relationships strategically in order to
meet performance objectives.In the context of scarce resources, we must ask if any specific stakeholder relationship has the potential to generate advantages that
positively affect the bottom line. Based on these two
sets of data H1 is accepted.
Developing country firms are
according systematic attention to a limited range
of stakeholders.

Hypothesis 2 (H2)

Our findings suggest that Lebanese and Syrian firms

seem to be according systematic attention to a limited number of stakeholders as reflected in the differential higher EPS scores in relation to three core

227

stakeholders namely employees, customers and

shareholders respectively. This is true for both
samples (Tables VI and VII) but is more clearly
accentuated in relation to the EPS scores of the
Lebanese sample. Discussions with managers in turn
reinforce these observations. One of the managers
expressed the view that despite the need to balance
the interests of different stakeholders, competitive
pressures and traditional accounting systems tend to keep all
eyes focused on the short-term and key stakeholder relationships. In an attempt to justify the limited
attention accorded to suppliers for example, one of
our managers expressed the view that we do not have
the resources to ensure that appropriate controls are in place
to monitor our entire supply chain. Attention to a few key
stakeholders is thus dictated by practical considerations and
priorities. Another manager pointed out that our
objective is to attend to the needs of our customers and
employees, with highest priority placed on the profitable
creation and maintenance of superior customer value. The
two sets of data suggest that H1 and H2 are indeed
related, and that H2 in turn is also accepted.
Instrumental stakeholder management inclinations are counter-balanced or
nuanced by normative flavors, particularly vis-avis the community stakeholder.

Hypothesis 3 (H3)

There is limited room to gauge whether H3 is

supported by looking at the EPS scores in Tables VI
and VII. The only relevant observation in this respect is that the community stakeholder group has
received systematically higher EPS scores than the
environment stakeholder in both samples. But this
alone does not take us very far in way of evaluating
H3. Discussions with managers on the other hand
helped unveil interesting nuances in support of H3.
According to one of the managers, we have an
obligation to assist the less fortunate community segments
and constituencies. This is a responsibility of which we are
conscious at all times. Another manager expressed the
view that firms should seek to alleviate local problems
and improve the quality of life of the local community. A
more progressive view was expressed by another
manager who articulated that business prosperity is
linked to the well-being of the local community.These
views are consistent with integrative social contract
theory and with the corporate citizenship postulation, but more importantly seem to reflect norma-

228

Dima Jamali

tive flavors and inclinations vis-a-vis the community

stakeholder group specifically and hence H3 is accepted.
Stakeholder management is affected by the relational attributes of specific
stakeholders (power, legitimacy, urgency) as well
as the pressures they can exert on corporations.

Hypothesis 4 (H4)

H4 is difficult to assess systematically in light of the

EPS scores obtained and the fact that our data was
derived through interviews with managers without
equal consideration of stakeholder claims and perspectives. Nonetheless, it is safe to infer that our
managers consider the employees, customers,
shareholder and supplier stakeholder groups followed by the community stakeholder group to wield
more power/legitimacy based on instrumental and
normative considerations. More importantly in the
context of our findings is the inferred limited pressures exerted by institutions and institutionalized
stakeholders for environmental issues as can be
detected in the lowest EPS scores in relation to the
environmental stakeholder group in both samples
(Tables VI and VII). This is further supported by
discussions with managers, one of whom suggested
that given more pressing priorities, our stakeholders are
least concerned about improvements in corporate environmental performance. Another manager expressed the
view that there is not enough pressure on corporations to
assume fuller responsibility for their environmental impacts
and NGOs/environmental activist groups are virtually
dormant.One of the managers noted that the
importance of corporate environmental performance is simply not appreciated in this neck of the world. Given that
the environment is a silent stakeholder, environmental issues tend to be channeled through coercive
institutional pressures, which is clearly not the case
in Syria and Lebanon and hence the relegation of the
environment to the lowest priority in both contexts.
Based on the above analysis, H4 is also accepted.
Multinational corporations have
a more balanced stakeholder management process, translating into attention to a wider range of
stakeholders.

Hypothesis 5 (H5)

Findings from the Lebanese context suggest that

multinational companies (MNCs) have transplanted
with them a strong sense of responsibility, given that

as illustrated in Table VI, the EPS scores of the

subsidiaries of international corporations which have
been included in the sample are better than those of
their local counterparts.1 The EPS scores obtained
suggest that MNCs and their subsidiaries are making
systematic efforts at managing the spectrum of
stakeholder relationships. Discussions with MNC
managers support this view. One of the most
progressive managers of an MNC noted in this
respect that it is essential to nurture a wide spectrum of
trust-based stakeholder relationships, which can serve as a
source of opportunity and competitive advantage. Positive
stakeholder relationships are associated with the on-going
participation of stakeholders with the firm, thus increasing
its stability and expanding its overall capacity, effectiveness
and consistency of response. Another MNC manager
expressed the view that balancing stakeholder
relationships is the only way to protect the firm against
constant environmental volatility and ultimate erosion of
financial benefits.While the stakeholder management
approach of MNCs seem also anchored in instrumental motivations, the EPS scores obtained suggest
that MNCs have a more balanced stakeholder
management process and are according attention to a
wider range of stakeholders and thus H5 is accepted.
Concluding remarks
The recent ascendancy of stakeholder theory is
grounded in the belief that firmstakeholder relationships are the essential assets that managers must
manage (Post et al., 2002). While CSR aims to
define what responsibilities business ought to fulfill,
the stakeholder concept addresses the issue of whom
business is or should be accountable to (Kakabadse
et al., 2005). Both concepts are closely inter-related.
However, while the CSR concept still suffers from a
level of abstraction, the stakeholder approach offers a
practical alternative for assessing the performance of
firms vis-a-vis key stakeholder groups and hence also
indirectly gauging their CSP.
Indeed, although the literature has made progress
in terms of theoretical development, Clarksons
(1995) concern that the business and society field has
been hampered by the absence of widely accepted
definitions of core concepts remains a valid criticism
(Doh and Guay, 2006). This lack of clarity/
consensus has inhibited empirical testing of the

A Stakeholder Approach to Corporate Social Responsibility

traditional business and society theories and translated into a relative paucity of systematic assessments
of the societal impacts of business operations
(Davenport, 2000). Clarksons (1995) integration of
the concepts of stakeholders and CSP thus constituted an advance in this respect, providing an
alternative theoretical lens, and making it easier for
research to accrue.
Stakeholder theory has accordingly witnessed a
new resurgence and ascendancy in the context of
CSR research. Brenner and Chochran postulated as
early as 1991 that stakeholder theory holds the
promise of becoming the theoretical centerpiece in a
field that is searching for workable paradigms. Doh
and Guay (2006) similarly find the adoption of a
stakeholder model as a potentially appropriate and
insightful theoretical lens, given its ability to
systematically identify social stakeholder issues, and
establish specific measures of performance. An
organizations stakeholder management data can thus
be gathered and compared to other firms within and
across industries, making social auditing for internal
and external use both practical and possible (Davenport, 2000).
Along these lines, this article has tried to make the
case for a stakeholder approach to CSR, by arguing
(1) that stakeholder theory in all its three veins or
branches can bring to the fore a set of new insights for
CSR academics and practitioners; (2) that the language of stakeholder theory is easy to grasp by managers as most firms understand and define obligations
and responsibilities vis-a-vis their traditional stakeholders; and (3) that stakeholder theory seems easier
to maneuver in collecting and analyzing CSR data as
evidenced by the proliferation of empirical studies
that have essentially integrated a stakeholder approach
to CSR. It thus increasingly represents a concrete
alternative to traditional taxonomic models on offer.
Our empirical excursion in the Lebanese and
Syrian contexts has shown on the other hand how
stakeholder theory can be used to draw and test
new hypotheses, and to derive insights into general
CSR patterns/motivations. We have noted in this
respect the continued preoccupation of firms with
traditional core stakeholders (e.g., employees, customers and shareholders) and the salience of an
instrumental stakeholder management approach
based on a narrow definition/understanding of
CSR, with the integration of some normative fla-

229

vors, vis-a-vis the community stakeholder. We

have also noted that stakeholder management is
affected by the relational attributes of stakeholders
and the pressures they can exert on corporations,
while also noting the increased proficiency of
MNCs in balancing a broader range of stakeholder
interests.
While no over-generalizations can be drawn from
our findings, particularly in relation to the latter two
hypotheses (H4 and H5), the study is generally
indicative of the possibilities and range of issues that
can be explored within the context a stakeholder
approach to CSR. The EPS methodology adopted
in turn has its own limitations, but these have been
noted and circumvented through using this tool for
gauging stakeholder management patterns (and not
as an aggregate measure of CSP) and by supplementing the data obtained through interviews with
managers. Our empirical study shows that stakeholder methodology offers clear benefits in way of
deriving intuitive insights particularly in the context
of fleshing out specific stakeholder issues in the
context of familiar language that was easy to grasp
and relate to by managers.
This research allows in turn the delineation of
relevant suggestions for future research. There is a
need for more research along these lines within the
context of a stakeholder approach or framework.
Variations to the EPS can be considered and other
ways of classifying stakeholders (e.g., core vs. strategic vs. environmental) and differential weightings
of stakeholder issues which could yield equally
interesting insights. Research comparing the patterns
of stakeholder management of local companies and
international firms or subsidiaries is also very informative and can help build momentum towards
improved global practices. Finally more research
illuminating the patterns of stakeholder management
and CSR in developing countries is also very much
needed in view of the paucity of studies in such
contexts.

Note
1

With the exception of Reuters, which could be accounted for in light of the nature of the industry (news
provider) and the relatively small size of the subsidiary
firm (comprising only 25 employees).

230

Dima Jamali

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Olayan School of Business - Management,

American University of Beirut,
Bliss Street, Beirut 11-0236, Lebanon
E-mail: dj00@aub.edu.lb