Energy Conversion and Management 52 (2011) 27412751

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Overview on the current trends in biodiesel production

N.N.A.N. Yusuf, S.K. Kamarudin , Z. Yaakub
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 18 March 2010
Accepted 5 December 2010
Available online 29 March 2011
Keywords:
Biodiesel
Biofuel
Economy

a b s t r a c t
The nite nature of fossil fuels necessitates consideration of alternative fuels from renewable sources. The
term biofuel refers to liquid, gas and solid fuels predominantly produced from biomass. Biofuels include
bioethanol, biomethanol, biodiesel and biohydrogen. Biodiesel, dened as the monoalkyl esters of vegetable oils or animal fats, is an attractive alternative fuel because it is environmentally friendly and can be
synthesized from edible and non-edible oils. Here, we review the various methods for the production of
biodiesel from vegetable oil, such as direct use and blending, microemulsion, pyrolysis and transesterication. The advantages and disadvantages of the different biodiesel-production methods are also discussed. Finally, we analyze the economics of biodiesel production using Malaysia as a case study.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The world is currently facing the worst energy crisis in history.
Many countries worldwide are still heavily dependent on petroleum as their main source of electricity and transportation fuel,
and its price has been setting record highs in recent days. Thus,
the only possible solution to this crisis is to nd a sustainable
(renewable) and economically feasible source of alternative energy. There are many alternative energy sources such as wind, solar, geothermal and biomass that fulll the rst criterion
(sustainability). However, few of these can fulll the second criterion (economic feasibility). The best option, fullling both criteria,
is biofuel, particularly that made from readily available biomass
feedstock [13]. Biomass refers to all the vegetable matter that
can be obtained from photosynthesis. The great versatility of biomass as a feedstock is evident from the range of materials that
can be converted into various solid, liquid and gaseous fuels using
biological and thermochemical conversion processes. Biomass energy is by far the largest renewable energy source, representing
10.4% of the worlds total primary energy supply or 77.4% of global
renewable energy supply [4].
The concept of using biofuels in diesel engines originated with
the demonstration of the rst diesel engine by its inventor, Rudolf
Diesel, at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1900, using peanut oil as
the fuel. However, due to the then-abundant supply of petroleum
diesel, research and development activities on vegetable-oil fuels
were not seriously pursued. These fuels received attention only recently, when it was realized that petroleum fuels were fast dwindling and environmentally friendly renewable substitutes must
be identied [5,6]. Biofuels are liquid or gaseous fuels for the
Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 389216422; fax: +60 389216148.
E-mail address: ctie@eng.ukm.my (S.K. Kamarudin).
0196-8904/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2010.12.004

transport sector that are predominantly produced from biomass.

Biofuels can be produced from a variety of bio-feedstocks, they
are renewable, sustainable, biodegradable, carbon neutral for the
whole life cycle and environmentally friendly; they encourage
green industries and agriculture and are applicable as motor fuels,
without or with slight engine modications. Several biofuels,
including bioethanol, biomethanol, biodiesel and biohydrogen, appear to be attractive options for the future of the transport sector.
The production of biofuels is expected to rise steadily in the next
few decades [7]. At present, several countries such Brazil, the United States, Germany, Australia, Italy and Austria are already using
biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel. It is expected that this
trend will continue to grow and more countries will use biofuels
[8,9].
Bioethanol is an alternative fuel based on alcohol produced by
the fermentation and distillation of raw materials with high sugars
and starch contents. Besides these raw materials, ethanol can be
obtained from lignocellulosic biomass from trees and some annual
plants. Ethanol can be produced from any organic matter of biological origin with considerable amounts of sugars and/or materials
that can be converted into sugar such as starch or cellulose. Sugarcane, sugar beetroot, and sugar sorghum are examples of raw
materials with high sugar contents which thus can be used for ethanol production. Wheat, barley, and corn are raw materials containing starch, which can easily be converted into sugar using
available technologies. A signicant part of the woody part of trees
and annuals is composed of cellulose, which can also be converted
into sugar, but the process is more complicated than that required
for starch [10].
Biomethanol is another alcohol fuel produced from biomass. A
new study patented in Sweden concluded that methanol can be
produced from biomass via black-liquor gasication at a cost competitive with gasoline and diesel [11]. A recent study on oil-palm

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N.N.A.N. Yusuf et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 52 (2011) 27412751

biomass waste showed that black liquor can be produced from the
trunk of the oil palm, but at present the black liquor is used to produce pulp and paper [12].
Biological hydrogen-generation (biohydrogen) technologies
provide a wide range of approaches to generate hydrogen and
are potentially more environmentally friendly and less energy
intensive than thermochemical or electrochemical processes.
There are three types of microorganisms used for hydrogen generation: cyanobacteria, anaerobic bacteria and fermentative bacteria.
The cyanobacteria directly decompose water into hydrogen and
oxygen in the presence of light energy by photosynthesis. Photosynthetic bacteria use organic substrates such as organic acids.
Anaerobic bacteria use organic substances as the sole source of
electrons and energy, converting them into hydrogen. Biohydrogen
can be generated using bacteria such as Clostridia by controlling
temperature, pH, reactor hydraulic-retention time (HRT), and other
operating parameters of the fermentation system. Biohydrogen can
be generated by direct biophotolysis, indirect biophotolysis, photofermentations and dark fermentation [13].
Among all the biofuels, biodiesel has been receiving perhaps the
most attention, due to the similarity between biodiesel and conventional diesel in terms of chemical structure and energy content.
Additionally, no modication of the diesel engine is required, as
biodiesel is compatible with existing engine models and has been
commercially blended with diesel as a transportation fuel in a
number of countries including Germany, Italy and Malaysia [3].

2. Biodiesel
Biodiesel is an alternative fuel for diesel engines produced by
chemically reacting a vegetable oil or animal fat with an alcohol.
Alcohols are the most frequently used acyl acceptors, particularly
methanol and, to a lesser extent, ethanol. Other alcohols can also
be used, e.g., propanol, butanol, isopropanol, tert-butanol,
branched alcohols and octanol but the cost is much higher. Regarding the choice between methanol and ethanol, the former is cheaper, more reactive and the fatty-acid methyl esters (FAME) produced
are more volatile than fatty-acid ethyl esters (FAEE). However, ethanol is less toxic and is considered more renewable because it can
be easily produced from renewable sources by fermentation. In
contrast, methanol is currently mainly produced from non-renewable fossil sources, such as natural gas. Regarding their characteristics as fuels, FAME and FAEE show slight differences; for
example, FAEE have slightly higher viscosities and slightly lower
cloud and pour points than the corresponding FAME [14]. The reaction requires a catalyst, usually a strong base, such as sodium or
potassium hydroxide, and produces new chemical compounds
called methyl esters. It is these esters that have come to be known
as biodiesel [15,16].
The physical properties of biodiesel are given in Table 1. Biodiesel is a clear amber-yellow liquid with a viscosity similar to that of
petroleum diesel. Biodiesel is non-ammable and, in contrast to
petroleum diesel, is non-explosive, with a ash point of 423 K for
biodiesel as compared to 337 K for petroleum diesel. Unlike petroleum diesel, biodiesel is biodegradable and non-toxic, and it significantly reduces toxic and other emissions when burned as a fuel.
International practice led to the adoption of a single nomenclature to identify the concentration of biodiesel in the blends, known
as the BXX nomenclature, where XX is the percentage in volume of
the biodiesel in the diesel/biodiesel blend. For example, B2, B5, B20
and B100 are fuels with a concentration of 2%, 5%, 20% and 100%
biodiesel, respectively. Currently, there are four main concentrations of biodiesel used in the fuel market, namely, pure (B100),
blends (B20B30), additive (B5) and lubricity-additive (B2). The
blends in volumetric proportions between 5% and 20% are the most

Table 1
Physical properties of biodiesel [1].
Common name

Biodiesel

Common chemical name

Chemical formula range

Fatty acid (m)ethyl ester

C14C24 methyl esters or C1525H28
48O2
3.35.2

Kinematic viscosity range (mm2/s, at

313 K)
Density range (kg/m3, at 288 K)
Boling-point range (K)
Flash-point range (K)
Distillation range (K)
Vapor pressure (mm Hg, at 295 K)
Solubility in water
Physical appearance
Odor
Biodegradability
Reactivity

860894
>457
420450
470600
<5
Insoluble in water
Light to dark yellow, clear liquid
Light musty/soapy odor
More biodegradable than petroleum
diesel
Stable, but avoid strong oxidizing
agents

common. The B5 blend does not require any engine modication.

Biodiesel is perfectly miscible with, and also physically and chemically similar to, mineral diesel and so can be used in compression
ignition engines without signicant or onerous adjustments [1,10].
Biodiesel can be pumped, stored and handled using the same
infrastructure, devices and procedure usually employed for conventional diesel fuel. In fact, as biodiesel does not produce explosive vapors and has a relatively high ash point (close to 150 C),
transportation, handling and storage are safer than with conventional diesel [17].
2.1. Various raw materials used as feedstock
Vegetable oils are becoming a promising alternative to diesel
fuel because they are renewable in nature and can be produced locally and in environmentally friendly ways. Edible vegetable oils
such as canola [1822] and soybean oil [2327] in the USA, palm
oil [2833] in Malaysia, rapeseed oil [26,3438] in Europe and corn
oil [39,40] have been used for biodiesel production and found to be
good diesel substitutes [15]. Non-edible vegetable oils, such as
Pongamia pinnata (Karanja or Honge) [4145], Jatropha curcas
(Jatropha or Ratanjyote) [43,44,4648] and Madhuca iondica (Mahua) [49,50] have also been found to be suitable for biodiesel
production.
The oil yield from the crop itself is always the key factor in
deciding the suitability of a feedstock for biodiesel production.
Oil crops with higher oil yields are more preferable in the biodiesel
industry because they can reduce the production cost. Generally,
the cost of raw materials accounts for about 7080% of the total
production cost of biodiesel. Table 2 shows the oil yields in terms
of kg/ha and wt.% and also the prices for various types of edible and
Table 2
Oil yields for major non-edible and edible oil sources [2].
Type of oil

Oil yield
(kg oil/ha)

Oil yield
(wt.%)

Price
(USD/ton)

Non-edible oil
Jatropha

1590

N/A

Rubber seed
Castor
Pongamia pinnata
Sea mango

80120
1188
2252250
N/A

Seed: 3540,
kernel: 5060
4050
53
3040
54

Edible oil
Soybean
Palm
Rapeseed

375
5000
1000

20
20
3750

684
478
683

N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A

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non-edible oils grown worldwide. It is clear that higher oil yield always corresponds to lower cost. Some of the costs of the non-edible oils were not obtained as they are not currently traded on the
open market [2].
From Table 2, it is observed that palm oil has the highest oil
yield at 5000 kg of oil per hectare; this value is far higher than
other oils, which are only in the range of hundreds to 2000 kg of
oil per hectare. Among the various non-edible oils shown in Table
2, jatropha has the highest yield, followed by P. pinnata and castor.
However, the oil yield in P. pinnata is not constant, depending on
many factors such as plantation type and oil-extraction technique
[2].
2.2. The production of biodiesel
Considerable efforts have been made to develop vegetable-oil
derivatives that approximate the properties and performance of
hydrocarbon-based diesel fuels. The problems with substituting
triglycerides for diesel fuels are mostly associated with their (i)
high viscosity; (ii) low stability against oxidation (and the subsequent polymerization reactions); and (iii) low volatility, which
inuences the formation of a relatively high amount of ash due
to incomplete combustion [51]. These can be changed in at least
four ways, as follows.
2.2.1. Direct use and blending
Vegetable oil can be mixed with diesel fuel and used directly for
running an engine. The successful experimental blending of vegetable oil with diesel fuel has been done by various researchers. A
diesel eet was powered with a blend of 95% ltered used cooking
oil and 5% diesel in 1982. In 1980, Caterpillar Brazil Company used
pre-combustion chamber engines with a mixture of 10% vegetable
oil to maintain total power without any modication to the engine.
A blend of 20% oil and 80% diesel was found to be successful [52].
Pramanik [53] found that a 50% blend of Jatropha oil can be
used in diesel engines without any major operational difculties
but further study is required to determine the long-term durability
of the engine. The direct use of vegetable oils and/or the use of oil
blends have generally been considered to be unsatisfactory and
impractical for both direct and indirect diesel engines. The high
viscosity, acid composition, free fatty-acid content, gum formation
due to oxidation, polymerization during storage and combustion,
carbon deposits and lubricating-oil thickening are the obvious
problems (see Table 3).
It has been proven that the use of 100% vegetable oil was also
possible with some minor modications to the fuel system. Major

2743

problems have been associated with the use of pure vegetable oils
as fuels in compressionignition engines, mainly due to the increased viscosity. Micro-emulsication, pyrolysis and transesterication have been used as remedies to solve the problems
encountered due to high fuel viscosity [54].
2.2.2. Microemulsion
Microemulsions are isotropic, clear or translucent, thermodynamically stable dispersions of oil, water, surfactant, and often a
small amphiphilic molecule, called a cosurfactant. The droplet
diameters in microemulsions range from 100 to 1000 . A microemulsion can be made of vegetable oils with an ester and dispersant (cosolvent), or of vegetable oils, an alcohol and a surfactant,
with or without diesel fuels. Because of their alcohol contents,
microemulsions have lower volumetric heating values than diesel
fuels, but these alcohols have high latent heats of vaporization
and tend to cool the combustion chamber, which reduces nozzle
coking. A microemulsion of methanol with vegetable oils can perform nearly as well as diesel fuels. The use of 2-octanol as an effective amphiphile in the micellar solubilization of methanol in
triolein and soybean oil has been demonstrated; the viscosity
was reduced to 11.2 cSt at 25 C. The reported engine tests on a
microemulsion consisting of soybean oil:methanol:2-octanol:cetane improver (52.7:13.3:33.3:1) indicated the accumulation
of carbon around the orices of the injector nozzles and heavy
deposits on exhaust valves [55].
Wellert et al. [56] studied the phase behavior of a microemulsion and a bi-continuous phase was identied using small-angle
neutron scattering (SANS) and freeze-fracture electron microscopy
(FFEM); the inuence of choice of co-surfactant on the structural
parameters was also studied. Jesus et al. [57] introduced the use
of a microemulsion method for the determination of sodium and
potassium in biodiesel using a water-in-oil emulsion process for
biodiesel produced from different sources such as soybeans, castor,
sunower oil, animal fat and other vegetable oils.
2.2.3. Thermal cracking (pyrolysis)
Pyrolysis is the conversion of one organic substance into another by means of heat or by heat in the presence of a catalyst.
The pyrolyzed material can be vegetable oil, animal fat, natural
fatty acids or methyl esters of fatty acids. The pyrolysis of fats
has been investigated for more than 100 years, especially in those
areas of the world that lack deposits of petroleum. Many investigators have studied the pyrolysis of triglycerides to obtain products
suitable for diesel engines. Thermal decomposition of triglycerides

Table 3
Problems and potential solutions for using vegetable oils as engine fuels [53].
Problem
Short-term
1. Cold-weather starting
2. Plugging and gumming of
lters, lines and injector
3. Engine knocking
Long-term
4. Coking of injectors and
carbon deposits on
piston and head of
engine
5. Excessive engine wear

6. Failure of enginelubricating oil due to

polymerization

Probable cause

Potential solution

High viscosity, low cetane, and low ash point of vegetable oils
Natural gums (phosphatides) and ash in vegetable oil

Preheat fuel prior to injection; chemically alter fuel to an ester

Partially rene the oil to remove gums; lter to 4 lm

Very low cetane of some oils. Improper injection timing

Adjust injection timing; preheat fuel prior to injection; chemically

alter fuel to an ester

High viscosity of vegetable oil, incomplete combustion of fuel;

poor combustion at partial load

Heat fuel prior to injection; switch engine to diesel when operating

at part load; chemically alter the vegetable oil to an ester

High viscosity, incomplete combustion of fuel, poor combustion at

partial load; possibly free fatty acids in vegetable oil; dilution of
engine-lubricating oil due to blow-by of vegetable oil

Heat fuel prior to injection; switch engine to diesel when operating

at partial load; chemically alter the vegetable oil to an ester;
increase frequency of lubricating-oil changes; lubricating-oil
additives to inhibit oxidation

Collection of poly-unsaturated vegetable oil blow-by in crank-case

to the point where polymerization occurs

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N.N.A.N. Yusuf et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 52 (2011) 27412751

produces alkanes, alkenes, alkadienes, aromatics and carboxylic

acids [53,68].
2.2.4. Transesterication
Transesterication is a process of reacting a triglyceride such as
vegetable oil with an alcohol in the presence of an alkaline catalyst
to produce fatty-acid esters and glycerol. Among the alcohols,
methanol and ethanol are used commercially because of their
low cost and their physical and chemical advantages. They are easily dissolved in and react quickly with tri-glycerides and NaOH. A
catalyst is used to improve the reaction rate and yield. An alkaline-catalyzed transesterication process is normally adopted for
biodiesel production because alkaline metal alkoxides and hydroxides are more effective than acid catalysts. Sodium and potassium
methoxide are much more effective catalysts for the base-catalyzed transesterication of triglycerides [5861].
Darnoko and Cheryan [62] studied the kinetics of palm-oil
transesterication in a batch reactor. Their study illustrated that
while the overall conversion of the process did not change with
temperature, the rate of the transesterication process was increased with temperature. The overall reaction kinetics is dependent on the individual rate constants for the conversion of
triglycerides to diglycerides, monoglycerides and alcohol esters.
Based on the rate constants obtained, the conversion of triglycerides to diglycerides was the slowest reaction in transesterication.
The time needed for the mass transfer to occur is shortened as temperature is increased, leading to a higher rate of transesterication
at higher temperatures.
Figs. 13 represent the different transesterication reactions.
Fig. 1 shows the production of biodiesel via an alkaline catalyst.
The commonly used catalysts are sodium and potassium hydroxides. These reactions are operated at 25125 C. Fig. 2 presents
the production of biodiesel using an acid catalyst. The reaction is
similar to the alkaline reaction but the alcohol reactants are fed
in excess in order to increase the conversion rate. This reaction is

operated at 5580 C. The other type of reaction for transesterication is enzymatic, using lipase in hydrolysis, alcoholysis and acidolysis reactions. The advantage of this reaction is the ease of
product separation; however, the cost of the biocatalyst is very
expensive compared to other catalysts and so it is not yet a viable
process for commercial biodiesel production. Lastly, Fig. 3 presents
the production of biodiesel via a supercritical reaction with alcohol. This reaction uses methanol as alcohol and is capable of producing high conversions in a short period of time. However the
operating temperature is very high, around 350 C [63,64]. Table
4 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of the different
transesterication reactions.
2.3. Advantages of biodiesel
2.3.1. Availability and renewability of biodiesel
Biodiesel is the only alternative fuel with the property that lowconcentration biofuelpetroleum fuel blends will run well in
unmodied conventional engines. It can be stored anywhere petroleum diesel fuel is stored. Biodiesel can be made from domestically
produced, renewable oilseed crops such as soybean, rapeseed and
sunower. The risks of handling, transporting and storing biodiesel
are much lower than those associated with petroleum diesel. Biodiesel is safe to handle and transport because it is as biodegradable
as sugar and has a high ash point compared to petroleum diesel
fuel. Biodiesel can be used alone or mixed in any ratio with petroleum diesel fuel. The most common blend is a mix of 20% biodiesel
with 80% petroleum diesel, or B20 in recent scientic investigations; however, for future commercial applications in Europe the
current regulation foresees a maximum of 5.75% biodiesel [66].
2.3.2. Lower emissions from biodiesel
The European Transportation Policy for 2010 created by the
European White Paper Commission projects an increase in carbon
dioxide emissions from vehicles of about 50% from the years 2000

Fig. 1. Production of biodiesel via alkaline catalysis.

N.N.A.N. Yusuf et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 52 (2011) 27412751

Fig. 2. Production of biodiesel via acidic catalysis.

Fig. 3. Production of biodiesel via supercritical-alcohol transesterication.

Table 4
Comparison of transesterication reactions [65].
Technique

Biodiesel (%)

Advantage

Disadvantage

Acidic-catalyst
transesterication
Alkaline-catalyst
transesterication
Lipase-catalyst
transesterication

99% after 4 h of
reaction
99% after 2 h of
reaction
95% after 105 h of
reaction

High production of biodiesel

Acidic catalyst

High and rapid production of biodiesel in a short

period of time
Can be operated at room temperature

Formation of calcium foam at initial stage of

transesterication
Slow reaction

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to 2010. The White Paper states that the only way around this
problem is to develop clean alternative fuels so that the greenhouse effects can be decreased [67]. The best potential future energy source in the transportation sector is biodiesel.
Biodiesel mainly emits carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, sulfur oxides and smoke. Combustion of biodiesel
alone provides over a 90% reduction in total unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and a 7590% reduction in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Biodiesel further provides signicant reductions in
particulates and carbon monoxide over petroleum diesel fuel. Biodiesel provides a slight increase or decrease in nitrogen oxides
depending on engine family and testing procedures [66].
Currently, global warming caused by CO2 is the main climatic
problem in the world. Therefore, environmental protection is
important for the future of the world. Because biodiesel is made
from renewable sources, it presents a convenient way to provide
fuel while protecting the environment from unwanted emissions.
Biodiesel is an ecological and non-hazardous fuel with low emission values, and therefore it is environmentally useful. Using biodiesel as an alternative fuel is a way to minimize global air
pollution and in particular reduce the emission levels of potential
or probable carcinogens [68].
Carraretto et al. [69] investigated the emission of unburned
hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and particulate matter from biodiesel; the net emission of
CO2 was considerably lower than that of diesel oil. Kegl [70]
stressed the importance of fuel-injection system to reduce engine
emissions as well as fuel consumption. The author suggested that
pressure squareness (ratio of mean to maximum injection pressure) should be at a maximum, and fuelling in the rst part of
the injection should be reduced to reduce NOx emission. Simultaneously, the fuelling in the last part of the injection should be lowered to reduce smoke emissions.
Pradeep and Sharma [71] studied the use of hot-exhaust-gas
recirculation for the control oxides of nitrogen in a compression
ignition engine fuelled with biodiesel from Jatropha oil. Exhaustgas recirculation was shown to be an effective method for NOx control. The exhaust gases mainly consist of inert carbon dioxide and
nitrogen and possess a high specic heat. When recirculated to the
engine inlet, they reduce oxygen concentration and act as a heat
sink. This process reduces oxygen concentration and peak combustion temperature, which results in reduced NOx. Exhaust-gas recirculation is not free from demerits. It can signicantly increase
smoke and fuel consumption and reduce thermal efciency unless
suitably optimized.
2.3.3. Biodegradability of biodiesel
The biodegradability of biodiesel has been proposed as a solution for the waste problem. Biodegradable fuels such as biodiesels
have an expanding range of potential applications and are environmentally friendly. Therefore, there is growing interest in degradable diesel fuels that degrade more rapidly than conventional
petroleum fuels. Biodiesel is non-toxic and degrades about four
times faster than petroleum diesel. Its oxygen content improves
the biodegradation process, leading to an increased level of quick
biodegradation [72].
Vegetable-oil methyl esters are reported to be non-toxic and
easily biodegradable in an aquatic environment. It was determined
that during a 21-day period, 98% of pure rapeseed oil methyl ester
(RME) was biologically decomposed, while only 60% of pure fossil
diesel fuel decomposed. This means that RME fully meets the main
requirements of international standards for biological degradation
(more than 90% degraded within 21 days for biofuels) [73]. Pasqualino et al. [74] reported more than 98% degradation of pure biodiesel after 28 days in comparison to 50% and 56% for diesel fuel and

gasoline respectively. Also, the time taken to reach 50% biodegradation was reduced from 28 to 22 days in 5% biodiesel mixture
and from 28 to 16 days in the case of a 20% biodiesel mixture at
room temperature. The biodegradability of the mixture was reported to increase with the addition of biodiesel.
2.3.4. Higher lubricity
Biodiesel has good lubricant properties compared to petroleum
diesel oil, in particular very-low-sulfur diesel. This is very important to reduce wear in the engine and the injection system [69].
Demirbas [68] stated that the oxygen content of biodiesel improves the combustion process and decreases its oxidation potential. The structural oxygen content of a fuel improves combustion
efciency due to the increase of the homogeneity of oxygen with
the fuel during combustion. Due to this, the combustion efciency
of biodiesel is higher than petroleum diesel, and the combustion
efciency of methanol/ethanol is higher than that of gasoline. A visual inspection of the injector types would indicate no difference
between the biodiesel fuels when tested on petroleum diesel.
The overall injector coking is considerably low. Biodiesel contains
11% oxygen by weight and contains no sulfur. The use of biodiesel
can extend the life of diesel engines because it is more lubricating
than petroleum diesel fuel.
The higher heating values (HHVs) of biodiesels are relatively
high. The HHVs of biodiesels (3941 MJ/kg) are slightly lower than
that of gasoline (46 MJ/kg), petroleum diesel (43 MJ/kg) or petroleum (42 MJ/kg), but higher than coal (3237 MJ/kg). Table 5
shows a comparison of the chemical properties and HHVs of biodiesel and petroleumdiesel fuels.
2.3.5. Engine-performance evaluation using biodiesel
Cetane number (CN) is widely used as a dieselfuel quality
parameter. It is related to the ignition-delay time and combustion
quality; a higher cetane number indicates better ignition properties [16]. CN is measured by the ISO 5156 test method. This test
method is recommended for diesel and biodiesel and the passing
limits are 46 and 51, respectively. However, there are reports of
the theoretical estimation of cetane numbers without running
extensive engine tests. The cetane number of biodiesel from various sources has been estimated to vary from 48 (grape biodiesel)
to 61 (palm biodiesel) [75]. The CN of biodiesel is generally higher
than for conventional diesel. The longer the fatty-acid carbon
chains and the more saturated the molecules are, the higher the
CN is. The CN of biodiesel from animal fats is higher than those
of vegetable oils [76].
Altn et al. [77] studied a single-cylinder engine fueled with various types of vegetable oils. The results obtained gave a very good
comparison of engine performance when various vegetable oils are
used as fuel. The engine was operated at 1300 rpm and a torque of
35 Nm. Petroleum dieselfuel performance was used as a reference. The observed maximum torque differences between the reference value and peak values of the vegetable-oil fuels were about
10% with raw sunower oil, raw soybean oil and opium-poppy oil
fuels. The maximum power differences between the reference

Table 5
Comparison of chemical properties and higher heating values (HHVs) of biodiesel and
petroleumdiesel fuels [63].
Chemical property

Biodiesel (methyl ester)

Diesel

Ash (wt.%)
Sulfur (wt.%)
Nitrogen (wt.%)
Aromatics (vol.%)
Iodine number
HHV (MJ/kg)

0.0020.036
0.0060.020
0.0020.007
0
65156
39.240.6

0.0060.010
0.0200.050
0.00010.003
2838
0
45.145.6

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value and peak values of the vegetable-oil fuels were about 18%
with raw cottonseed oil and raw soybean oil. The minimum torque
and power difference was about 3% between the reference value
and the oils. These results may be due to the higher viscosity and
lower heating values of vegetable oils. The specic fuel consumption of petroleum diesel was very low in comparison with all vegetable oils and their esters. Specic fuel-consumption values of
methyl esters were generally less than those of the raw oil fuels.
The higher specic fuel-consumption values of vegetable oils are
due to their lower energy contents. Relatively low CO emissions
were obtained with the esters in comparison with raw vegetable
oils. Maximum CO2 emissions were about 10.5% with petroleum
diesel fuel and slightly lower with vegetable oil. This was due to
the better spraying qualities and more uniform mixture preparation of these esters. NOx emissions with vegetable-oil fuels were
lower than those with petroleum diesel fuel and the NOx values
of the methyl esters were higher than those of the raw fuels. NOx
formation is related to maximum combustion temperature. As
the injected particle size of the vegetable oils was greater than
with petroleum diesel fuel, the combustion efciency and maximum combustion temperatures with each of the vegetable oils
were lower and NOx emissions were reduced. Smoke-opacity percentages during each of the vegetable-oil operations were greater
than that with petroleum diesel fuel. The opacity values of methyl
esters were between those of diesel fuel and raw vegetable-oil
fuels. The greater smoke-opacity percentages of the vegetable-oil
fuels were mainly due to the contents of heavier hydrocarbon molecules. Acceleration tests indicated that maximum engine-power
output depended on the biodiesel content in the fuel and decreased as the biodiesel concentration increased.
It was observed that with pure biodiesel the acceleration time
increased by approximately 8% compared to the baseline petroleum diesel fuel, while B50 led to an increase of 4.1%. These differences were expected due to the lower energy content of the blends.
Poorer atomization may also explain reductions in maximum engine-power output [78].
2.4. Disadvantages of biodiesel
The main problem associated with the use of biodiesel, especially that prepared from palm oil, is its poor low-temperature ow
properties, measured in terms of cloud point, pour point and CFPP.
The low-temperature properties are very critical for the use of biofuels in aviation applications. The low-temperature properties can
be improved by blending with biodiesel from unsaturated feedstocks [79].
Other major disadvantages of biodiesel are its higher viscosity,
lower energy content, higher nitrogen-oxides (NOx) emissions,
lower engine speed and power, injector coking, engine compatibility, high price and higher engine wear. Table 6 shows the ASTM
fuel standards for biodiesel and petroleum-diesel fuels. Important
operating disadvantages of biodiesel in comparison with petroleum diesel include cold-start problems, the lower energy content,
higher copper-strip corrosion and fuel-pumping difculty due to
the higher viscosity. This increases fuel consumption when biodiesel is used, in comparison with pure petroleum diesel and in
blends, in direct proportion to the share of the biodiesel content.
Taking into account the higher production costs of biodiesel compared to petroleum diesel, this increase in fuel consumption compounds the overall increased cost of application of biodiesel as an
alternative to petroleum diesel [63].
As more than 95% of biodiesel is made from edible oil, there
have been many claims that this may give rise to further economic
problems. By converting edible oils into biodiesel, food resources
are being used as automotive fuels. It is believed that large-scale
production of biodiesel from edible oils may bring about a global

Table 6
ASTM standards of biodiesel and petroleumdiesel fuels.
Property

Test
method

ASTM D975
(petroleum diesel)

ASTM D6751
(biodiesel, B100)

Flash point
Water and sediment
Kinematic viscosity
(at 313 K)
Sulfated ash
Ash
Sulfur
Sulfur

D 93
D 2709
D 445

325 K min
0.05 max vol.%
1.34.1 mm2/s

403 K
0.05 max vol.%
1.96.0 mm2/s

D 874
D 482
D 5453
D
2622/
129
D 130
D 613
D 1319
D 4530
D 524
D 1160

0.01 max wt.%

0.05 max wt.%

0.02 max wt.%

0.05 max wt.%

No. 3 max
40 min
35 max vol.%

0.35 max mass%

555 K min
611 K max

No. 3 max
47 min

0.05 max mass%

Copper-strip corrosion
Cetane number
Aromaticity
Carbon residue
Carbon residue
Distillation temp. (90%
volume recycle)

Fig. 4. Global vegetable-oil blending stock and biodiesel production [2].

imbalance in the food supply-and-demand market. Recently, environmentalists have cited the negative impact on the planet of biodiesel production from edible oils, especially deforestation and the
destruction of ecosystems. EEB, claimed that the expansion of oilcrop plantations for biodiesel production on a large scale has
caused deforestation in countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia and
Brazil because more and more forest has been cleared for plantation purposes. Furthermore, the line between food and fuel economies is blurred as both of the elds are competing for the same oil
resources. In other words, biodiesel is competing with the food
industry for limited land availability for the plantation of oil crops.
Arable land that would otherwise have been used to grow food
would instead be used to grow fuel [80].
There has been signicant expansion in the plantation of oil
crops for biodiesel in the past few years in order to fulll the continuously increasing demand for biodiesel. Fig. 4 shows the trend
in global vegetable-oil blending stocks due to the production of
biodiesel in the years 19912010 [2]. Although there is continuous
increase in the production of vegetable oil, the blending stocks of
vegetable oils are continuously decreasing due to increasing production of biodiesel. Eventually, with the implementation of biodiesel as a substitute fuel for petroleum-derived diesel oil, this
may lead to the depletion of edible-oil supply worldwide.

3. Current trends in biodiesel

The international biofuel market is still at an early and very
dynamic stage. Future conditions for an international biofuel market in Europe will largely be decided by the European Union (EU)

2748

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price than fossil diesel fuel. Biodiesel is treated like any other vehicle fuel in the UK. In February 2006, the European Union set the
goal of fullling 5.75% of transportation-fuel needs with biofuels
in all member states by 2010. Many countries have adopted various policy initiatives. Specic legislation to promote and regulate
the use of biodiesel is in force in Germany, Italy, France, Austria
and Sweden [68]. By 2010, the United States is expected to become
the worlds largest single biodiesel market, accounting for roughly
18% of world biodiesel consumption, followed by Germany. New
and large single markets for biodiesel are expected to emerge in
China, India and Brazil [83].
Demand for energy is increasing every day due to the rapid
growth of population and urbanization. As the major conventional
energy resources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas are at the
verge of becoming extinct; biomass can be considered as one of the
promising environmentally friendly renewable energy options
[13]. The biomass-intensive future energy-supply scenario includes 385 million hectares of biomass-energy plantations globally
in 2050, with three quarters of this area established in developing
countries [84].
Based on a study conducted by the 9th National Plan of Malaysia, the demand for fossil fuel is increasing continuously. In the
term of the 8th National plan of Malaysia, which ranged from
2000 to 2005, the demand for energy in the commercial sector increased from 1244 PJ to 1632 PJ. The energy intensity increased
from 5.9 GJ in the year 2000 to 6.2 GJ in the year 2005. Petroleum
is the main source of energy, and, as shown in Table 7a, the percentage from other energy sources is very low (46%). The increasing demand for natural gas (79%) parallels the policy of fuelsource diversity. From Table 7b, it can also be observed that the
transportation sector is the primary energy consumer in Malaysia,
accounting for 40.5% of the total energy demand in the commercial
sector in the 2005. The industrial sector comprises 38% of the total
demand while domestic and other sources account for about 13.1%.
Based on these gures, Malaysia is predicted to become a net importer of fossil fuels by the year 2015. However, the introduction
of alternative fuels such as hydrogen, ethanol and biodiesel, will
reduce the dependence on imported fuel sources. Malaysia is capable of generating its own alternative fuels, as mentioned previously, using domestic renewable resources [65]. The potential
future use of biodiesel in the transportation sector necessitates a
shift in the current energy supply from petroleum products such
as gasoline and diesel, to biodiesel.

policies on renewable energy and their interplay with national energy policies. So far, the Commission has indicated that biomass
will play an important role in the future. In that context, the biofuel
trade seems to be a plausible scenario for Europe. It is likely that
novel trade ows will appear and disappear as this new fuel market evolves [81].
European research and testing indicate that, when used as a diesel fuel substitute, biodiesel can replace petroleum diesel. Fig. 5
shows the world biodiesel capacity between 1991 and 2010. In
the EU, biodiesel is by far the biggest biofuel and represents 82%
of the biofuel production.
Biodiesel has become more attractive recently because of its
environmental benets. The cost of biodiesel, however, is the main
obstacle to commercialization of the product. Biodiesel reduces
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, PAH and nitrated PAH emissions. The use of biodiesel decreases the solid-carbon fraction of
PM and reduces the sulfate fraction, while the soluble, or HC, fraction stays the same or increases. Emissions of nitrogen oxides increase with the concentration of biodiesel in the fuel. Some
biodiesel produces more nitrogen oxides than others, and some
additives have shown promise in moderating the increases. Germany produced 1.9 billion liters or more than half the world total.
Other countries with signicant biodiesel markets in 2005 included France, the United States, Italy and Brazil. All other countries combined accounted for only 11% of world biodiesel
consumption in 2005. In Germany biodiesel is also sold at a lower

Fig. 5. World biodiesel capacity, 19912010 [82].

Table 7a
Final demand of commercial energy by source, 20002010 [65].
Source

Petroleum products
Natural gas
Electricity
Coal
Total

Petajoules

Percentage of the total

Average annual growth rate (%)

2000

2005

2010

2000

2005

2010

RMKe-8

RMKe-9

820.0
161.8
220.4
41.5
1243.7

1023.1
246.6
310.0
52.0
1631.7

1372.9
350.0
420.0
75.0
2217.9

65.9
13.0
17.7
3.4
100.0

62.7
15.1
19.0
3.2
100.0

61.9
15.8
18.9
3.4
100.0

4.5
8.8
7.1
4.6
5.6

6.1
7.3
6.3
7.6
6.3

Table 7b
Final demand of commercial energy by sector, 20002010 [65].
Source

Industrial
Transportation
Residential and commercial
Agricultural
Total

Petajoules

Percentage of the total

Average annual growth rate (%)

2000

2005

2010

2000

2005

2010

RMKe-8

RMKe-9

477.6
505.5
162.0
4.4
1243.7

630.7
661.3
213.0
8.0
2217.9

859.9
911.7
284.9
16.7
1631.7

38.4
40.6
13.0
0.4
100.0

38.6
43.5
13.1
0.5
100.0

38.8
41.1
12.8
0.8
100.0

5.7
5.5
5.6
12.9
5.6

6.4
6.6
6.0
15.9
6.3

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The large-scale use of biomass energy in the EU would be facilitated by a European market for biofuels. Regions rich in biomass
resources could become net exporters of biofuels to regions with
fewer opportunities for biofuel production, which would increase
the Unions total use of biomass energy. Inter-regional and international biofuel trade is also a likely consequence of the growing use
of biomass energy. At the moment, there is a mounting interest in
the biofuel trade in Europe [81].
Kartha and Larson [84] reported that various scenarios have
been proposed in estimating the yields of biofuels from biomass
sources in the future energy system. The availability of resources
is an important factor in cogenerative use of biofuel in the electricity, heat or liquid-fuel market. There are currently two global biomass-based liquid transportation fuels that might replace gasoline
and diesel fuel, bioethanol and biodiesel. Transport is one of the
main energy-consuming sectors. It is assumed that biodiesel will
be used as a fossil diesel replacement and that bioethanol used
as a gasoline replacement. Biomass-based energy sources for heat,
electricity and transportation fuels are potentially carbon dioxide
neutral and recycle the same carbon atoms. Due to the widespread
availability of biomass resources, opportunities for biomass-based
fuel technology will potentially employ more people than current
fossil-fuel based technology.
About 60% of current world ethanol production is from sugarcrop feedstocks. Ethanol is a well-established biofuel for transport
and industry sectors in several countries, notably in Brazil. The
United States has used ethanol produced from maize (corn) in fuel
blends since the 1980s. The United States ethanol production, with
corn as the primary feedstock, totaled 2821 million gallons in 2003
and is projected to increase to 4544 million gallons in 2025. In
2004, 3.4 billion gallons of fuel ethanol were produced from over
10% of the corn crop. Ethanol demand is expected to more than
double in the next ten years. For the supply to be available to meet
this demand, new technologies must be moved from the laboratory
to commercial reality [82].

4. Economic analysis
One of the main limiting factors for the market diffusion of biodiesel is the high economic cost of production compared to petroleum diesel oil. Currently, the cost of biodiesel is competitive only
when excise tax is not applied. Nevertheless, the promotion of biodiesel is justied by the fact that the global emission of CO2 is
greatly reduced and that the net energy yield is positive. In addition, the use of biodiesel involves an appreciable reduction of some
emitted pollutants. This could be a key solution to reduce urban
pollution [69].
The major economic factor to consider for the input costs of biodiesel production is the feedstock, which is about 80% of the total
operating cost. Other important costs are labor, methanol and catalyst. In some countries, lling stations sell biodiesel more cheaply
than conventional diesel. The cost of biodiesel fuels varies depending on the base stock, geographic area, variability in crop production from season to season, the price of crude petroleum and
other factors. Biodiesel has sold for over twice the price of petroleum diesel. The high price of biodiesel is in large part due to the
high price of the feedstock. Biodiesel is becoming of interest to
companies for commercial-scale production as well as the more
usual home-brew biodiesel user and the user of straight vegetable oil or waste vegetable oil in diesel engines. Biodiesel is commercially available in most oilseed-producing countries. Biodiesel
is a technologically feasible alternative to petroleum diesel, but
currently biodiesel cost is 1.53 times higher than the fossil diesel
cost in developed countries. Biodiesel is more expensive than
petroleum diesel, although it is still commonly produced in

Table 8
Comparison of estimated costs for producing biodiesel from palm, rapeseed and
soybean oils.
Cost component (US$/ ton)

Palm oil
from
Malaysia

Rapeseed
oil from the
EU

Soybean
oil from
the US

Feedstock (FOB at producing country)

Biodiesel production cost:
Solvents, acids and chemicals
Other costs
Adjustment for energy parity with
petroleum diesel (based on 90%
of kJ/kg of energy of petroldiesel)
Total
Cost of biodiesel
Estimated freight and insurance cost
to Rotterdam
Total cost in EU
Local distribution (approximation)
Total cost at petrol kiosk in EU
Price of retail biodiesel (Germany)a

547

800

601

47
35
55

137
684
70

196
996

150
751
50

754
3050
784804
1322

996
3050
10291046

801
3050
831851

Assuming production plant with capacity > 100,000 ton/annum; other gures based
on pricing as of March 2007.
a
FO Licht based on UFOP Marktinformation (three-month average retail prices
from November 2006 to January 2007).

relatively small quantities (in comparison to petroleum products

and ethanol). The competitiveness of biodiesel versus petroleum
diesel depends greatly on fuel-taxation approaches and levels.
Generally, the production costs of biodiesel remain much higher
than for petroleum diesel. Therefore, biodiesel is not competitive
to petroleum diesel under current economic conditions. The competitiveness of biodiesel relies on the prices of biomass feedstock
and costs as well as the conversion technology [63].
The price of the feedstock will become a more important factor
as it represents 80% of the cost of biodiesel production. Even at current vegetable oil prices this is an advantage for palm oil which
trades at a considerable discount compared to rapeseed oil and
soybean oil.
Rabobank [85] estimates that the price of palm biodiesel in the
EU if produced in Malaysia will be about US$784804/ton (Table 8). The estimated theoretical production cost for rapeseed biodiesel is US$1035/tonne and US$840 for soybean biodiesel. These
gures are based on the average prices of each vegetable oil,
including an approximately 20% cost of production, international
freight and domestic distribution charges. The reported consumer
biodiesel price in Germany, based on a three-month average up
to January, was US$1332/ton. Palm biodiesel from Malaysia is still
competitively priced although this estimate does not consider any
potential excise nor import duty that could be imposed by the EU
member-states on palm methyl ester.
5. Conclusions
The term biofuel refers to liquid or gaseous fuels for the transport sector that are predominantly produced from biomass. Biofuels including bioethanol, biomethanol, biodiesel and biohydrogen
appear to be attractive options for the future transport sector. Biodiesel is better than diesel fuel in terms of sulfur content, ash
point, aromatic content and biodegradability.
Biodiesel, dened as the monoalkyl esters of fatty acids derived
from vegetable oil or animal fat, has demonstrated a number of
promising characteristics in applications as an extender for combustion in compressionignition engines (CIEs), including a reduction of exhaust emissions. Biodiesel is much less polluting than
petroleum diesel, resulting in much lower emissions of almost
every pollutant: carbon dioxide, sulfur oxide, particulates, carbon
monoxide, air toxics and unburned hydrocarbons. Biodiesel does,

2750

N.N.A.N. Yusuf et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 52 (2011) 27412751

however, have nitrogen oxide emissions that are about 10 percent

higher than petroleum diesel. Blending biodiesel into petroleum
diesel can help reduce emissions. It is well known that transport
is almost totally dependent on fossil fuels. Biodiesel is one of the
feasible alternatives. The biodiesel fuels have not been widely accepted in the market because they are more expensive than petroleum fuels. With recent increases in petroleum prices and
uncertainties concerning petroleum availability, there is renewed
interest in biodiesel fuels for diesel engines [37].

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