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~ 0 13,
. NO. 2, 1987 published by the Center for Metals Production - An EPRl Sponsored R&D Applications Center

Understanding
Electric Arc Furnace Operations
For Steel Production
Introduction
silicon and the burning of natural gas
The use of electric arc furnaces (EAF)
for steelmaking has grown dramati-
Energy Needs with oxy-fuel burners. About 53% of the
cally in the last decade in the United Furnaces are often classified by power total energy leaves the furnace in the
States. In 1975 electric furnaces ac- requirement levels. A scale indicating liquid steel, while the remainder is lost
counted for 20% of the steel produced power classification ranging from ultra- to slag, waste gas, or cooling.
in the U.S.; by 1985 this figure had high-power (UHP), withover 700 kVA Typical tap-to-tap time has decreased
grown to 34%. Electric furnaces range per ton, downto low-power, with less from over 2 hours in 1960 to 70-80
in capacity from a few tons to as many than 200 kVA per ton, is shown in minutes today. Primarily responsible are
as 400, and a steelmaking shop can Figure 1 along with some representa- UHP furnaces, oxy-fuel burners, water-
have a single furnace or up to three tive furnaces. cooled side panels (which allow for
or four. In brief, these furnaces melt higher power after the steel is molten),
steel by applyingan AC current to a KVA EXAMPLES
foamy slag practices (which also permit
steel scrap charge by means of graphite PER higher power), and ladle metallurgy
TON
electrodes. It requires about 500 kwh (which removes the refining function
IMX) -
of electricity to produce a ton of steel; ULTRA-HIGH
from the furnace and shifts it to a ladle
900 - into which the molten metal is poured).
consequently, these furnaces use a
800 - .. .~. .. . . .
tremendous quantity of electricity. Trans- 0 CHAPARRAL
0 BETHLEHEM(JOHNSTOWNI
~

former loads mayreach 120 MVA. 700 ”

Chemical Ekctricol
The melting process involves the use 600 - 0 INLAND
HIGH
of large quantitiesof energy in a short 500 - 0 LUKENS “n”
0 ATUNTIC STEEL
time (1-2 hr) andin some instances the
400 -
process has caused disturbances in
300 - MEDIUM ARMCO (KANSAS CITY)
power grids. These disturbances have
usually been characterized as “flicker” 7.00 - ~

LOW 0 LTV(CLEVELAND)
- brief irregularitiesin voltage a frac- 100”
tion of the60 Hz cycle inlength, and I
“harmonics” - irregularities that tend to Figure 1
occur in a pattern repetitive to the 60 EAF Power Classifications
Hz cycle.
The featuresof electric arc furnaces
were describedin a CMPTech- It is important to consider the energy
Commentary on Electric Arc Furnaces balance for a typical modem EAF: The
(Vol. 1, No. 3, 1985). The purposeof energy diagram shownin Figure 2 indi-
the present Techcommentary is to cates that70% of the total energy is
give utilities and steel mills a better electrical, the remainder being chemical
understanding of electric furnaces from energy arising from the oxidation of
an electrical viewpoint. elements such as carbon, iron, and Figure 2
Energy Patterns in an Electric
Furnace
Typical Arc ignition peGiod
(start of power supply ) Boring period
Molten metal
period
Steelmaking Cycle
A typical heat cycle appearsin Figure 3.
To achieve meltdown as quickly as
possible, electrodes are initially lowered
to a point above the material, the Conditions of
current is initiated, and the electrodes furnace
bore through the scrap to form a pool
of liquid metal. The scrap itself protects
the furnace lining from the high-
intensity arc. Subsequently, the arc is I
lengthened by increasing the voltage
to maximum power. Most modem fur- To protect the furr
naces are equipped with water-cooled roof from arc by supplying high power from arc soot
2. To stabilize the arc and increasing the boring
panels in the upper halfof the sidewall, 3. To rapidly submerge the speed
Operating 2. To increase the boring
rather than refractories, which allows objectives
electrode tip into
scrap
diameter
for longer arcs and higher energy input
into the furnace.In the final stage,
when there is a nearly complete metal I I I I
I
pool, the arcis shortened to reduce I 11 Optimum current
a OP
radiation heat losses and to avoid refrac-
tory damage and hot spots.
After melt dawn, oxygen usually isin-
jected to oxidize the carbon in the steel a 00
Characteristic u 80
or the charged carbon. This process is curve of arc power 2 60 Is Short- 60
an important source of energy; the car- ? 40 c~rcuiting 40
current
40
20 20
bon monoxide that evolves helps mini-
mize the absorption of nitrogen and ‘
0 40 80 I20 160 ‘ 0 40 80 120 160
ArcCurrent Io %
flushes hydrogen out of the metal. It
also foams the slag, which helps mini-
mize heatloss.
To be judged by 1. The rate of lowering TO be judg A? t
the position the electrode consumption (kW
Criteria for where the 2. The lowered position of the boring period
operation of electrode tip is the electrode
submerged for
furnace
T about 1.5d

Detailed Electrical I 1 I
-
Courtesy of the Iron and Steel Society. Inc. - Electric Furnace Steelmaking 1985
I

Operation Figure 3 SteelMeltingCycle

After an electric furnaceis charged with tinguished by a minor overshoot in an early meltdown, and they occur at vary-
scrap and the roofis in place, the electrode regulator or by physical move-ing frequencies.
operator lowers the electrodes, each ment of the scrap.As the scrap melts, Many attempts have been madeto
of which has its own regulator and it can often shift and fall away from establish the human eye’s reaction to
mechanical drive. The electrodes are an electrode- extinguishing the arc, the flickerof a lamp. That these endeav-
connected to the furnace transformer‘s or against theelectrode- possibly ors have not exactly confirmed one
secondary delta winding, which may breaking it. another is shownin Figure 4 (from “Arc
be rated from;bout 600 to 850 volts. Because of thephysical movement Furnace Power Delivery”), where per-
No current flows when the first elec- and settlingof the scrap, wide excur- ception is measured while disturbance
trode contacts scrap, but a line-to-line sions can take place on a random basisvoltage and frequency are varied. Eye
path through the scrap and an arc are in the secondary circuit. The abrupt response to disturbancesin the 5-10 Hz
established when the second electrode initiation and interruption of current range did seem to be greatest in all
completes the circuit. The regulators flow provides a source of harmonic the studies.
for each of thesetwo electrodes then currents and causes considerable distur- Generation of harmonics may result in
signal the drives to raise the elec- bance to high-impedance circuits.( A b o u t further flicker problems, and equip-
trodes until the selected current-voltage 75% of the total impedanceis inthe ment on the power system may also
ratio for the arcis achieved. Initiation secondary circuit.) Voltage and current be damaged. If static capacitors are to
of the third arc depends on the scrap’s waves deviate considerably from sym- be used to improve the power factor,
location, whichis unpredictable, hence metrical sinusoidal patterns, but they an analysisto ensure that resonance
the duration of the unbalance is short do not attain full rectangular shape, does not exist at any of the harmonic
but random. While the scrap is still according to findingsin the CMP report, frequencies should be made. Harmon-
unmelted, the arc may easily be ex- “Arc Furnace Power Delivery Scoping
Study.”’ Disturbances are worst during

.mation
Main melting period
..
. ...
lid baih
'bottom Since the arc is surrounded
withsolid materials, the
the therrnol conductivity Of
arc power is a maxlmum.
Therefore, rapid and uniform
melting should be planned
by supplying the maximum
power that the facilities permit
)P
Meltdown-heating period
Meltdown period
Tapping spout
1. To reduce the local 1. To reduce the heat radiation
damages near hot spots onto the lining as well as
on lining minimize hat spot domoge
2. To rapidly melt the 2. To rapidly increase the
remaining scrap temperature of molten
steel to the appropriate
value for refining
la
I20
I4O 1 !
a full heat. Thisis generally uneconomi-
cal due to oxidation losses and the
need to open the furnace for several
separate charges, which results inloss
of both time and heat. Noris the use of
large heavy scrap alone optimum.A
large piece might protrude and interfere
with roof closure or require placement
by magnet, a process which takes time.
The furnace operator therefore tries
to blend several types of available scrap
to suit his needs. It is beneficialto
arrange the heavier pieces near the
bottom of the charge. After about20
minutes of operation, dependingon
available power and other practices,
the electrodes will have opened some
voids, and cave-ins can occur. If large
pieces of scrap are on top of the
pile, they can possibly slide into and
break an electrode. It is generally be-
lieved that light, uniform scrap produces
a smoother meltdown than does large
heavy scrap. However, this is not al-
ways the case. If heavy scrap is

is
3 160
charged, full power canbe applied. If
all the scrapis light, on full power the
electrodes may bore through, damag-
ing the furnace bottom before a suffi-
cient pool of liquid metal has formed.
Generally, the initial period of melting
causes the most electrical disturbances.
As the scrap temperature begins to rise,
jowr 1. Variation of arc impedance 1. Power consumption (kwh) Power consumption (kwh) a liquid pool forms, and disturbances
lfter 2. Therate of the F c e 2. Melting Conditions of begin to diminish. This is generally about
temperature (IPB) scrop
3. Powerconsumption (kwh) 10 minutes or so after power-on and
can vary depending on power levels
and shop practices.

Borderlines of flicker per perceptibility for incandescent

light bulbs under laboratoryconditions (1-Common-
wealth Edison. 12OV. 25 + 4 0 + 6OW; 2-Japan. lOOV,
Melt Down
60W; 3-Schwabe. 120V. 60W; 4-Carjell. 220V, 6OW; ics contributeto wave distortion and
5-Wasowsk~,220V, 40W; 6-Kendal1, 230'4 60W; 7-UIE, Heating steel scrapto approximately
230V, 60W; sinusoidal wave; 8-UIE, 230V, 60W. to the increasein effective inductive 3000" F requires large quantitiesof
square wave).
reactance. This increase is often in the energy rapidly applied. Therefore, full
070 r I 10 to 15% range and has been re- power is called for during meltdown.
ported as high as 25%. Current into The arc during meltdown canbe long
the furnaceis therefore less than what because the electrode and arc are bor-
would be expected from calculations ing a hole down through the scrap,
based on sinusoidal wave shapes, and and the roof andsidewalls are not
losses in frequency-sensitive equip- exposed to arc radiation. If the arc is
ment such as transformers are higher extiquished, the regulator will lower the
than the sinusoidal wave shape would electrode to re-establish it. This can
produce. take several seconds if the scrap has
moved out from under the electrode.

Importance of Scrap Main Melting Period

Scrap is availablein a wide variety
of sizes, densities,and chemical compo- After about 20 minutes, most electric
sitions, anda mixtureis usually used. If furnaces will have begun converting
only the lightest, least dense material scrap to liquid metal. Hence, wide
is charged, several buckets of scrap swings in disturbances will diminish
0.20 must be placedin the furnaceto make considerably. When sufficient molten
S 8.8 10 IS metal exists(in some high-powered
FlickerFrequency, Hz
Figure 4
Borderline of Flicker Perceptibility
furnaces only8-10 minutes is required), When the carbon electrode actsas the as oils) and low-boiling-point nonferrous
the arc is shortened by an adjustment cathode, it is a good emitter of eleci ‘ metals. Preheat could come from Waste
to the electrode regulators. The cur- trons (hence, carbon cathodes in the heat or supplemental gas or oil burners.
rent will rise since overall resistance is large mercury arc rectifiers of several The recent trend toward using the
reduced, and the power factor and arc years ago); steel, even molten,is not electric furnace asa main melting unit
power will decline. Arc length is changed nearly as good. During the half-cycle has ledto the practice of leaving Some
so that the shorter arc will deliver a when the scrap orthe bath is the slag and molten metalin the electric
higher portion of its heat to the metal cathode, arc initiationis a little slower furnace. CMP-AIS1 studies at Sidbec-
below the electrode than will the longer and weaker than when the electrode is Dosco indicated that this ractice re-
arc, which radiates more heat to fur- cathodic (Figure6). This slight varia- f
duces arc furnace flicker.
nace sidewalls. Many studies have tion between the opposite half-cycles
been conducted which confirm the ad- tends to create the even-numbered
vantages of thelong arc for meltdown harmonics -the second and fourth. Argon and Lime
of heavy scrap andthe short arc for
operation after sufficient liquid metal has Injection
been formed. The short arcis much
more stable than the long arc, and
Reducing Electrical Tests havebeen run with hollow elec-
trodes, both dry and with argon, and
operation during the refining period Disturbances argon and lime injection. Work by W.E.
follows sinusoidal concepts much more Schwabe in the 1950’s demonstrated
Many ways exist to reduce the effects
closely.
of the arc disturbances. These are deter-the stabilizing effect of hollow elec-
mined by the utility system to which trodes in furnace^.^ He described the
development of the trumpet profile in
Arc Movement the furnace or furnaces are
connected, and theyare influenced
to be
the tip which decreased load swings
Photos have been taken during the mainly by the size and stability of the during meltdown.
refining’period to show the electric arc’s power grid. Some sizable shops require Trials with hollow electrodes and ar-
action. High-speed photographyis no particular flicker control equipment. gon injection during the 1970’s showed
needed to capture the60 arc cycles per It is quite possible that, if a furnace a marked smoothing of oscilloscope
second. It has been shown that the shop is fed from a 220 kV or higher traces of arc voltage and current4.The
arc moves around on the tip of the system with a short-circuit capacity of favorable effect of argon resulted from
electrode and, in some cases, consider- 6500 MVA or more,the utility will the arc-supporting effectof the media
ably off the vertical. This movement is experience verylittle loaddisturbance, due to the greater number of atoms
believed to be caused by the electro- and the steelmaker can have consider- present for ionization. Injectionof pow-
magnetic forces induced by the high able flexibility in configuring his internal dered lime into the arc zone cut arc
current flow (Figure5). When the same plant power system. resistance in half and eliminated all
conditions were observed with hollow Most utilities require power factor high-frequency componentsof the arc
electrodes, the arc still moved around correction. Shops with large electric voltage.’
considerably, but it appearedto be more furnaces would more than likely use Based on these favorable results,
nearly vertical and better consolidated static capacitors; synchronous condens-trials ona commercial-sized electric
than with solid electrodes. ers of sufficient capacity wouldbe furnace were undertaken by the Center
prohibitively expensive for a multifurnace for Metals Production, with joint financ-
shop. Before such systems are installed, ing by 20 steel companies and the
transient analysis is required to determine:Electric Power Research Institute.2 A
20% reduction in flicker was found when
(a) Capacitor bank configuration argon and lime were injected down
(b) Need for harmonic tuning of the electrodes during these tests. How-
sections ever, savings in power and electrodes
(c) Switching procedure (This is were minimal, offering little incentive
important to avoid a power for adopting this practice for steelmelting.
Cycle I Cycle 2 Cyde 3 factor penalty and does not
eliminate flicker.)
Figure 5
Arc Pattern Flow
If additional regulationis needed, VAR DC Furnaces
control equipment would probably be Operation of an electric furnace with
required. However, if plans have al- one direct-current electrode rather than
ready been made for power factor the three electrodesof conventional
capacitors, including tuning reactors, alternating-current designs has proven
then the thyristors and main reactor are to reduce electrical system disturb-
the only further additions required. ances. Improvements in load variation,
a 60% reduction in flicker, and elimina-
tion of phase unbalance has been re-
Other Means of ported with DCfurnace^.^ Major prob-
Anode h d Reducing Flicker lems withDC operation are the relatively
short life of the bottom electrode and
Figure 6 Preheating the scrap charge helps re- contact between the scrap and the bot-
Variation in Arc Shape with Half duce electrical disturbansesin melting tom electrode during initial meltdown.
Cycles and removes some contaminants (such Except for the bottom electrode, most of
 the equipment for a DC furnace is monic filters, which would also help t p Most important, utilities have become
conventional, and large DC loads are avoid power factor penalties.It is also vitally interested in power quality.To
now routinely handledin steel mills. A helpful that makers of electronic appara- further this goal, the Electric Power
60 MW furnace load would be compara- tus - computers, TV, X ray, etc.-have Research Institute has formed a Power
, .. ble to rectifiers supplying a wide 7-stand improved their power supplies in re- Electronics Applications Center to investi-
’ hot stripmill for rolling steel. cent years, making these systems less gate further the question of utility power
Rectifiers for these main3000-5000 vulnerable to power fluctuations. quality.
hp drive motors are of the 12-pulse
type. These rolling mill systems han-
dle large impact loads which are close
to step functions and probably could
handle initial disturbances in DC melting Bibliography
furnaces. 1. “Arc Furnace Power Delivery Scoping . 4. W. J. Maddever. “Gas Injection Process
Study,” Center for Metals Production, During Electric Furnace Steelmaking and
Report No. 84-1,1984. Continuous Casting,” Ph.D. thesis, Uni-
EAF Furnace Loads 2. “Arc Stability in Electric Furnace Steel- versity of Toronto, 7978.
Are Not Unreasonable making,”
ReDozNo.
CenterforMetalsProduction,
86-9,
1986.
5. ”DCArc FurnacesforSteelProduction.”
Metals
Center
Production,
for Report
No.
It is true that the arc furnace incurs 86-8, 7 986.
short circuits. However, relative magni- 3. W. E. Schwabe. “Experimental Results
tude should be kept in mind: If current with Hollow Electrod‘es,” Iron and Steel 6. “Techno-Economic Assessmentof Elec-
Engineer, June 1957, pp. 84-92. tric Steelmaking Through the Year 2000”
at maximum circuit power is consid-
EPRI, 1987 (to be published).
ered to be 100 percent, or 1.O per unit,
then a short circuit will result in only
1.414 timei this full load current - not
too serious a problem. When the pri-
mary breaker is closed on a transformer, CMP Publications of Interest
the inrush current can be 10 times
rated load-far more than the1.4 84-1 Arc Furnace Power Delivery (1984)
times due to a secondary short in the A detailed analysisof the technical problems relatingto large electric furnaces
electric arc furnace.A hot strip rolling and utilltypower grids.
mill cango from no load to 60 MW
faster than a60 MW furnace, and this 85-1 Ladle Refining Furnaces for the Steel Industry
(1985)
can occur every2 minutes. While the A review of supplemental steel heating and refining units often used in
rolling mill load is a balanced-phase conjunction with electric arc furnaces.
load (a major advantageover arc 85-2 Electric Arc Furnace Dust Disposal
(1985)
furnaces), the mill load cycles much
of methods
An analysis of dusts generated by electric furnaces and a review
more frequently. for treatment and disposal.
Vol. 1, No. 3 Electric Arc Furnace Steelmaking (Techcommentary- 1985)
Utility Engineering A description of the structure and function of electric arc furnaces.

Progress 86-7 Electrode Tip Analysis(1986)

An examination of electrode wear by various photographic means.
Most of the larger electric arc furnaces
installed over the past 20 years have 86-8 DC Arc Furnaces for Steel Production(1986)
been fed from high-voltage, stiff utility 30 ton
A comparison of the electrical energy consumption of a conventional
power grids. Problems of previous years AC furnace with a30 ton DC furnace.
-transformers failing because of reso- 86-9 Arc Stabilityin Electric Furnace Steelmaking(1986)
nance on a certain tap combination or
Field testingthe effect on furnace performance of hollow electrodes, lime and
utility capacitor banks failing far from
argon injection, and changes in other operating parameters.
an offending furnace- have not been
repeated. Users and utilities have done
their homework priorto installation,
and potential problems have been identi-
fied and corrected. The user can de-
cide what to do inside his plant regard-
ing the potential flicker problem. For
example, he may wantto install har-
 The Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI) conducts a technical research
and development program for the
U.S. electric utility industry.EPRl
promotes the developmentof new and
improved technologiesto help the
utility industry meet present and future
electric energy needs in environmen-
tally and economically acceptable ways.
EPRl conducts research on all as-
pects of electric power productionand
use, including fuels, generation, de-
livery, energy management and conser-
vation, environmental effects, and
energy analysis.
The Center for Metals Production (CMP) LEGAL NOTICE
is an R&D application center sponsored This report was prepared and spon-
by the Electric Power ResearchInsti- sored by the Center for Metals Produc-
tute (EPRI) and administered through tion (CMP). Neither members of CMP
nor any person acting on their behalf: (a)
Mellon Instituteof Camegie Mellon
makes any warranty expressed or
University. CMPs goal is to develop implied, with respect to the use of any
and transfer technical information that information, apparatus, method, or pro-
improves the productivity and energy cess disclosed in this report or that such
efficiency of U.S. primary metals pro- use may not infringe privately owned
ducing companies(SIC 33). Target rights; or (b) assumes any liabilities with
areas are reductiotdsmelting;refining respect to the use of, or for damages
remelting; and surface conditioning1 resulting from the use of, any information,
protection. apparatus, method, or process dis-
closed in this report.
EPRl
Robert Jeffress, Project Manager
CMP
Joseph E. Goodwill, Director
Richard M. Hurd, Chairman
Steelmaking Processes
James M. Hensler, Manager of
Technical Projects
John Kollar, Manager of
Communications
William C. Flora, Consultant
David J. Westhead Company, 1nc.i
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0 1987 Center for Metals Production CMP-0787-002