Pree Cosag. Ress lage Zoor TECHNICAL STANDARDS FOR GATES AND PENSTOCKS HYDRAULIC GATE AND PENSTOCK ASSOCIATIONItis sincerely hoped that the recently revised edition will serve the pur- pose of assisting those engineers who are engaged in construction and administration of hydraulic gates and penstocks overseas. Chairman of the Technical Committee Hydraulic Gate and Penstock AssociationINTRODUCTION ‘As of 1986, Japan, with its hydraulic generating capacity of 35,700 MW in 1646 locations, ranked fourth inthe world following the United States, the Soviet Union and Canada. The hydraulic power generation capacity ‘occupies approximately 20% of the total power generating facilities of 173,800 MW which includes thermal power plants and nuclear power plants. Therefore, it plays an important role as a precious domestic ener- ay supply source. In addition, more power plant construction projects cen- tering around a large-capacity and high head pumped storage power plant have been making progress in recent years. Seventy eight power plants capable of generating a total power of 9,580 MW have been completed since 1976. In connection with the construction of these pumped storage power plants, a variety of new technologies have been introduced in the field ‘of steel penstocks and gates in order to cope with the technical difficul- ties stemming from the large capacity and the high head. In order to publicize Japan’s technical standards for hydraulic gates and penstocks to the whole world, the Hydraulic Gate and Penstock As- sociation published “Technical Standards for Gates and Penstocks” (English version) in 1971. On the basis of the technical results as men- tioned above, the Technical Standards for Gates and Penstocks (Japanese version) was revised in 1981 and therefore “Technical Standards for Gates and Penstocks” (English version) has also been revised. ‘The Hydraulic Gate and Penstock Association was established in 1949 as a foundational juridical person with the participation as regular members of the hydraulic gates and penstocks manufacturers and the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITD, the Construction Ministry, the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, the Water Resources Development Corporation, nine major power companies, the Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. and a number of well respected experts as supporting members. Since its foundation, this association has ‘been making contributions to advancements in the hydraulic gate and pen- stock industries with the mutual cooperation of the government agencies and the commercial enterprises. Therefore, the Technical Standards for Gates and Penstocks established by this association are extremely autho- ritative in JapanTable of Contents Chapter 1 STEEL PENSTOCKS Section 1 General Article 1. Application Article 2. Definition ........ Section 2 Design 1. General 4, Attachment Installations .. Article 3. Design of Steel Penstock Article 4. Design Internal Pressure Article 5. Design External Pressure Article 6. Head Loss .. Article 7. Consideration for Water Quality Material and Allowable Stress -......... Article 8. Material of Steel Penstocks .. ‘Article 9. Material of Pressure Lining Part and Mai Attachment Installations Directly Welded to Pressure Lining Part . Article 10. Material of Attachment Installations Article 11. Material Test Article 12. Allowable Stress .. Pressure Lining Part ....-..--s Article 13. Loads to be Considered Article 14. Combination of Loads . Article 15. Design Condition for Pressure Lining Part Article 16. Stress to be Considered . Article 17. Corrosion Allowance . Article 18. Minimum Shell Thickness Article 19. Coefficient of Friction between Pipe and Supports . eee Article 20. Effective Sectional Area of Pipe Shell Plate Article 21. Bend Pipe ... Article 22. Branch Article 23. Reinforcement of Holes 21 2B 3 35 35 . 36 37 39 56 37 39 61 65 9 883 86 Article 24. Expansion Joint Article 25. Manhole .. Article 26. Air Pipe and Air Valve ses . 87 Article 27. Anchor Bolt, Anchor Band, Thrust Collar ..... 89 . Movable Part of Support 1 . Ring Girder Section 3. Manufacture sve Article 30. Processing of Shell Plate .. Article 31. Fabrication se Article 32, Tolerance for Circumferential Length .. Article 33. Hydraulic Test Section 4 Installation Article 34. Handling Article 35. Installation in General .. Article 36. Consideration of Temperature during Installation . 10 Article 37. Longitudinal Joint .. 2 . 101 101 102 + 103 104 107 107 108 Article 38. Coating ....sesoeesse m2 Article 39. Protection of External Surface of Embedded Underground «...... 116 Article 40. Name Plate . a 7 Article 41. Water Filling and Operation Test .. 118 Section 5 Maintenance 19 Article 42. Prevention of Leakage . 19 Article 43. Maintenance of Expansion Joint .. 119 Article 44, Maintenance of Air Pipe and Air Valve ........ 119 Article 45, Maintenance of Movable Part of Support ...... 120 Article 46, Prevention of Vibration .. 120 Article 47. Consideration to Water Quality after Completion of the Penstock 123 Article 48. Check of Pipe Inside 124 Article 49, Measurement of Shell Thickness Article 50. Repair or Replacement Article 51. Recoating 124 125 127 Section 6 Anchor Block and Support ....... 128 Article 52. Locations of Anchor Block 128 Article 53. Foundation of Anchor Blocks 128Article $4. Stability Conditions for Anchor Block .. Article 55. External Force to be Considered ...... Article 56. Location of Support Article 57, Foundation of Support .. Article 58. Design of Support... Article 59. of Anchor Block and Support ‘Article 60. Observation of Shifting Anchor Block Article 61. Protection Work for Bed and Cutting Slopes Chapter 2. HYDRAULIC GATE .. Section 1 General Article 1. Application .. Article 2. Definitions Article 3. Selection of Type anc Section 2 Outline of Design ... 1. General . Article 4, Design Conditions Article 5. Selection of Type of Hoisting Device Article 6, Power Equipment for Gate Operating .. Article 7. Operating Speed .. Article 8, Lifting Height .. Anticle 9. Auxiliary Power Equipment Article 10. Materials of Hydraulic Gate Article 11. Material Test ese 2.Gate Leaf, Gate Guide and Anchorage .. Anticle 12. Allowable Stress .. a Article 13. Increase in Allowable Stress during an Earthquake Article 14. Loads to be Considered .. Article 15. Combination, of Loads Article 16. Shape of Gate Leaf, Gate Guide and Anchorage .. cesseenseneee Article 17. Seal Part Article 18. Hinged Support Anticle 19. Skin Plate oe Axticle 20. Corrosion Allowance ... . 129 130 133 134 2134 135 135 136 137 sees 137 . 137 fees 137 . 148 . 152 152 . 152 153 sees 154 2 15S 2155 iss 156 160 160 . 160 168 169 176 7 V8 180 181 183Article Article Article Article Article Anticte Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Section 3 Design Particulars ai. 2. 2. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32, 33. 34, 35. 36. 37. Rigidity, Minimum Plate Thickness and Slenderness Ratio of Gate Leaf 184 Deflection by Gate Leaf . 185 . Plate Girder .. - 186 . Web Plate Thickness of Members Sujet to Compressive Force .. . . 187 188 . Safety Factor of Gate Hoist « . 188 . Mechanical Efficiency & Coefficient of Friction of Each Part of the Gate Hoist ........ 190 Capacity and Time Rating of Prime Mover .... 191 Brake .. ees - 192, Emergency Lowering Device 2193 Diameter of Wirerope, Drum and Sheave ...... 193 Number of Spooled Wirerope Layers, Fleet ‘Angle and Minimum Number of Wraps 194 Type and Capacity of Auxiliary Power Equipment ses . 195 Capacity of an Oil Hydraulic Pump and a Prime Mover Oil Hydraulic Cylinder 197 Oil Hydraulic Pipe .. 198 Hydraulic Operating Flui 199 Safety Device and Auxiliary Facilities for Gate Hoist ... . 203 I. Fixed Wheel Gate... - 203 Article 38. Shape of Fixed Wheel Gate - 203 Article 39. Main Girder ... . + 203 Article 40. Auxiliary Girder .. 204 Article 41. Side Girder ... 1. 208 Article 42. Main Rollers .. 205 Article 43. Guide Roller 208 Article 44, Gate Guide .. 209 Article 45. Operating Load 212 2. Radial Gate .. . 25 Article 46. Shape and Structure of a Ra 2 215Article 47. Framework Article 48. Gate Arm and Arm Bracing Article 49. Fixing Point of Arm Bracing Article 50. Anchorage .. 3. Long Span Gate 31. Application 52. Shape of the Gate Leaf . 53. Considerations for Gate Leaf Structure 54. Considerations for Gate Leaf Deformation .. Article 55. Considerations for Gate Leaf Operations 4, Bottom Hinge Flap Gate Article 56. Shape of the Bottom Hinge Flap Gate .. Article 57. Considerations for Sedimentary ‘Sand and Drift Article 58. Structure of the Gate Leaf Article 59. Gate Leaf Support . ‘Article 60. Gate Operating Force and Operating Mechanisms 5. High Pressure Gates and Valves .. Article 61. Outline of Design Article 62. Shape of the High Article 63, High Pressure Valve Article 64. Shape of Passage . Article 65. Conduit Pipe .. Article 66. Air Pipe .. 6. Selective Water Withdrawal Equipment and Surface Water Withdrawal Equipment . Article 67. General ... . Article 68, Structure of Gate Leaf Article 69. Dynamic Pressure during an Earthquake Article 70. Safety Guard Equipment for Gate Leaf 7. Trash Rack Article 71. Trash Rack Section 4 Manufacture .. Article 72. Processing of the Skin Plate Article 73. Assembly . 216 216 207 218 219 . 219 2 219 2221 2221 2 222 222 222 23 223 224 228 226 226, 226 27 228 229 231 . 233 . 233 234 234 236 236 . 236 . 240 240 .. 240Section $ Instat Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Article Chapter 3. STEEL STRUCTURE Section 1 General Article Article 2. Definition Section 2 Design Article Article Article Article Article 14. 85. 86. a7. 88. 89. 90. m1 9. 93. 94 95. 1 3. . General Installation .. - Install . Coating Specifications .. |. Metal Spraying, - Running Test Section 6 Inspection . Article 84, Inspection Section 7 Maintenance 241 241 241 Consideration of Floods during Installation ... 242 Installation of the Gate Guide and Anchorage ...... 242 mn of the Seal Part .. eevee 43 243 248 250 250 251 252 252 253 . 253 253 253 Handling during Transportation Coating Work Builder's Name Plate Maintenance, Inspection and Control Leak Prevention Freeze Prevention .. Maintenance of Support . 254 Maintenance of Gate He 255 Maintenance of Auxiliary Power Equipment. 255 Repair and Replacement . 255 Maintenance Gate 256 Recoating + 256 Hoist Room . 287 ‘Access Bridge and Access Facilities eu 287 259 . 259 ‘Application » Material . ‘Allowable Stress of Materials... 260 Increase in Allowable Stress 260 Loads to be Considered 260 Combination of LoadsSection 3. Fabrication and Installation 263 Article 8. Articles Applied . seve 263 Chapter 4 WELDING ....... 265 Section 1 General 265 Article 1. Application .... 265 Article 2, Welder . 268 Article 3, Welding Material ... 23 Article 4. Graphical Symbols for Welding 283 Section 2 Welded Joint .... 287 Article 5. Joint Type 287 Article 6. Combined Use of Rivets or Bolts and Weld ... 288 Article 7. Arrangement of Welded Joints ..... 290 Article 8, Butt Joint steaessenene 291 Article 9, Fillet Welded Joint 293 Article 10. Drilling at Weld Zones 295 Article 11. Butt Welding of Stee! Plates Having Different Thicknesses .. - 295 Article 12. Lap Fillet Weld . 297 Article 13. Welded Joint Efficiency .. 299 Section 3. Welding Procedure .. 302 Article 14, Arc Welding Machine 302 Article 15. Maintenance of Welding Machine 302 Article 16. Wiring. 302 Article 17. Welding Equipment 303 Article 18. Storage of Welding Rod .. 304 Article 19. Butt Weld Groove .. 306 Article 20. Welding of Jig and Tack Welding . Article 21. Welding Sequence .. - Article 22. Prebeating .. Article 23. Final Welding . eo 0 Article 24, Weather Effects .. . 3 Asticle 25. Back Welding . . seeeseenenne 312 Asticle 26. Final Welding with an Automatic Welding Machine... 33 Article 27. Peening ... 314Section 4 Heat Treatment Section 5 Test and Inspections Section 1 General Section 2 Riveted Joints ... Section 3. High Strength Bolt Joints. Article 28. Sizes and Tolerances of Weld Metal Article 29. Annealing .. Article 30. Welding Procedure Test .. Article 31, Weld Inspection Article 32, Non-Destructive Inspections Article 33. Repair Welding . Chapter 5 RIVETED, HIGH STRENGTH BOLTED AND BOLTED CONNECTIONS .. Article 1. Appli 2. Combined Use of Joints 3. Connection of Members 4. Arrangement of Rivets, High Strength Bolts and Bolts . . 5. ‘Thickness of Splice Plate 6. Calculation for Effective Cross-sectional Area of Members... Article 7. Fabrication of Joint .. Article 8. Material of Rivets .. Article 9. Shape of Rivets ... Article 10, Riveted Joint Article 11. Riveting Article 12, Caulking. Article 13. Application .. Article 14, Bolts, Nuts and Washers for High Strength Bolt Friction Connections . Article 15. High Strenath Bolt Friction Joints Article 16, Performance of High Strength Bolt Friction Joints Article 17. High Strength Bolt Bearing Connection 314 . 319 319 . 326 326 . 327 . 328 331 333 333 333 334 334 345 348 351 351 351 351 352 . 352 353 353 . 354 355 356 .. 359Section 4 Bolted Connections ........ seo 361 Article 18. Application 361 Article 19. Nuts, Bolts and Washers .. . 361 ‘Article 20. Arrangement and Performance of Bolted Joints . 362 Chapter 6 SAFETY AND SANITATION . 365 Article 1. Safety and Sanitation ..Chapter 1 STEEL PENSTOCKS Section 1 General Article 1, Application This standard is applicable to steel penstocks to be used for all hydro- electric power stations. This standard is applicable only to so-called steel penstocks defined in Article 2., and is not applicable to reinforced concrete pipes or wooden pipes, etc. Hydroelectric power stations have a wide variety of sizes and scales ranging from big ones having large capacities and high heads to small ones utilizing streams, but no matter how small-scaled a hydroelectric power station is, there is no difference in design whatsoever for steel penstocks, and thus this standard is applicable to all hydroelectric power stations Article 2. Definition I. Steel penstocks referred to in this standard mean structures installed to guide water directly from intakes, head tanks or surge-tanks to hydraulic turbines, ie. steel penstocks consist of penstocks to be pres sure lining parts and their attachment installations (excluding linings just for the purpose of preventing water leakage). 2. Pressure Lining Parts referred to in this standard mean pipe shells of steel penstocks. 3. Attachment installations referred to in this standard mean those listed below: (1) Expansion joint (Q) Manhole @) Air pipe and air valve (4) Guard valve and its by-pass pipe and by-pass valve (3) Drainage pipe and drainage valve (6) Supporting structure (1) Stiffener and others closely related to the pressure lining part4, A Longitudinal Joint referred to in this standard means an axial joint subjected to circumferential forces. 5. A Circumferential Joint referred to in this standard means a joint in a circular direction subjected to axial forces. Description : 1. ‘Guide water directly’ means a pipeline to guide water from an intake to a hydraulic turbine or a pipeline from a head tank or surge-tank toa hydraulic turbine, in a dam type power station or adam and con- duit type power station where a surge-tank is omitted due to a short conduit, and such hydraulic pressure pipes as syphons etc., installed in a headrace between an intake and a head tank or a surge-tank are excluded from this standard, A pipeline which is provided only for the purpose of preventing water leakage installed in bedrocks between a head tank or a surge-tank and a hydraulic turbine is also excluded because such a pipeline’s design conditions are different from those in this Chapter. ‘Terms of ‘steel lining’, ‘hydraulic pressure pipe’ etc., similar to ‘steel penstock’ in this standard are specified in Article 2., Chapter 3. 2. Omitted 3. A guard valve is installed either halfway of the steel penstock or at the inlet of a hydraulic turbine, and the former is called a penstock valve and the latter an inlet or main valve in Japan. “Something closely related to a pressure lining part especially’ me- ans branch pipes, cooling pipes diverging from a steel penstock and a structure working together with a pressure lining part, and influenc- ing greatly on its strength. ‘Supporting structures can systematically be expressed as follows:(Movable part) sie late aig cen ote Saddle support | (Support) come sie LP se saddle one ‘Support (Movable part) sone bare Supporting, Roller bearing pated f hs ‘Stide bearing ° Bipe -Ring support —] in bearing. Supporting sate of achor (ia coli Soper eel penock ‘block anchor bolt ting girder wae) cng ea) ilig coset eae son Supporti smeureat—[' 7 Sruslaed Ground (embedded underground) tive SI Stee plate 1 Conereie sade bearing Example of sade suport Fig. 1. Bearing Support ‘Example of ring support, Example of SupportSection 2 Design 4. General Article 3. Design of Steet Penstock ‘A steel penstock shall be designed taking account of not only safety but also its economy and workability. Description : Steel penstocks, one of the most important structures in a hydroelec- tric power station, should be designed to be most economical, taking ac- count of their workability and maintainability based on the securing of safety of the installations. Penstocks, however, are positioned in the whole plan of a hydroelectric power station ranging from an intake to an outlet, and thus it is hard to evaluate steel penstocks from only their economic viewpoint. Therefore, steel penstocks should be generally reviewed and studied in terms of route, number of lines, diameter, etc., under various conditions derived from a hydroelectric power station plan. 1, Steel penstocks should be designed taking the following factors into consideration: (1) Type of power station Power stations in terms of generating system can be grouped into ‘general hydroelectric power stations of either run-of-river type or reservoir type and pumped storage power stations. Dependent upon these power station types, annual operating hours greatly differ. In deciding on the scale of steel penstocks, an economical design is necessary taking these conditions into consideration and in plan- ‘ning a pumped storage power station of large scale and fewer annual operating hours compared with a general hydroelectric power sta- tion, emphasis is placed on a decrease in construction cost. Q) Route It is desirable that steel penstocks be straight, taking account of conditions of topography, geology and environment. A longitu: nal gradient should be selected so that the penstock is below the hhydraulic gradient line even if the water level of the intake installa tion, head tank or surge-tank is lowest, and should be selected so. 8 not to produce negative pressures with fluctuating loads.) Type of stee! penstock Type of steel penstocks can be classified as exposed and embed- ded pipes. In either type, the penstock should support all of the internal pressure basically, but part of the pressure can be shared with surrounding bedrocks in case of an embedded pipe, provided that there exists no problem in structure and material of pipes, and topography, geology and bedrock conditions be well-known, (4) Construction works of steel penstock Ina pumped storage power station having a high head and a large , the construction work of steel penstocks may influence the progress of the entire construction schedule of a power station because embedded pipes are often used, thus requiring a des phasizing its construction work. (5) Number of pipelines and branch position As the construction cost of steel penstocks increases in propor- tion to the number of lines, it is thus desirable, if the lines are long, to decrease the number by installing branches at proper positions, taking the availability of material into consideration. © Diameter Diameter of steel penstocks should be decided taking account of economy of the installations and workability, etc. (1) Materials Materials used for steel penstocks should be those specified in JIS in principle, and special attention should be paid to the weld- ability of 70 and 80 kg/mm? class high tensile steels, thick plates, forging steels, etc., not specified in JIS. (8) Repair and replacement of existing installations. In designing repair and replacement of existing steel penstocks, this standard should be applied in principle. But, in case that itis hard to apply this standard due to the conditions of the existing installations and the topography and so forth, the existing installa- tions can effectively be used after reviewing their safety. Economical diameter Economical diameters of steel penstocks can be determined taking account of their construction cost, and loss of electric power and energy. Approximate values of an economical penstock diameter can be de- termined as follows. This method and these calculation formulae have been used so far,‘An economical diameter is determined so that the sum of the con- struction cost and the decrease in power generating power due to loss of head in steel penstocks may become to be minimum. Friction head loss is calculated usually as the most influential fac- tor, but a , reducing, bend and branch portions should also be of structure with a minimum loss. There are several ways in determination, however, two methods are stated hereinafter; one based on the cost of steel penstock; the other based on the total cost of the penstock and the hydraulic turbine generator. (1) Formulae: Considering cost of the steel penstocks 1) Upper portion (where a thickness of steel penstock is determined by the minimum plate thickness, not by design pressures) [recom 9 POP0r* ond LEE on 2) Any portion (where a thickness of steel penstock is determined by design pressures) pal 3*78-tfeo A gCoup(l +) {riaeern+ emt + Se7En}} we where D: Diameter of steel penstock (m) Jf: Friction loss coefficient : Ratio of the sum of operation and maintenance cost and interest of construction cost of power sta- tion over the total construction cost + Acceleration of gravity (=9.8m/s!) + Unit cost of steel penstock construction (yen/tf) Specific gravity of steel penstock ( = 7.85) >’? Thickness of steel penstock (m) Ratio of weight increase by stiffeners, etc. of stel penstocks ( = 0.10 ~ 0.25) ne! Combined efficiency of a hydraulic turbine and a generator during power generation Q,: Discharge used during power generation (m?/s) te1: Reduction ratio of transmission loss (kW) during power generation 2! Reduction ratio of transmission loss (kWh) during. power generation + KW price (yen/kW) = kWh price (yen/kWh) Annual power generating hours (h) Discharge during pumping-up (m/s) ‘Annual pumping hours (h) kWh cost for pumping-up (yen/kWh) Combined efficiency of pump and motor during pumping-up @;: Reduction ratio of reception loss (kWh) during pumping-up @: Joint efficiency of steel penstock ‘o: Allowable stress of steel penstock (kef/cm’) Design pressure (kgf/cm?) (2) Formulae: Considering total cos ofthe tel penstockand hydraulic turbine generator In the previous formulae, the construction cost only for steel pen- stocks is taken into consideration but manufacturing cost for the hydraulic turbine and generator are excluded. But the fly-wheel ef- fect of a generator GD* and a steel penstock design may be changed depending upon how to determine the momentary speed variation An, the momentary pressure variation AP of the hydraulic turbine and the required closing time of the governor. Thus, the most economical penstock diameter can be determined by incorporating the above factors, as follows @ forlorn +enta + Cou(1 +9) 129 (GD), 4C,Wooos GD. *}FOe! +e0+ Q)2 wherew(- 2) where GD: Generator's fly-wheel effect required for hydrau- lic turbine (tf-m?) L: Length of steel penstock (m) (GD), : Normal GD" given by a manufacturer without considering the requirement for a hydraulic turbine (tf/m’y : Construction cost per ton of a generator (yen/tf) : Generator weight usually given by output (tf) Annual mean discharge (m’/s) Dead time of governor (s) + Propagation velocity of water hammer (m/s) Momentary pressure variation +: Runaway speed increase ratio of unaway specs N ‘An: Momentary speed variation of hydraulic turbine Limit of 4n is 45% for Francis turbine and 60% for Kaplan turbine from mechanical strength, but 40% should be the limit taking voltage regulation, into consideration. : Revolutions of turbine (r.p.m.) Coefficient (= 0.8 ~0.9) Required closing time for turbine governor (s) + Average velocity of steel penstock (m/s) Hydrostatic pressure (mm) N hydraulic turbine = (D should be obtained from formula (3)-1, and GD* from for- mula (3)-2 by assuming AP, and T should be gotten by substituting GD* for (3)-4. Then, if the value of AP substituted for (3)-5 is ‘equal to the value of AP assumed in (3)-2, itis satisfactory. In case that GD® required for a turbine obtained from (3)-2is larger than that of the generator itself (i.e.(GD2)u), the GD? required for the turbine should be reduced so that GD* becomes equal to (GD?)u, or (GD"u of the generator itself should be increased. As the construction cost for a hydraulic turbine and a generator ncreases in proportion to GD", an increase in (GD"u means an increase in the construction cost of a generator, whilst a decrease in GD* with a constant momentary speed variation of a turbine results in shortening the required closing time, enlarging the momen- tary pressure variation AP, and increasing the shell thickness of steel penstocks, and thus the construction cost of the penstocks increases. Consequently, which should be selected must be based on a com- parison of the economic factors. Contrary to the above, when the GD? required for a turbine is smaller than the (GD2)u of the gener- ator itself, an economical penstock diameter should be determined by increasing the momentary pressure variation to lessen the GD?, and by increasing the average velocity with a smaller diameter un- til requirement of the original design is matched with the construc- mn cost. Article 4. Design Internal Pressure The internal pressure to be used for designing shall be the maximum value foreseeable in consideration of the hydrostatic pressure and the pres- sure rise due to water hammering and surging. Description : Internal pressures working in steel penstocks are, in addition to the hydrostatic pressure, pressure variations caused by surging in a surge-tank and water hammering in penstocks generated by turbine load variation, Steel penstocks should be safe from the maximum internal pressure pos- sible to be generated, ‘When summing up the pressure rises both by surging and by water ham- ‘mering, the maximum value which can take place simultaneously should be taken. In case of a simple surge-tank, however, itis permissible to con- sider that the pressure rise by water hammering does not overlap on thepressure rise by surging. In such a case, it should be noted that “hydrostatic pressure + pressure rise by surging” may become larger than “hydrostatic pressure + pressure rise by water hammering” at the upper portion of ‘a penstock. Pressure rte by water hammering Pressure rise by surging Hydrostatic pressure ‘Closing equipment of water turbine Fig. 1.41 Example of Design Internal Pressure (Example of simple surge-tank) The hydrostatic pressure should be the difference of the heights from the center of the penstock or the hydraulic turbine (the tangent line of the runner in the case of a Pelton turbine) to the crest top of the head tank in the case of a run of river type power station, and to the maximum, design water level of the reservoir or regulating reservoir in the case of a dam or dam and conduit type power station. ‘The maximum pressure rise due to surging should be the difference of the heights from the maximum overflow level to the crest top of a head. tank for a run-of-river type and for types with a surge-tank the difference of heights from the maximum water level in the surge-tank to the maxi- mum design water level of the reservoir or regulating pondage at shut- ting-off in all loads under generating condition. The pressure rise due to water hammering depends on the efficiency of the surge-tank, closing equipment, pressure regulator, and pipeline con- stants, etc. But the maximum value takes place at the center of the clos- ing equipment. (The maximum value is produced in a guide vane for a Francis turbine and in a needle valve for a Pelton turbine, but the center = 10-of the turbine should be assumed in computation.) It gradually reduces along a pipeline, and vanishes ina head tank or surge-tank. It is assumed that the reducing ratio of pressure rise by water hammering is propor- tional to the length of the pipeline. The places where the pressure rise by water hammering vanishes should be as follows: (a) Head tank, simple surge-tank : place where the water surface expands (b) Differential surge-tank : overflow top of a riser (6) Chamber surge-tank : place where the water surface expands if an upper chamber exists; for others at the shaft overflow top But, in case that a surge-tank is relatively slender or of the restricted ‘orifice type, the pressure rise does not vanish at the surge-tank bottom, and thus the pressure rise should be determined by calculation. The pres- sure rise by water hammering at the center of a Pelton turbine should be taken as more than 10% of the hydrostatic pressure, despite less than 10% in computation. It should be noted that the pressure rise by water hammering may some- times be larger under partial loading than under maximum loading. For- ‘mulae for the pressure rise due to the water hammering without pressure regulators are classified into the following (A) and (B) depending upon Allievi's pipeline constant @: Notations se. _Alliev’s pipeline constant a? Closing time constant of a 2Lo closing equipment n= of Where fy: Pressure rise due to water hammering ata closing equip- ment (m) Hy: Hydrostatic pressure after entirely shutting off a closing equipment at the turbine end (m) : Length of pipeline (m) : Average velocity (m/s) aiewhere): Pipe length of velocity vi (m) vu: Velocity of length fi (m/s) T: Closing time of a closing equipment (s) 4: Acceleration of gravity (m/s?) a: Propagation velocity of pressure wave (m/s) (A)In case of @ > 1: when (1) when +Q) when 530% a" (B) In case of @ <1: @) D Conditions of (A) and (B) are those similar to Schlag’s, formula (1) is Allievi's and (2) is Sparre’s. Formulae (2) and (3) are called Calame- Gaden’s formulae too. For a Francis turbine, the following empirical formula applicable to proposed: @ Pressure rise by the water hammering with a pressure regulator may be calculated by formula (5) taking account of the effect of the pressure regulator if its actual function is clear (in case of replacing existing steel penstocks, thorough consideration should be given to reliability of the pres- sure regulator), but in this case, at least more than 50% of the value cal- culated on a no-pressure-regulators basis should be taken. -12-In this case, the formula for pressure rises due to the water hammering, is as follows: (5) 1 Difference in time between the start of a guide vane’s clos- ing and the start of a pressure regulator's operation(s) But, in this case, the pressure rise does not decrease from the turbine toa place (L ~ + ). Examples of calculation of the pressure rises and actual measurements are listed in Table 1.4-1: ‘Table 1 A Examples of Calculation of Pressure Rises and Actual Measurements ‘A. Pressure rises with pressure regulators inoperative Calcolated vale Tal Fores Forms Fara [Formal oe os wa |e 40s | 320 me [ia ce aaa | Joa Power] 14 [0.45] 15970223] Be pa ati | 274 [0a 320 | 0 ns | 327 -13-B. Pressure rises with pressure regulators operating Cakeulated valve, [Actual messorement Power station Load | “formula (6) ‘ Power sation 67 52 3 Power sation § ~ B2 240 Tet we ins 03 BS a Dimensions of power stations Power sation H_| Power sation S 0 aT m2 3 1 % Bear 2,500~1,300 3.600~2,700 Output kw 36,008 9,000, Pitteretialsurgesank] Conduit ype ‘Note: *1 With ¢ > 1, (), @), and (@) can be applied the values by (), @) and @y are sar, sind thote by @ are somewhat larger and aze clove tothe actual meas 12 With < 1, calculate values by (3) and (4) show good results 13 Compared with *2, an eect of presture regulator is shown 4 Values by Allew's sequential method In some cases, actual measurements of the pressure rises by water ham- mering may differ 10 to 15% from the calculated values, under the in- fluence of turbine characteristics, and thus it is desirable to take about 20% allowance. The above formula (4) includes a 20% allowance. Itis necessary to make either a graphical solution or sequential calcula- tiom in the cases below: (1) For branches, when the furcate point is far away from the hydraulic turbine compared with the pipeline length. (2) When rising of water level by surging is rapid as in the case of a differential surge-tank. (In many cases formulae (1) to (5) are ap- plicable.) ) In case of restricted orifice surge-tanks (Jaeger’s formula may be used also.) -14-(4) In case of pump turbines Reversible pump turbines are mostly employed as main machinery at a pumped storage power station in Japan. The characteristic of the water hammering in this case is that the pressure variation in transient operations i far greater than values calculated from Al- lievi's formula. The main reason for this is that the non-linearity of NH to the time is more remarkable in case of pump turbines compared with the case of ordinary turbines Article 5. Design External Pressure As for design external pressures of steel penstocks, the maximum pres- sures which may take place during drainage, when a pipeline is empty, as well as under construction shall be taken into consideration. Descriptior ‘Various pressures act on steel penstocks such as negative pressures during drainage, seepage pressures of bedrocks working on embedded portions, and concrete pressures and grout pressures during construction works. A steel penstock must be of a structure capable of withstanding maxi- ‘mum external pressures possible to take place taking the above into con- sideration, In order to prevent collapse due to the negative pressure of a pipeline during drainage, air pipes or air valves are installed, Since they are designed to ensure to introduce the amount of air required with less than \"'0.2ke/em? pressure difference between the inside and outside pipe, nor: mally 0.2kgf/cm? of pressure difference between the inside and outside pipe should be taken into consideration for exposed pipes. (See Article 26.) This is not necessary, however, when air comes in freely during rainage, i.e. negative pressures cannot take place. Seepage pressure of bedrocks should be external pressures due to under- sround water level expected, but its design pressure can be reduced when drainage installations are provided around the steel penstocks to reduce the external pressures. Deformation of penstocks due to the concrete pressures during construc- tion works should be prevented by means of jigs inside the penstocks, other supports, or stiffeners, etc Structural calculations may be made for concrete pressures and grout pressures during construction works, together with including corrosion allowance. In this case, itis permissible to prevent the deformation by inside supports. -15-Article 6. Head Loss Pressure lining parts and attachment installations of steel penstocks shall be designed hydraulically to keep the head losses to a minimum as much as possible. Description : Head losses in steel penstocks have a large percentage of the total head losses of a power station, ‘The number and diameter of a penstock should be decided economi- cally from the relationship of the electric power loss due to head losses and the construction cost as in Article 3. Head losses are influenced not only by friction losses of steel penstocks but also by branches, bend pipes, reducing pipes, inlet pipes, expansion joints, guard valves, etc., to some ‘extent, and thus considerations should be given to the design of these struc- tures so as to minimize head losses as much as possible. It should be noted that the influence of the head loss is great for a power, station having a low head and a big capacity. Important head losses for pipelines can be calculated as follows: 1. Friction Head Loss bape pay where A,: Friction head loss (m) Kutter’s coefficient of roughness Length of pipe (m) Flow velocity (m/s) R: Hydraulic depth of pipe (m) 8: Acceleration of gravity (m/s") For circular pipes, taking D as the internal diameter of the pipe: Loa Ase RD ‘As for the value of n, 0,010 t0 0.014 is applicable to normal steel pipes. 2. Head losses of entrance, reducing, enlarging, and bending Head losses of entrance , reducing, enlarging, and bending should be in accordance with Table 1.6-1 ~ 16 -3. Other head losses ‘Other head losses of diverging (joining) should be based on the description of Article 22., this Chapter. Calculation formula he Ne 1.61 Head Loss i | TS caane nad ow | eon fea | Rounded (ecangutar) V Hew sciy afer | Bellmoudh of 1 elipee | 0.017005 owing ——— “Reducing los confit ¥ : Flow velacty after reducing clarging ¥, 2 Flow velocity after enlarging r ae wae“Type of weit | __Celaaon forma ‘Remarks ‘Bending ead toss vw n= Su Sa ay where: "ip Bending bead ln mined by the ratio a cemer ange #10 Vs Flow velocity coefficient deter- Bending radius @ to the pipe diameter D (@/D), in case that a enter angle of bend ings 0 Ge Be @) us + Ratio of the los fr iosttoea coer sist Geen Oo of "be ‘The Tolowing empiri: ut <4 Cal formula i fre" ent used for fy, ad |_| a J = 0131 + 0.1682 CT 2p, na : | Sa : th given by the above oa aT {beeain does nan a lode the fon fread toss, (0) Value of Jig = ey Head loss of a valve differs in hydraulic characteristics depending on each design, and so the loss coefficient should be decided appropri ately to its characteristics. Slight head losses are generated around expansion joints, manholes, etc., and so it is desirable to add some allowances to the sum of head loss. - 18 -wap Sk set le 2 ee Article 7. Consideration for Water Quality When the pH value of water in a steel penstock is less than 4, some ‘measures shall be taken to decrease the corrosion of the steel penstock. Description In voleanic zones, there may exist rivers having corrosive water due to sulfurous acid gas, etc., produced there, Corrosion progress due to corrosive water is affected by hydrogen ion exponent (pH), specific conductivity, amount of chlorine ions, etc. Gener- ally, pH is used as the index for corrosion progress. Generally, stee! corrosion due to acid water develops very rapidly with pH value of less than 4.5 and develops especially significantly with a pH of less than 4.0. Steel corrosion progress is hardly affected by a pH value from 4.5 to 10. Corrosion due to acid water is greatly influenced by the flow velocity and inflow of soil and sand, and thus it should be noted that corrosion may develop when flow velocity and inflow of soil and sand are excessive even if the pH is more than 4, ‘The value of the pH differs depending upon the flow rate of the river. ‘When the flow rate is high in a wet season, the pH values become rela- tively high with the acid water diluted and thus the minimum pH values should be taken as a criteria throughout the year. Table 1.7-1 Example of Actual Measurement in Agatsuma River TB 654 = 19663) ower sation | Tet pace | Fo voy i ie pay ve Matsuya | Sukawaintake| 277-315 | 62 Kees” | Heat?) ia | Se Er ‘Actual measurements made in Agatsuma River in Japan by Tokyo Elec- tric Power Co., Inc. are shown in Table 1.7-1. As.a result of the measure- ‘ments, corrosion barely develops with more than 4.4 pH and with a little flow velocity and less inflow of soil and sand, but it becomes clear that corrosion is prompted widely and remarkably with less than 4.0 pH and 1 ~ 2m/s flow velocity. Some measures to prevent corrosion are available. One method is to -19-paint an acid resisting material or make a lining to the pipe inside, and the other one is to produce a pipe itself using an acid resisting steel. Field tests have been conducted concerning rivers with acid water by Central Research Institute of Electric Power Industry and various electric power companies in Japan. ‘According to the above researches, chlorinated rubber paint and alkyd resin type paint show excellent properties. Tar-epoxy resin type as a paint using the excellent properties of the epoxy resin has been widely used in. recent years. Stainless steels are superior as acid resisting steel and are used as clad steel from an economic viewpoint. Corrosion of steel penstocks by acid water develops very rapidly when steel penstocks are worn by flowing sands. In such a case, itis necessary to decrease the corrosion of penstocks by making a lining made of a coal tar enamel having much resistance to wear, or by attaching patches (made of acid resisting steel) to the bottom of pipes or portions subjected to much influence of corrosion wear, as well as by preventing the sands from flow- ing in. 2. Material and Allowable Stress Article 8. Material of Steel Peastocks Materials used for steel penstocks shall be those listed in Table 1 Materials other than those in Table 1.8-1 may be used provided that a sufficient study be made. ‘Table 1.8-1 Types of Materials 1, Rolled sid for general sracure TS 6 5101 (975) 2. Rolled steels for welded structure BIS G 3106 1377) 5 Hotroied atmospheric corrosion resisting steels for welded structare Als G 3114 (977) 4, Stet plates for pressure vessels for intermediate {emperature service 418 G 311s «oT 5. Sted bars for vet B13 G 3104 (1976) &. Carbon stel castings MS G 5101 (1978) 7 Steel castings for welded structures IS G S102 (978) Carbon stel forgings for general tse IS G 3201 (197) 9. Gray ion castings IS G 3901 (1976) Description : This standard is spe ied to use the material whose characteristics are — 20 - Prec rit reenter nese nner eine amenclear, and it is necessary to confirm that the material meets the require- rents of the JIS standard by material tests before fabrication. But when the material characteristics concerned are clear enough with the material test records made by its steel manufacturer, the records can be a substi- tute for material tests. The material tests in this Article should include tests not only for strength but also for whether or not the dimension (thick- ness, ete.) is within the tolerance, Tolerances for plate thicknesses should be in accordance dard specified in Article 9., this Chapter. I isa special case to use JIS materials other than those in Table 1.8-1 ‘or materials other than JIS, and careful consideration should be given to this case For instance, in case that such standard pipes as Carbon Steel Pipes for Pressure Service (JIS G 3454), Arc Welded Carbon Steel Pipes (JIS G.3457), etc, are employed as a steel penstock material in such locations as smallscaled hydraulic power stations, a careful study and review should bbe made to their material, manufacturing methods, inspection methods, ice. the adaptability to a steel penstock, and each paragraph of this stan- dard should be applied to their use. Article 9, Material of Pressure Lining Part and Main Attachment Installations Directly Welded to Pressure Lining Part 1, Materials used for pressure lining parts and main attachment installa- tions directly welded to the former shall be the kind listed hereunder or steel material having equivalent or superior characteristics. the stan- Rolled Stel for General Use Class 2 (JIS 03101 S541) Rolled Stel for Welded Structure (JIS 3106 SM41;SMSOSMSOY-SMS3SMSE) Hot-rolled Atmospheric Corrosion (JIS G3114 SMASI-SMASOSMAS8) Resisting Steels for Welded Structure Steel Plates for Pressure Vetsels for (JIS O311S SPV2ASPVS2SPV36SPV46) Intermediate Temperature Service 2. Tolerances for the thickness of pipe shell plates used for pressure lin- ing parts in particular can be specified separately. -u-Description : ‘The pressure liniNg part is the most important portion in a steel pen- stock, and so the material used for this should be in accordance with this Article, and should be economical as well as safe. “Main attachment installations directly welded to the pressure lining part” include stiffeners, ring girders, manhole reinforcements, etc., and for these, steel material having equivalent or superior characteristics to the pressure lining part should be used because the above installations work. structurally together with the pressure lining part. “Steel material having the equivalent or superior characteristics” may include high tensile steels other than those in JIS (See Article 11., this Chapter). een na 30T ‘With the safe material, the notch toughness geté poorer as the thi ness increasgé, and the material is likely'to be brittfe-fractured depending Cn the notch condition, temperatures, rate of loading, etc. Therefore, steels, having a better notch toughness should be used as, i thickness increases. In case of more than 12mm thick plates, it is preférred to use a plate hav- ing a shock-absorbing energy of more than 2.8kgf.m (0°C). For steel materials thicker than 25mm, it is necessary to use killed steet or semi-killed steel up to strength of SMSO, and killed steel for more than strength of SM SOY. SM SOY is semi-killed steel added usually with nio- ium, on the other hand SMS3 and SMS8 are killed steel so SMS3 should be used as a substitute for a plate thicker than 25mm. As for thickness tolerances for pipe shell plates used for the pressure lining part in particular, the minus side may be restricted. The minus side of the thickness tolerance is frequently restricted to ~ 0.25mm in confor- mity with the steel plate standards used for boilers and pressure vessels, JIS 63103, and JIS G3115. Article 10. Material of Attachment Installations Steel material shall be used for attachment installations which are not directly welded to the pressure lining part and which are closely related to the pressure lining part. Description : Attachment installations which are closely related to the pressure lin- ing part are expansion joints, manholes, air pipes, air valves, supporting structures, etc., and since these are directly concerned with the safety of -2-the pressure lining part, steel material (steel casting inclusive), not iron casting, are required to be used for the portions subjected to loads even if these portions are not directly welded to the pressure lining part. Article 11. Material Test 1. Testing, inspection and marking of materials other than those in Table 1-8-1, Article 8. of this Chapter shall be in accordance with Gen- eral Rules for Inspection of Stee! (JIS G0303), unless otherwise speci- ied in each standard for respective material. 2. When attempting to use particularly thick plates or special materials, ‘weldability and other matters of the materials concerned shall be tested. Description: 1. When using materials other than those in Table 1.8-1, it is necessary to make sure that the materials conform to the JIS standard if they are based on JIS, if the materials are not based on JIS it is necessary to make sure of the acceptable results required by inspection and test- ing in accordance with “General Rules for Inspection of Steel.” 2. When attempting to use especially thick plates or special materials, some problems in terms of manufacture such as workability, weldability and others may arise, and thus it is specified that, in addition to the gen- cal tests included in “General Rules for Inspection of Steel,” prob- lematic points should be tested. For cach steel material, tests other than those specified in JIS are as follows: Parent material .... test, heat affecting test, heat treat- ment test, brittleness test Weld Zone hhardness test, crack test, joint strength test, brit- leness test Weld material ...., useability ‘There are anti-corrosive test, structure test and others provided for spe- cial materials. Testing example for steel penstocks is listed in Table 1.11-1. -2-‘Table 1.11-1 Example of Special Additional Test Tone ain co or ‘Une see plate thickness | HATO i= Ten | Workability —_ Heat affection | ee a iia |e ear Ee i a aa aca ed at bate Gay Sis | iperceea ite Tol Weld tes) Property | bending * Joint fatigue test Teas aon a ‘va Tonle iM i ae rae ad hand wig te ith = an it vestigation of stress relief annealing effect teat ea oa | Siru- = ‘Year of completion 1s ~ Reason for {7oman* class high | keh? clas high tensile steel with ex- Sinden [eadses oe™ | eee hace sacs | etl loco pewock 4s Remarks [Now | Dadaiionaly, ——|@ Cabon equivalent <0. pont ene [© fant tineh Beaten? ceeraceect | yeaa’ Sacer dalle tre| aes sae | fetal” once 358 Tee sea A Pgynn! im! ee Sheen A legh 2 980cN= thy aba dees Fon "Ol om*‘Table 11-1 Example of Special Additional Test (cont'd) Power ain ia pe ike TT] Put a ni i Rak ene seo Sota er te Sere sae i coos ve | ae age | ee tees eae a -‘Table 111-1 Example of Special Additional Test (cont'd) Tose Osa = ad aa ia ay — i a ae FH, = Se fo quivalent to HTS0 section 260 x 325, 270% 450 @) pr bee ea Ty | a asp es a a ee [Ree inde Ga rene, [R |Seeea et esau cia (maa, [Spenser abe Ske ty ir fimo chal) Bere | Rt | [ites [Na dep wep et a jaws Crack oor casing et (ey a. wetness ‘or all combinations iegactd Owe Se rE oy mu. i or Ky air tp Lee ee eet ae lve cre 2 ws EE a my e+ 39 Yh a ae: a egies Se 1 el me Tar at en wee at ae 9 OTS eae |e mane cae Sp Sal nu Eten eer a Peeteemrcr teers no eeree Seca a Bie et SS Offset joint fatigue test (for ns ‘steel pl., MIG automatic butt essa oo = tig MG ling oie a ah en it ig Seater i wl seed emanating Sins _ ee - j a stp iw. iin ae (275 set pl & sted forging) (or invegaon of low tempera ck een —— = a in aw i ae eo Rie (Sone fee a seman ee 5 rant eae Ser | Tee aig Pe Pear, 25S, ‘VTi weld zone) c Ee ESS 6fore pat Ses Sikgt/ma? core pat 2 hat? Remarks -n-Example of Special Additional Test (con ‘Okey ‘a “Wawa inn om) | HT we p= 9. 8G Stet forging equals to TWO won 380% 60, 3504525 ©) wa y Welding airs sive [Wrkably_| Stain aging impact tex lel plate) Hea | Taper hardness ist Glee ste! fore) ton | or tet ed eo —| De or GoD) ep edie CD et et oy ng roe) Cracking tet for Type lt welded jit (t= 78 se pL, covered sera racking test fo erat tp joint ekg) Dep noch tes (150 set pl, wet 20) Meckaicay [Soin tension et (all weled joints baving mak. chose Property| every comfinaon of sel pl & wedng proces), Soin pact tex all welded jos Having ax, thickness in every combination of sel pk wen proces) Sin fatigue tt (= 30s pl and sel frp bt ois wel ed with covered ar, submerged are and semt-automatic MIG felding Ofte joint aigue vest MIG welding) Uieabiy | Anomate MIG welding produ es (all Sem staratie MIG welding grocer et Sitmeped are welding procdore tet (uli mol Covert arc welding procedure tt tule mel) ‘ites | Weld metal sna aging est each Gu weling mate wed ft aio mae MIG, sem automate MIG, sabmered se covered ar wig) Weld metal Sites tet (ech but weld terial sed for aul ___| rat MEG sem utomate WIG, submered ate, covered re wedi) Wide eon cs apd at wh nit dori { (ce tet pa se fori) oe investigation of low tenpeatre | few) ‘hep eng COD tet ste pl, covered ae Ste pl but joints by automatic 7 tell weld one) = 28 = 2 ac ai a Ai i olef___Ouyoshing Bab Renate aaa ae ~~ -‘Table L.11-1 Example of Special Additional Test (Cont'd) —_ Power sao ‘Vad deletes a) ] ~~ [Werkability Heat eon Parent | nd eat mai |teaanen Toe erate . |e t Tye Gack 2 4 te | weed [cial part Property ‘ Useability | Fiekl welding procedure test (covered arc welding) £ weld rove cracking ea material Window type restraint weld cracking test # ike | ease of ening ed of where ae weg é ae ‘Year of completion 176 ~~ _ | kg/mm? class high tensile tel to be used for steel penstock |@Cardon equivalent _ ‘Tena strength Ye paExample of Special Additional Test (cont'd) —___ Okuyahagi No? |HETHOT = 100 Sie p. | Sie eo Stel orang equivalent to Hiss SS Type of "Taper hardness tet Taper hardness tot Max: hardnes ext ‘Thermal cycle ist “Tempering test oink hardness tet submerged are, MIG welding) Toint hardness tex (Gubmerted arc, MIG Melding ste! forging + tel forging ¢ = 345) oint hardness tet (submerged are, MIG Sedingstecl forging + see plate t = 100) WOE tt Vroove Gading tet (Covered are welding) Saawe| Te tpeare Hardness ak Mekal mere waa | Useability Welding me omer oint tension text eae are, MIG Se ‘steel forging + ea le) Sl being te coboeret tes MIC ng Sone + $e psy simp et (Chirac fo Setng ee forme + es as Satan et (copes aes Mi | cata welding steel forging + Steel forging ¢ = 383) (Gubmerged arc, MIG Melding stel forging + tel plate t= 100) Join bending test (Gubmerged arc, MIG ‘welding stel forging + el forging ¢ = 345), (Gubmerged arc, MIG Welding stel forging + ee le = it) (Gubmerged are, MIG eiding ech foreng + eel forging ¢ = 345) Gtbmerged arc, MIG welding steel forging + ee pate t= 100) ~TiNutomatic welding proce | due test (submerged are, | MiG Welding) Welding procedure tet for see forging & ste plate = 100 submerged -3u-‘Table 1.11-1 Example of Special Additional Test cont'd) Power enon Okay No “Yer of compicion wa Tea for To ee apa of Taw pomtiy of Saud Nata ot Twos pemctc |redscmeton of 6 Sal rvee Naz [© Catan ent | Carbon eauriont —— emai ce a SUT Teal tenth Tete ena Sgt ake? ore vid po marten) Gite — | vi poe S Brats core partecluiv) -n- § 4 ‘ ee cae ce nae ne ee woeArticle 12, Allowable Stress : 1, Allowable stresses used for design calculation shall be less than those i listed in Table 1.12-1. As for a joint made of the material concerned, its efficiency shall be taken into consideration. 2. Allowable stresses of the materials not specified in Table 1.12-1 shall bbe decided after taking account of the properties of the materials con- He cerned. ‘Table 1.12-1 Allowable Stress of Material A Tease tearing] Bearing : is he : ssc Hold , ting ste for weed ‘el pes Tor pessre ves 4 for itcrmodate temper s 88) \ 88288 88)Table 1.12-1 Allowable Stress of Material (Cont'd) wee sien Xi oe | ‘ron castings 80 00 ara = |e i | joie” Alowatie searing srewes of ves and allowable ress of ea lates Th Noe Md tac ot shall be fo of te above vas * Description : (1) Allowable tensile stress The allowable tensile stresses of steel materials specified in this Ar- ticle are decided so that the safety factor should be 1.8 against their basic design strength. ‘The basic design strength of a stecl material can be obtained by divi ing the yield point by the material factor. The material factor is the. one determined by taking account of differences in the yield ratio, cold workability, absorbing energy up to fracture, and reliability of each steel. Each allowable stress mentioned above is set by taking the ‘material factor of SMS8, SPV46 as 1.05, and other steel materials as 1.00. ‘As for Carbon Steel Castings, they have inferior property in terms of uniform quality, an inspection is hard to be executed, and they are uncertain against impact as a pressure vessel. Thus the safety fac- tor of the steel penstock is taken as 6 against a tensile strength and even carbon steel castings are treated equally as common steel materials for a hydraulic gate and steel structure, {As for Steel Castings for Welded Structure, the carbon equivalent is specified in JIS, and the shock absorbing energy is also specified as more than 2.8kgf-m (0 deg. C), and thus the safety factor against the tensile strength is specified as 4. Carbon Steel Forgings for General Use are speci ‘concept as SS41. The safety factor for Gray Iron Castings is specified as 10. 2) Allowable compressive stress According to experiments and so forth, itis said that the compres- sive strength is almost the same as the tensile strength, and other regu- lations for steel structures specify the same, and thus this article also follows this concept. with the same ~34e ee ees Le Oe@) Allowable shearing stress The allowable shearing stress is taken as about 1/5 of the allowa- ble tensile stress based on the shearing strain energy fracture theory, and that of SS41 is taken as 750kg(/em?. As for rivets, itis appropri ate to assume that the ratio of allowable shearing stress of shop rivet- ing tothe allowable tensile stress of steel material is about 80%, and so the stress of SV34 is taken as 1,050kgf/em?. Field riveting, compared with shop riveting, is inferior somewhat, and 30 80% is set. (4) Allowable bearing stress It is generally said that the ratio of a steet plate bearing strength by shop riveting to the tensile strength of a steel plate is about 1.8 102.0, and s0 170% is taken taking account of an allowance of safe- ty, and the stress of SS41 for instance is taken a5 2,200kgf/cm?, Field riveting, compared with shop riveting, is inferior somewhat, and 50 80% is set. Allowable bearing stresses of Gray Iron Castings are also specified with the same concept. () Refer to Article 13., Chapter 4 for joint efficiency. (© When using materials not specified in Table 1.12-1 such as HT70, HT80etc., the allowable stresses should be decided based on the same concept of aforementioned material factors. It is appropriate to take 1.15 to 1.20 as the material factor for HT70, HT80 etc. 3. Pressure Lining Part Article 13. Loads to be Considered ‘A pressure lining part shall be so designed as to be safe against the fol- towing loads: For exposed pipes internal pressure, self-weight of pipe, water weight in pipe, tempera- ture change, external pressure For embedded pipes internal pressure, temperature change, external pressure Description : ‘The shell thickness at the pressure lining part is mainly decided by the circumferential tensile stress caused by the internal pressure, but in case -as-of a long-span ring support type of exposed pipe, the self-weight of pipes, ‘water weight inthe pipes, temperature change, etc, give a great influence to the shell thickness, whilst in case of an embedded pipe the external pres- sure and temperature change give a great influence to the shell thickness, ‘With regard to the temperature change for embedded pipes, the dif- ference between the pipe temperature when installed and the water tem- perature after water is filled should be taken. It is general to take the temperature drop as 15°C to 20°C, but in a cold district a temperature rising may take place when the temperature at the time of installation is, very low, thus requiring a careful determination taking weather and con- struction work conditions into consideration. In addition to the loads listed in this Article, there are other ones, such as seismic force, wind pressure, snow load and so forth. The seismic force and wind pressure do not directly give an influence to the pressure lining part and so they should only be considered in the designing of its sup- port. (See Articles 29., 55. and 58., this Chapter.) With regard to snow load, snow around pipes melts due to the temper- ature of the flowing water inside the pipe, and soit is considered that the snow load hardly works by an arch action. However, its influence is greater ‘when pipes are empty and in case of a long span ring supporting type, and thus a careful study is required. Article 14. Combination of Loads ‘The loads in the previous Article shall be taken into consideration with the following combination: For exposed pipes 1. With water fully filled in the pip« internal pressure, self-weight of pipe, water weight in pipe, tempera- ture change 2. During water filling in the pipe: water weight in pipe 3. When the pipe is empt} ‘external pressure when drained For embedded pipes 1. With water fully filled in the pipe: internal pressure, temperature change 2. When the pipe is empt; ‘external pressure 36 = weeDescription : With water fully filled in an exposed pipe, the internal pressure is the ‘most influential load, but self-weight of pipe, water weight in pipe and temperature change should also be taken into consideration, During water filling, a circumferential bending moment by water weight is generated in the pipe shell, This bending moment gets largest with water half filled (wich water filled up to 50% of a pipe section) in case of a ring. support type, and gets largest with water just fully filled in case of a sad- dle support type, thus requiring a careful review and study. ‘When it can be assumed that a half-filled water condition cannot be generated due to a sharp gradient pipeline, the calculation for a half-filled water condition may be neglected. It is required to study the difference in pressure inside and outside the pipe when drained. For embedded pipes, it is not necessary to consider the self-weight of pipe and water weight in pipe because the pipe is supported with surround- ing concrete, and itis only required to study the internal pressure and tem- perature change when water is fully filled, and to study just the external pressure when the pipe is empty. Article 15. Design Condition for Pressure Lining Part ‘The pressure lining part shall be designed against the loads in Article 14, in accordance with the following conditions: 1. With water fully filled in the pipe (1) Circumferential stress, longitudinal stress, perpendicular stress to ‘pipe axis and resultant stress shall be less than allowable stresses Of the materials used. In case that a local bending stress(secondary stress) of a pipe shell is added, it shall be permissible to increase the allowable stress up to 1.35 times. (@) The resultant stress shall be calculated from the following formula: var eo : aa + 3F where 0,: Resultant stress 9, Circumferential stress (tension to be positive) 1: Longitudinal stress (tension to be positive) rT: Perpendicular shearing stress to a pipe axis ~~2. During water filling in the pipe ‘The circumferential stress shall not exceed 1.5 times the allowable stress of the material used. 3. When the pipe is empty Buckling shall not take place by external pressure equivalent to 1.5 times the design external pressure. Description: In case of water fully filled in pipes, itis set to check the resultant stress provided that the stresses in every direction do not exceed the allowable stress. ‘A formula to determine the resultant stress is based on the shearing strain energy theory (Mises-Hencky-Huber Theory) in that a fracture takes place ‘when the shearing strain energy gets equal to the strain energy at the yield point of simple tension. For biaxial stresses, the following formula can be applied to ductile materials: 02+ 03-00, + 3ty? 5 02 where 1,,; Shearing stress normal to 0, oF 0, id point of material under simple te ‘With regard to the shearing stress, the values given by the formula in paragraph 9 of the Description of Article 16. should be used for the side face of a pipe. In case of a long span of a ring support type and a thin pipe shell plate compared with its diameter, r cannot be neglected around a support, but +r diminishes at the pipe section midway of the span. In case of the latter, however, the resultant stress gets large at the pipe top and so attention should be paid to this fact. ‘The stress including local bending stress (secondary stress) in the pipe shell is specified not to exceed 1.35 times the allowable stress so as to be less than 75% of the yield point considering that the yield point gets high for bending stress and that this calculation is made under normal loading conditions. The local bending stress (secondary stress) at a pipe shell is generated due to restriction of ring girder, stiffener, anchor block, etc., and the cal- culation formula of paragraph 3 in the Description of Article 16. is gener- ally used. As the stress during water filling is transient, the allowable value is set at 1.5 times the allowable stress. 38 -POT FRO OER EOC OTT TT TT 6 As for the external pressure, it is necessary that an external pressure Of 1.5 times the design external pressure should not exceed the critical buck- ling pressure of the pipe shell itself and stiffener. Article 16. Stress to be Considered ‘As for the design specified in Article 15. of stresses shall be calculated respectively: For exposed pipes 1, With water fully filled in the pipe: (1) Circumferential stress 1) Tensile stress due to internal pressure 2) Longitudinal stress 1) Bending stress regarding the pipe as a continuous beam 2) Local bending stress due to the restraint of the pipe shell displace- ment by means of a ring girder, a stiffener, an anchor block, etc. 3) Stress due to pipe gradient 4) Stress due to longitudinal components of the internal pressure acting on the reducer 5) Stress due to longitudinal component of the internal pressure acting on an expansion joint 6) Stress due to temperature change of the pipe (Q) Shearing stress perpendicular to the pipe axis 1) Shearing stress regarding the pipe as a continuous beam 2. During water filling in the pipe: (1) Circumferential bending stress due to water filling 3. When the pipe is empty (1) Critical buckling pressure due to external pressure For embedded pipes 1. With water fully filled in the pipe: (1) Circumferential stress 1) Tensile stress due to internal pressure 2) Longitudinal stress 1) Local bending stress due to the restraint of the pipe shell dis- placement by means of a stiffener, etc 2) Temperature stress 3) Stress due to Poisson's effect 2. When the pipe is empty 1) Stress due to external pressure and critical buckling pressure Chapter, the following -39-Description a 4 For calculating the stresses listed in this Article, formulae commonly used are shown below. it "Nomenclatures in the formulae are shown in each paragraph, but plate thickness, corrosion allowance, diameter and radius, and longitudinal length are defined as illustrated in Fig. 1.16-1 and below. Fig. 1.1641 Dimensions used for calculation should all be the nominal dimensions when manufactured. Dg: Internal diameter (em) Dg’: External diameter (em) D: Internal diameter subtracting 1/2 the corrosion allowance from the internal surface of the pipe shell = Dy+¢ (em) D’ : External diameter subtracting 1/2 the corrosion allowance from the external surface of the pipe shell = D,’ ~¢ (em) + Diameter to the center of plate thickness = 2rq (em) + Radius to the center of plate thickness (cm) + Shell thickness (em) Shell thickness excluding corrosion allowance Allowance thickness for corrosion and wear (cm) Pipe length from anchor block to expansion joint (em) Length of pier span (cm) + Interval of stiffeners (em) —« (em) For exposed pipes 1. Tensile stress due to internal pressurePD Xe-9 where 0: Stress (kgf/cm?) ‘P: Maximum hydraulic pressure at a place to determine stress (kgf/cm) 2, Bending stress regarding the pipe as a continuous beam ae 2 where M,: Bending moment as a continuous beam (kgf'cm) Zz: Section modulus of pipe’s effective section 5 ED. (em) 3, Local bending stress due to the restraint of the pipe shell displacement by means of a ring girder, a stiffener, an anchor block, etc. Abt PD At 1.S6\rad 2 o= 1.82 where i Ring's sectional area = 2t,h, + bt (cm!) i Fig. 1.162, Ringer Girder Section “p" used for calculation should be within the following range: bs1.56[rat +24 (em) a‘According to this formula, it may be necessary to increase the shell thickness around the ring gitder and a minimum range L, to increase the shell thickness can be obtained from the following formula: L=461rad+b (om) 4, Stress due to pipe gradient E(xDatels) A where ,: Shell thickness of the pipe included in the portion con- cerned (em) Length of the portion having a plate thickness of t, (cm) Unit weight of steel material = 7.85 x 10-* (kgf/cm) Angle between pipe axis and horizontal plane Pipe shell plate’s sectional area of the portion to consider stress = rDqf (cm?) 5. Stress due to longitudinal component of the internal pressure acting fon the reducer 0 * Pepa_pa a= 5 GE wF-DA) Internal diameter equivalent to D at a place before reduc- tion (cm) Dy; Internal diameter equivalent to D at a place after reduc- tion (cm) P;; Maximum hydraulic pressure in the center of reducer (kgf/cm) 6. Stress due to longitudinal component of the internal pressure acting on an expansion joint zDnlePe A where Pe: Hydraulic pressure at expansion joint (kaf/em’) fg: Plate thickness of internal pipe of expansion joint (em) 7. Stress due to temperature change of the pipe In ease of temperature change in pipes, the direction of frictional force may change depending upon rising or dropping temperature, so 42 =10. the following stress should be added so as to be on the safe side: (1) Stress due to friction between pipe and support _ SolWot We)eost A where W,: Load due to self-weight of the pipe (ke) Wi Load due to weight of water in the pipe (ke) Friction factor (Refer to Article 19. of this Chapter) (2) Stre5s‘due to friction of expansion joint Lexa (D+ 2) A where fe: Frictional force of expansion joint ‘According to the Bureau of Reclamation, fax % Tkef/em For longitudinal stresses with no expansion joints, it is necessary to consider longitudinal stresses due to temperature changes and Pois- son’s effect. ). Maximum shearing stress regarding the pipe as a continuous beam 2Se0x8 ‘4 where S: Shearing force at a support (kgf) Circumferential bending stress due to water filling Bending stress due to water filling differs greatly in cases of a saddle support and a ring support. In case of a saddle support, a maximum bending moment generates when water is fully filled and the formula shown in Article 28. is applied. In case of a ring support, the stress variation in the process of water filling is rather complicated, and the stress does not become maximum with water half filled depending on places. But in case of a steel pen- stock, different from a waterway conduit, the water partially filled is ‘not a normal loading condition, and so it is not necessary to make cal- culation as precisely as in the case of a waterway conduit. Therefore, as for the circumferential stresses in the mid-section of a span, itis prac- tically permissible to assume the stress on the side of the pipe with water half filled to give a maximum value. - 43 -‘As for the longitudinal stress, it may get a little larger with water half filed than with water fully filled, but the difference is minor, There- fore, the calculation for the longitudinal stress due to water filling may be omitted. Calculation formulae for the circumferential stress can be divided into three, depending upon the ratio of the length of the span to the diameter. WL> 130 Gorm [x_ 1 4 ate ” where +: Inside of pipe =! Outside of pipe 2, Circumferential ben @: Fluid density 1 x 10-> (kgf/cm?) @ 3D >L>D oom ay Dt nan Q) A= 2Qert eet +¢n) Dre Gat bebo hb 1 Cnt C8 = Cree where 9: Poisson’s ratio = 0.3 0.00470 3 0.01399 steals: nls@D>L>w ‘The following formula should only be used for n = 2. seme +I Cnt OP 3) Formula (1) is assumed that, taking out a ring of a unit length from cylinder, the water weight is transmitted to the next ring by the shear- ing flow. This assumption can be applicable to a long span but the assumption of transmission by the shearing flow cannot be applica- ble as a span becomes shorter, and thus this formula is liable to give a larger stress than the actual one. Formula (2) is assumed that both ends of a cylindrical shell be free supported, and this formula is an appropriate equation for a bend- ing stress. In either case, as the direct stress is quite small, the calculation of stress by bending moment is sufficient. Fig. 1.163 Bending Stress on Side of Pipe with Water Half Filled By using Formulae (2) and (3), bending stresses with D/t as parameters are shown in Fig. 1.16-3 Calculated values given from Formulae (2) and (3) are plotted like = 45 -the dotted lines around the right side in the figure but in case of L/D = 13, values calculated by Formula (1) are closer to the actual ones and so they are adjusted as shown in the figure as full lines. 11. Critical buckling pressure due to external pressure (1) Without stiffeners 2 ty alr) where p,: Critical buckling pressure (kgf/cnt) Ez Elastic modulus of steel (2.1 x 10° kgf/em’)’ stiffeners 1) Pipe shell proper ‘When computing the critical external pressure of a pipe shell proper, formulae of Tokugawa and R.V. Southwell are frequent- Ps ly used. Tokugawa’s formula E P= ne where in: Number of wrinkles E: Interval of stiffeners (em) xD say a1 approximately a ran,(2\(-)" pase) Number of wrinkles (n) is obtained from in larly to the above, an integer closest to the value obtained from the following formula can be taken: wor a i + — 0, but simi- = 46 - aaa ROR.Y. Southwell’s formula facet) * ase Ci | @ approximately Say es D2 S9E is 2) Stiffeners PT DDT where J: Moment of inertia of combined sections of stiffeners (em) For embedded pipes 1. Tensile stress due to internal pressure PD. PD 2 Bee Stress (ket/em?) Maximum hydraulic pressure at a place to determine stress (kgf/cm*) ‘Tensile stress is generally calculated by the above formula. When bedrocks are strong enough to share part of the internal pressure, cal- culation should be made by the following equation. where PD. ty 4 1-Fa | Batty, Dr 1+ (+6) Flog where: Sharing ratio of internal pressure by bedrock Ey: Blastic modulus of steel (= 2.1. x 10* kgf/cm’) aj: Coefficient of linear expansion of steel 1.2 x 10-4/°C) -4-AT: Temperature change of steel penstock (= 0~20°C) (Bc: Coefficient of plastic deformation of concrete (permissi- ble to take as 5 0) : Elastic modulus of concrete (= 2.1 x 10° kgf/em*) Excavation diameter of tunnel (cm) Coefficient of plastic deformation of bedrock Elastic modulus of bedrock (kgf/cm?) Poisson's number of bedrock (= 5) is usually taken as 0.5. Sharing ratio of internal pressure by bedrock differs greatly depend- ing on the physical properties of bedrock, initial gaps between a pen- stock and concrete and so forth, If bedrock is sound with no cracks, and its elastic modulus is fairly large, it can share the internal pressure to a great extent. But there are a lot of unknown factors in bedrock. It is not uniform and there may exist such a defective portion as a partial dislocation. It is not always sure to secure a situation close to a theoretical compu- tation. Therefore, a condition to the effect that “the pipe shell stress ‘due to the internal pressure should not exceed the yield point of material even if itis assumed that the bedrock does not share an internal pres- sure,” is provided in many cases. Examples of the above are listed in Table 1.16-2. = 48 - «6 ee KOR Me ae-oe “able 1.162 Exape of Preece Stared by Bedrock toe Tie ae sie ure il aE | Ta] aa es tine wh Tas) a a i 0 We a a 235 fa fw dry wa a 2 Faia ce ae ae eae ae ae PT ce wee [iee | a ent ia wo | PEN ca [wo | west [is | ae sos ssc | aan | oe tg Si a a aa aT eoreaaioeaeT] F | |e age or | et se ea [ rear Re pep a aa ae Race TS — as oe fae) aot | santo ‘to | va Pie sl mi wes song | NE | Ris ssa suse | ‘Ha Ya of conseton vst | asm | asm | ams | m02. Local bending stress due to the restraint of the pipe shell displacement by means of stiffeners. thy | PD ant’) where A,: Ring’s sectional area = (4, + (1.S6Vrqi + {,) (em’) o= 1.82: Fig. 1.164 Stiffener's Section 3. Temperature stress oasatE+aT where 9,31 Stress due to temperature change (kg{/cm) a: Coefficient of linear expansion (1.2 x 10-*/*C) E: Elastic modulus of steel 2.1 x 10* (kgf/cm?) AT: Temperature change (°C) 4, Stress due to Poisson's effect, Because of restraint of longitudinal displacement of a pipe, longitu- dinal stress corresponding to the circumferential stress is generated by Poisson's effect. where 99: Stress due to Poisson’s effect (kgf/cm?) ¥: Poisson's ratio of steel (= 0.3) ©; Circumferential stress (kgf/cm!) PD. I=) td = 50 - be5. Stress due to external pressure and critical buckling pressure (1) Without stiffeners E. Amstutz’s formula is generally used. In addition, E.W. ‘Vaughan’s formula and Montel’s formula are also used. Vaughan’s formula is the one to have modified Amstutz’s analysis, and Mon- tel’s formula is an empirical equation by assuming that the buck- ling is largely affected by an error of “out of roundness”, E. Amstutz’s formula (this formula conforms to an actual case within the range of fa >38) (- 2 where ky: Gap between concrete and external surface of pipe Gem, ky is usualy taken as 04% 10". 148, where 9,: Allowable stress of material (kgf/cm?) 1: Joint efficiency oy: Circumferential direct stress at deformed pipe shell portion (kgf/cm?) E Eee in aa where gs: Yield point of material (kgf/em’) w=15-0.5: 1 10.000) ky = O by grouting, etc., and when the initial compressive stress «9, is acting on pipe should be applied first term of the equation. place of 4 in the 31With oy given from this formula, px can be determined by the following equation: 10 100} 80 (Crsical bucking pressure px 40} 2074-7] ~ r om 4 «6 «68 eo Ratio of embedded pipe’s radius to shel thickness (rm/) Fig. 1.165 Critical Buckling Pressures of Embedded Pipes without Stiffeners (by E. Amstutz's formula) EW. Vaughan’s Formula -~2-Montel’s formula where —u: Relative error of a radius measured with the range of 50° center angle (cm) Gap between concrete and external surface of pipe (cm) Q) With stiffeners A. Pipe shell proper 'S. Timoshenko’s formula is generally used. S. Timoshenko's formula . devin ta ot leet . (t+ a3) This formula is the one for buckling of a cylinder when the dis- placement is zero due to restraint at both ends. But Nagashima and Kozuki analyzed based on the following concepts: 1) Pipes between stiffeners are also restrained from their displace- ‘ment by concrete and bedrock like the case without stiffeners. 2) A pipe’s displacement at both ends, i.e. a stiffener’s portion, | is not zero. According to their analysis, critical buckling pressure of the pipe with stiffeners can be obtained by applying the following. 1’ instead of actual stiffener’s interval / to the Timoshenko's formula. ~33-ve Fred cos-)(1 +0. fot (4 1,56 frafcos n (rooney *) 4 vercuen slr *Ts6e]rat 2 T?THUS6] rat 2’? Ba eyes ‘cosh Bl=cos Bl * S+1.564]rat pu BO=rap™ So= tlt he) 4. haat? Fig. 1.166 Cross Section of Stiffener = 54where I’: Modified interval of stiffeners (em) Tz Moment of inertia of stiffener (cm) mn to the above, R.C. Sturm’s formula, A. Fligge’s , ete., may be used. « Stiffeners E. Amstut2’s formula is generally used. E. Amstutz's formula where i: Radius of gyration of combined section of stiffeners (cm) e: Distance from the center of gravity of a combined section of stiffeners to internal surface of the pipe (cm) ‘k=O, by grouting, etc., and when the initial compressive ‘stress o, is acting on stiffeners, -# should be applied in place ot inthe fest term ofthe equation. ‘oy given from the above formula, the criti is given by the following equation: al stress 0, : eee) tt € 3 (dee In isn, wen he avert compen ses of sitene ne 4+ 1.56 frat) Sot 1 560] rut = 55 -Ettesive width cnsigel) arene Fig. 1.167 Embedded Pipe with Stifferers ’ is the modified value of external pressure p summing up shearing forces acting on both sides of a stiffener fromn a pipe shell, 2 pate |r SOD) ro? 41.56 [fal Yo! tS 1566S 3 re’) sinh Bl+sin Bl ra’? Baa 7) “cosh Bl—cos BI * S+1.56t] rat 420 Accordingly, the safety factor Sy against buckling in this case can be expressed as follows: Article 17, Corrosion Allowance For thickness of plates used for a pressure lining part, an allowance of more than 1.5 mm shall be provided against corrosion and wear. The corrosion allowance may be reduced provided an appropriate measure be taken against corrosion and wear in particular. Description : ‘When steel penstocks are used for many years after installation, their = 56 -shell thickness decreases from inside and outside of the pipes due to cor- rosion and wear. Thus, in order to secure a safety factor and to increase the life of the steel penstocks, an appropriate allowance should be in- troduced in designing. ‘Since a decrease in thickness is developed physically and/or chemically, the corrosion allowance should be decided taking account of the level of incoming soils and sands, influence by water quality, velocity of flow and so forth. ‘There are no data available to determine the amount of the corrosion allowance quantitatively, but Section VIII of ASME Pressure Vessel Code for Boilers specifies more than 1/6 of the calculated plate thickness (but for less than 6mm thick plates), and JIS B8243 (197) Construction of Pressure Vessels specifies more than Imm, and thus 1.5mm is set in this, standard taking various elements into consideration. In recent years, however, paints and coating techniques have made remarkable progress, and such anti-corrosion technique as metal spray- ing in addition to coating has also been employed to some extent, and thus it is not always required to have a 1.5mm allowance providing an appropriate construction technique and special materials be employed. ‘Thus, the allowance in this case may be reduced. Article 18, Minimum Shell Thickness ‘Minimum shell thicknesses used for the pressure lining part shall be more than those determined from the following formula if stiffeners are not used. The minimum shell thickness shall not be less than 6mm even if the pipe diameter is small and stiffeners are used. 1 = 2+ 800 where £: Shell thickness including corrosion allowance (mm) D; Internal diameter of pipe (mm) Description : ‘The shell thickness at the pressure lining part is governed mainly by the circumferential stress caused by the internal pressure, and furthermore the thickness is decided taking account of the longitudinal stress and the corrosion allowance also. However, the internal pressure is generally low at an upstream portion of a steel penstock, and if the shell -9-‘determined only by the circumferential stress caused by the internal pres- sure, the thickness would be a very small one. Thus, itis necessary to regu- late a minimum thickness only to keep the rigidity required for such conditions as manufacture, transportation, installation and so forth. ‘The Bureau of Reclamation specifies the minimum shell thickness ob- tained from the following formula as an empirical one, taking manufac ture, transportation, installation, etc., into consideration: D+ 508. “400 Minimum shell thickness (mm) ‘D: Pipe diameter (mm) Pacific Gas & Electric Co. has determined the minimum shell thickness bby using the following formula: Dp fom = 288 This formula is obtained by substituting a critical external pressure P, 0.2 kgf/em? from a condition to resist crushing by the external pres- sure of pipes without stiffeners, 26-(4) Pe. mlb, In this Article, ts specified to determine the minimum shell thickness from ¢ = -P-*+ 800. by referring to these two formulae and by taking account of empirical practices of manufacture, transportation, installa- tion, etc, in Japan. A thin pipe, compared with the pipe diameter is ia ble to have an excessive fatness of a pipe section with water fully filled and generate vibration due to a hydraulic pressure change. This also re- ‘tures attention. However, this is a minimum shell thickness when a penstock has no stiffeners Incase thatthe sell thickness is not determined by the inter- -nal pressure but by the external pressure concrete pressure, grouting pres sure during a construction work and hydraulic pressure on the surface of penstocks) for some embedded pipes. it may be better economically to provide a safety against buckling by attaching proper stiffeners rather than just a pipe shell plate. In sucha case its permissible to use plates thinner than those from this formula provided stiffeners are sure to pre- ‘vent pipe’s deformation and donot have any rouble in manufacture, trans- portation, and installation, ~ 58 -—— Pipe shel plate thickness (nm) 2000 3000 —¥a00 Shoo tera diameter of pipe D (mm) ‘The reason for setting the minimum shell thickness at 6mm even if the pipe diameter is small, is that in Japan the minimum thickness has been regulated from the past actual results and welding practice, etc. Article 19. Coefficient of Friction between Pipe and Supports Coefficient of friction between pipes and supports used for design shall ‘be more than those specified in Table 1.19-1. ction |Frision Tasior ‘Gonerete bearing 00 Concrete saddle having siding supplement | 0.80 Sie bearing 025 Rocker bearing O15 Roller bearing 8.05 -59-Description : A steel penstock expands and shrinks due to the temperature change, which generates friction between a pipe and a support, thus in turn, result- ing in a longitudinal stress generated. ‘The stress in such a case differs greatly depending on type of bearings. Coefficient of friction should be decided by taking actual measurement results into consideration, but in Japan there are not so many measure- ‘ments available, and thus the values from the Bureau of Reclamation are employed, AAs for roller bearings, the values are derived from those shown in Specifications for Highway Bridges and its Description written by Japan Road Association. ‘A rocker bearing referred to in this Article is the one specified in Arti- cle 28. of this Chapter, and a roller bearing is the one which generates, only a rolling friction. Article 20. Effective Sectional Area of Pipe Shell Plate ‘The effective sectional area of a pipe shell plate used for the design cal- culation shall be determined from the following formul A= Hb~ Dy where A: Effective sectional area of pipe wall (cm?) Pipe thickness when manufactured (cm) ‘Thickness allowance against corrosion and wear (cm) Dy: Diameter to the center of plate thickness (cm) Description : When designing the stress of a steel penstock, the effective sectional area for a pipe shell plate is often required. The effective sectional area is to be determined by subtracting a thick- ness allowance against corrosion and wear from the shell thickness, and as is shown in Fig. 1.16-1, Article 16. of this Chapter, it is set that the thickness allowance should be taken as ¢/2 each from both the internal surface and the external surface of the pipe shell plate. eleArticle 21. Bend Pipe ‘The radius of curvature for a bend pipe shall be more than three times the pipe’s internal diameter and intersecting angle of each unit pipe shall be less than 7°. However, 90° bend pipe, branch and in other unavailable cases, their radius of curvature may be more than twice a pipe’s internal diameter. Descriptio A bend pipe is required at a place where the direction of penstocks changes, and it is hard to construct a pipe in a smooth arc shape, and 80 a bend pipe consisting of oblique joints for each unit pipe is construct- cd. There are many test reports on relation between radius of curvature of a pipe center line (R), an internal diameter (d) and loss of head. And according to the values adjusted and reviewed by Anderson and Straub the loss factor gets small simply with the increase in R/d, and gets further smaller with more than three in R/d. With an excessive increase in R/d, however, the bend pipe length gets larger and it cannot be economical, ince there may be no space available to take a proper radius of curva- ture for 90 degrees bend pipe and a branch etc. itis specified in such a case that the radius of curvature may be more than twice the inside di ameter of the pipe as an alleviation regulation. Itis considered that the less an intersecting angle for each unit pipe is, the smoother bend pipe can be obtained, and thus an actual oss of head decreases. Accordingly, in this standard, an intersecting angle i seat less than 7 degrees which has been regarded as appropriate so far from work- ability and economic viewpoints. However, itis desirable to set at approx- imately 4 to 5® when keeping of a waterhead is very important for a power station having a low waterhead and a large capacity. In planning steel penstocks, design is in many cases made so that a horizontal angle and a vertical angle take place at one point in order to ‘minimize bend pipes which cost much. In this case, the combined angle of the horizontal and vertical angles is determined from the following formula: ~6-For a pottve sign (+) For a negative sign (—) Profile Plan Fig. 1.21-1 Combined Angles for Steel Penstock cos X = cos A cos Bos C + sin A sin B where _X: Combined angle on the plan including a penstock up- stream and downstream of a bend A, B, C: Angles shown in Fig. 1.21-1. Negative sign (~) means the case both A and B direct upward. Positive sign (+) means the case A and B direct upward and downward alternately. In order to reduce the number of bends and reducers, reducing bend pipes are often used by compounding bend pipes and reducers. In design for reducing bend pipe, there are the following two methods. (J) In case that each unit pipe is structured with a reducer4: Intersecting angle a=W ~ @ R: Radius of curvature = mR tan Q (length of a reducer) nm: Number of equipartition of 4 (even number) : Internal diameter of a larger pipe ‘D's Internal diameter of a smaller pipe -6-(2) In case a starting unit pipe and an end unit pipe are structured with a straight pipe oN Sh ASn ied ito 93 Sy mcs PV\AS Inverseting point-=4./%, M 1219 Diranming of Ratu Bed Pie a o-4 reak +6 sin oa PaO tan 6 cae Sg *2n=2R tan cos 29 +-cos 8 rain n=2 Bs 29 +05 @ =P nn Beer r= n—(e- DR tan @ sin 0 wes 29 +c0s 0 2(x—1)R tan g sin 6 cos 8 Intersecting angle Radius of curvature Twice number of intersecting point Internal diameter of a larger pipe Internal diameter of a smaller pipe Number of divisions from the center line of the steel penstock | to the desired point DyArticle 22. Branch Branch shall be of a structure to be safe against internal and external pressures acting on itself, and sufficient attention shall be directed with respect to flows of water. Description: 1. Type of Branch ‘A penstock is generally called a branch where the flow of water is to be divided into two or more, or where two or more flows of water are to be gathered to a main pipe. (1) Geometrical Classification ‘There are several types of branches, bifurcation and trifurcation and so on. A symmetrical bifurcation is generally employed. In case of branching into 3 or more as is shown in Fig. 1.22-1 (1), the fol- lowing types are available: a type of a main pipe to be directly tri- furcated, a manifold type in which pipes are branched in the same direction in succession from a straight main pipe (Fig. 1.22-1 (2)), and a type to combine bifurcations (Fig. 1.22-1 (3)). tsi i Tubine — sano 8 nae ow Tutbine Main pipe Branch 1_ Branch tt ® ‘Turbine Turbine Turbine ° Fig. 1.22-1 Type of Branch 2) Structural Classification ‘A-.wye branch and spherical branch are of typical ones in struc- 65ture of branch. A wye branch is a type to diverge a main pipe to ‘two branch pipes, attaching stiffening girders on theit intersecting lines (Fig. 1.22-2), and a spherical branch is a type to connect a main pipe and branch pipes to a spherical shell through reinfor- cing rings. (Fig. 1.22-3) 7 Reinforeitg ring. Fig. 1.222 ¥ (Wye) Branch Fig. 1.223 Spherical Branch Design waterhead (m=) Diameter of main pipe (i) Mig. 1.22-4 Actual Results of Branch Pipes Employed in Japan - 66 -In case of a wye branch, a U-type girder is treated as a beam subjected to bending, and thus its girder height increases rapidly with an increase in the design pressure. On the other hand, as a spherical branch is normally treated as an axis symmetrical shell, . its analysis is easier compared with that of a wye branch, and it . is possible to decrease the local bending stress of a spherical shell connected to a reinforcing ring if its cross section is properly selec- ~ ted. This causes the plate thickness to be less in comparison with a wye branch, ‘Such a reason has made a spherical branch employed in almost . all penstocks having large capacity and high waterhead as the ac- | ‘ual results in the past show in Fig. 1.22-4. ‘The loss is larger when spherical branch is used without a flow regulating plate compared with that of a wye branch from a hydrau- | jewpoint, and thus it is normal to use a flow regulating plate - inside the spherical shell, aiming at reducing the loss. | 2. Design of branch | (1) Wye branch ‘Wye branch has a U-type girder attached on the intersecting line | of two branch pipes divided from a main pipe. (Fig. 1.22-2) | A U-type girder is placed in position so as to resist a force acting | | ' I I | \ on the intersecting line of the branch pipes. A ring-type reinfor- cing girder is to prevent deformation of the U-type girder. In de- termining a load acting on a U-type girder, it ought to be considered. whether or not concave covers exist. The following consideration is based on a condition without concave covers, i.e. axial tensile force of branch pipes do not act. ‘The tangential force (T) is shown in Fig. 1.22-5, Decomposing T into three directional components, x, y, and 2, they will be as follows: I - 67 -fy PET 608 0 dk ~ @ Ten PL OOS (4) cos? 6 Moreover, the following forces in x and y directions act on a U- type gitder due to an internal pressure working on the breadth B of a U-type girder. 6) © P, = pBdx.... x o pBdy .. ‘There is a convenient method to consider just an upward force, iue., Ty and Py. ‘Axis of center of gravity on a etder section Fig. 1.22.5 Components of Tangemtial Force Acting on a U-type Girder ‘The design on a safe side can be secured by deciding a sectional area of a reinforcing girder in this way. And @ is generally small, and so it is permissible to assume cos’ 1.‘After determination of the load acting on a U-type girder, a so- lution should be started by assuming that a U-type girder and a ring-type reinforcing girder connected to the former shall be one structure. In this case, as is illustrated in Fig. 1.22-6, it is assumed that a U-type girder and a ring-type reinforcing girder are connected with a pin. In other word, a ring-type girder is generally of I- or ‘T-shaped cross section, and it is permissible to assume that a ring- type girder does not resist a bending moment from a U-type girder ‘and to assume it as a pin. Accordingly, a model of reinforcing gir- ders can be shown as in Fig. 1.226, x Usype girder Ring-type 2 reinforcing Uype sirderc sirder ing type reinforcing girder Ring-ype reinforcing gder |! f Fig. 1.226 Analysis Model for Reinforcing Girder If the statically indeterminate force X acting on the pin of rein- fers is determined, itis possible to solve a ring-type rein- jer and a U-type girder respectively, ie. a reinforcing girder is a primary statically indeterminate structure externally. From the condition that the displacement at an X-acting point on 4 ringetype reinforcing girder is equal to the displacement at an X-acting point on a U-type girder, itis possible to solve X as follows: ‘The displacement of &, in the X direction at an X-acting point ‘on a ring-type reinforcing girder is: + Xbqy oO be where 8,5: Displacement due to internal pressure p 3n1: Displacement due to X = 1 The displacement of 5, in the X direction at an X-acting point on a U-type girder is: - 9 -by Sup — Xu, where ,,: Displacement due to internal pressure p 5: Displacement due to X = 1 Say bg = by, X can be determined, o With X determined, a U-type girder and a ring-type reinforcing sirder can be solved respectively, and then a cross section is deci- ded. As the girder height gets larger around the top of a U-type gitder (point C in Fig. 1.22-6) it is necessary to study the buckling of its web plate. In case that a whole branch pipe is embedded, it is necessary to examine the external pressure also. ‘This Description refers only to the case in which concave covers are not used and axial tensile forces do not work, but when a hydraulic testis executed with concave covers, consideration on axial, forces is required. ing of a sphere and a cylinder ha cave cover as Fig 1.22-7 is considered; The axial tensile force of a cylinder is: - (10) ‘The horizontal component of a sphere’s membrane tensile force pri an Thus, the horizontal direction force is kept balanced with onc ~10-Reinforcing ring y Fig. 1.22-7 Forces Acting on a Connecting Point of Sphere and Cylinder On the other hand, a reinforcing ring is attached so as to resist the vertical component o, of a sphere’s membrane tensile force as illustrated in Fig. 1.22-8. C0. ofa nfo Fig. 1.228 Reinforcing Ring for Spherical Branch ‘The tensile force 7, generated in a reinforcing ring by the inter- nal pressure acting on the reinforcing ring’s breadth b is T, = prb «ay ‘The tensile force T; generated in a reinforcing ring by the vertical component of a sphere’s membrane tensile force is: a3) Supposing only the membrane tensile force acting on a sphere, i.e. a sphere under membrane stress condition, the cross sectional area S of reinforcing ring is: 1 Ty = Pho 8 608 0 vsestnvns -n-Tsk on where org: Tensile stress of reinforcing ring ‘This formula includes the stress of a reinforcing ring ory, but it is possible to determine the formula which does not include ory from a displacement boundary condition as follows: ‘The radial force V acting on a reinforcing ring is: 2 (br+0.5 1 a 008 @) « 14) ore =pb+2a cos a=p(b+ Sos a! 2 z ‘Then, the displacement 5, of a reinforcing ring in radial direction Pye Sint a bags es? The displacement 4, of a spher ing point with reinforcing rng is; (0+ Geos a} 16) in radial direction at connect- (17) 6, = 6,is to be essential in order that a sphere is under the mem- brane stress condition, and so let’s say 5, = 5, 2 ye naw S= Top (0+ Geos a)a sin (18) ‘The sphere’s plate thickness A is, saying the sphere's membrane tensile stress o,, 19) While, a cylinder’s plate thickness #is to be determined only by the tangential stress o,, with no consideration given to the reinfor- cing ring’s effect: (20) If is to be determined so that the radial displacement 8, of a cylinder may be equal to the radial displacement 5, of a reinforc- ing ring, it is not required to consider the effect of a cylinder on -n- kek eh eK ema reinforcing ring and the sphere, and the sphere can be kept under a membrane stress. Bla): With 6, = 5, asin a % r, » = 0.3, and the corrosion allowance is expressed with ¢, the cylinder’s plate thickness required is ex- pressed with the following equation: hte seesee(QB) ‘The range to increase 1 to ¢” is determined from the following equation: og ad. 24) Practically, itis seldom to satisfy the above equations in compu- tation of S, 1” and h, and so it is necessary to calculate a bending ‘moment and a shearing force at each point by a statically indeter- ‘inate calculation method etc., to attempt a strict solution. ‘The above design for a spherical branch is for the case that con- ceave covers are attached to a main pipe and branch pipes. ‘When considering an actual use of steel penstocks, concave covers do not exist, and thus the axial forces ays and oyc in Fig. 1.22-7 do not act. ‘As a practical solution in this ease, there is a concept to solve a structure model shown in Fig. 1.22-9 with an assumption that a pipe is embedded in concrete and the pipe’s axial displacement is restrained and fixed at a certain distance point from a reinfor- Fig. 1.22-9 Example of Structure Analysis Model of a Spherical Branch under Actual Use. -n-Internal pressures acting on the branch are explained above, but itis also necessary to examine the external pressure. 3. Other types of branch Other than a wye type branch and a spherical branch, various types of branches are known, and the branch illustrated in Fig. 1.22-10 is, often used. This branch is of a type having a sickle shaped reinforce- ‘ment protruded inside a pipe and a ring-type reinforcing girder omit- ted, and is 60 designed as to decrease the bending moment in U-type gitder and reduce cross section of a girder. In this branch, the sickle-shaped reinforcement is made of a thick steel plate or steel forging, and it is necessary to use a so-called anti- lamellartearing material which guarantees efficiency in the plate thick- ness direction, as the portion connected to a pipe shell is subject to the stress in the plate thickness direction, Sickleshaped reinforcement Fig. 1.22-10 Example of Other Type of Branch’ A.wye branch or a spherical branch for a bifurcation or trifurcs hhas been commonly used in Japan, but a manifold type is widely used in Europe. As for structure of this manifold type, when the diameter ratio for a branch pipe to a main pipe is larger than 3/4, it is desirable to be reinforced by an external U-type girder similarly to the one for a wye branch. With a diameter ratio less than the above, it is common to be reinforced by a curved girder in a circular shape attached on an intersecting line on both pipes. Wth a diameter ratio of a branch pipe being less than about 1/2 a main pipe, reinforcement by a doubling plate is also employed. Refer to the example of JIS B8243 for compu- tation, -m-4, Hydraulics of branch The following points are required for hydraulic characteristics of branch: () Head loss due to branch is small. @) The total head loss including those of bend pipes, reducers, reduc- ing bend pipes, etc., before and after required for branch should be small. A big turbulent flow and the secondary flow are not generated. @) For equibranch, the head loss for each pipe is equal or the differ- tence between each pipe is small. (4) Even if the flow rate in one branch pipe changes, a large vortex cor a hydraulic pulsation does not take place in the flow of the other branch pipes. (5) The above items should be satisfied while water is being pumped up. In order to satisfy these requirements: (J) In case of equibranch, the shape is symmetrical about the main pipe axis. 2) In principle, the angle between the main pipe axis and each branch pipe axis is small. (3) A sharp change in the cross sectional area of a passage is kept to a minimum. (4) Nothing to hinder the flow is installed in a passage. Taking the head loss coefficient due to branch as «, AA can be expressed by the following equation based on a mean velocity vp of flow in a main pipe. Values of a are influenced by a branch angle, change in the section- al area, and so on, and in addition, Reynold’s number, and the dist bution ratio of the flow to each branch pipe influence the values of head loss coefficient varies to a large extent due to the distribution ratio of the flow. Reynold’s number can be expressed by the following equation as to a cylinder: = -Where v: Mean velocity of flow in a pipe (m/s) : Diameter of pipe (m) ¥: Coefficient of kinetic viscosity of flow for water at 20°C 1.0 x 10-* (m/s) Accordingly, v = 5.0 ~ 10.0 m/s, and d = 2.0 ~ 5.0 mare common to steel penstocks, and so its Reynold’s number is (1 ~ 5) x 10. In case of examining a flow inside the pipe by using a hydraulic model ‘geometrically similar to a prototype, flow inside the pipes become simi- lar if both Reynold’s numbers are set equal. In order to make Reynold’s number for a prototype (suffixed with p) and a model (suffixed with m) equal, the following should be satisfied: ede Yale If n = dj/dg, where n is a scale of a prototype to a model, Rey- nold’s number can not be equal unless v = nu, Practically, however, if say n = 20 for instance, itis impossible to execute a test with such a high velocity of flow of u, = 200, Itis possible to use air as a flow but the » of air is larger than that of water (15 x 10-¢ m’/s at 20°C), and velocity of flow gets faster, thus resulting in a problem of a facility of experiment. In addition, ait is not appropriate to observe cavitation and so on. It is generally known that head loss coefficient and vibration characteristics are fixed irrele- vant to Reynold’s numbers if they become more than a certain value (Re > 109. In a hydraulic test for branches also, a velocity of flow is selected so as to be Re > 10*, and a test using water is usually con- ducted. Various tests on head loss for branches are reported, and in Fig. 1.22-11 to 13 the test results on a wye branch made by Ruus are illus- trated. Models used in the test are illustrated in Fig. 1.22-11, and its results in Fig. 1.22-12 and Fig. 1-22-13. ‘According to these test results, the head loss coefficient is greatly influenced by a branch angle around an equidiverging flow condition, and at 45° to 60° of a branch angle the head loss coefficient becomes 0.035 to 0.05, with a relatively minor difference, but the coefficient increases rapidly to about 0.17 at a 90° branch angle. = 16 =‘The influence by a reducing angle of a branch pipe can be compared by using models (a) and (b), but the difference in loss factor between ‘models (a) and (b) is 0.015 to.0.025, and a bigger influence is given by providing an expanding angle of 6 to 9 degrees for a main pipe (See model(c) rather than an influence of a reducing angle ofa branch pipe. It is noted that the model (c), despite a 60° branch, shows almost the same loss factor with a 45° branch by providing an expanding an- gle for a main pipe. Wo ae wy , & ” © ° o ; Gm & : io? 10° Fig. 1.22-11 Wye Branch Shapes Used for Experiment. TT eT rt é Poe Po Reynold’s number of main pipe Fig. 1.22-12 Head Loss Coefficient of Wye Branch Having Conical Branch Pipe (equidistribution) -n-Head lose coefficient 2 5 Ola Head lots coefficient a2 at as ae 0 Flow ratio Q,/Qs side Q,: Flow rate on an inflow side (Q,: Flow rate on measur Fig. 1.22.13 Head Loss Coefficient with Flow Ratio Changed in Branch Pipes of Wye Branch ‘The head loss coefficient with water running in one branch pipe is 0.3 to 0.5, and it is shown that a factor with a branch angle of 45° is larger than with branch angles of 60° and 90°. In any case, the differ- ence due to a discharge i.e. Reynold’s number is small. In case of a spherical branch, a sudden change in section takes place at a branch portion, and thus a big head loss is produced if a flow regulating plate is not provided. When the ratio of a sphere diameter to main pipe diameter is large, the head loss coefficient gets high. Es- pecially when a flow distribution ratio of a branch pipe becomes high, a head loss coefficient increases rapidly. Such an increase in head loss coefficient is resultant from phenome- non that the sectional area suddenly gets large and thus an excessive vortex is generated there and further extended into a main pipe, result- ~ 18 =-ing in a secondary swirl current there. However, from a viewpoint of reinforcing a joint of pipes and a spherical shell, itis not desirable to employ a spherical branch having too small on diameters compared with the pipe diameters, and thus the ratio of a sphere diameter to a pipe diameter of 1.6 to 1.3 is commonly used. In order to prevent such an increase in head loss in a spherical branch, it is preferable to install a flow regulating plate inside. It is a simple ‘method to attach a disc or a shallow cup-shaped plate up and down inside the sphere, but the passage within a flat plane including three pipe axes sharply expands its cross section, and so this method is in- sufficient in case that the ratio of a sphere diameter to a main pipe diameter is large. Ifa flow regulating plate having the same shape with the wye branch is placed inside the sphere, it may be treated in the same way with the wye branch in terms of flow, the head loss can be minimized as is seen in the test results of Ruus. ‘A flow regulating plate installed inside a sphere may change its shape ‘depending upon conditions of the passage, and it is necessary to de- «ide its shape taking account of convenience of manufacture also. With this flow regulating plate attached to a sphere shell, a reinforcing ring, ete., the deformation of a sphere itself due to the water pressu trained, and the stress distribution might be changed, thus requiring careful attention. Article 23. Reinforcement of Holes Holes of a pressure lining part to fix attachment installations and other devices shall be reinforced by reinforcements provided an excessive local stress concentration takes place, thus leading to generating a weak point. Description: When holes are made to fix attachment installations such as a man- hole, air pipe or air vent, bypass pipe, or drain pipe, and a measuring device, water pressure gauge, feed water pipe, etc., to a pipe shell, a local stress concentration takes place around the holes.Fig. 1.234 In case of an elliptic hole like a manhole, a maximum stress generates at a point A in Fig. 1.23-1, and the stress is given from the following formula: Gnu 9(1+25) where 0: Circumferential stress of pipe shell without holes (kgf/em’) a, b: Radius of ellipse (cm) In case of a circular hole, the stress distribution on a pipe shell at a distance from the hole center is given from the following formula in Fig. 123-2: where a: Radius of hole (cm) 1r: Distance from the center of hole (cm) = 80 -‘A maximum stress takes place around the hole, i.e. dam = 30 with + = a, and the stress decreases rapidly with an increase in distance from the hole, then resulting in 1350 with r = 2a, and then an influence by a stress concent is almost gone. In case that such a local stress concentration exceeds the allowable stress of the pipe shell and turns out to be a weak point, reinforcement should be made around the hole. ‘When reinforcing a circular hole as illustrated in Fig. 1.23-3, the stress concentration factor f, at a point A can be expressed by the following formulae: = | FF Fig. 1.233 Reinforcement of a Circular Hole 7 ey Fig. 1.23-4 Reinforcement of Holes = 81 -ae UzccnnlAPo¥ et shea ay where ty Say, A= (b- 0) A= ha Fig, 1.23-4 illustrates the relation of f, and A,/A, with x as parameter. ‘A concentration factor f, in case of reinforcing an elliptic hole can be obtained by multiplying {, by the following factor a: a 1425 3 ‘As this stress concentration is quite limited to be local, it may be per- ‘missible to take an allowable stress as much as 1.7 times. But it is desira- ble that A,/A, should not be less than 100%. In case that major axis is placed in a longitudinal direction, a factor a becomes large, and thus it is preferred to place the major axis in a circumferential direction or to make a circular hole. But, when fixing a manhole at the lower left or right, Of the pipe where a high pressure is not applied, major axis may be placed in a longitudinal direction so as to get an easy access. ~82- ar ar aT‘When attaching such a small diameter pipe as an air pipe, this hole shall bbe reinforced by a plate having 100% of a sectional area of the hole as ‘an air pipe itself also helps in reinforcement. ‘According to the Boiler Code, the separated hole below 61mm in di- ‘ameter does not require reinforcement. However, in case the exposed pipe concentration factor is larger than that of the boiler due to the longitudi- nal compressive stress, it requires careful attention, 4, Attachment Installations Article 24. Expansion Joint 1. An expansion joint shall be attached at a place where an excessive stress or deformation is liable to be generated in an axial direction by a tem- perature change or other external forces. 2. An expansion joint shall be strong enough and watertight, and be of ‘such structure as to exert its function thoroughly over expansion and contraction. 3. The range of temperature changes for steel penstocks used for calcula- ting the expansion length shall be determined taking account of max. and min. temperatures at site. 4. As for the length of a slide type expansion joint, more than Sem al owance shall be given to a calculated value. Description: 1. The temperature of a stel penstock with water init is mainly influenced by water temperature, and governed by ambient temperature when the Penstock is empty, and is affected by sunshine when exposed. A main purpose of an expansion joint is to enable a penstock to expand in an axial direction depending on this temperature change so as not to gener ate excessive stresses, and this joint also helps adjusting the length of € pipe when installed. ‘An expansion joint generally used is of a sleeve type which enables 8 pipe to expand only in an axial direction, and the joint is usually in- stalled just downstream of an anchor block or in the middle of both anchor blocks for almost a horizontal pipeline in view of installation 2, When a penstock is placed through two structures which are expected a relative displacement, itis necessary to attach an expansion and deflec- tion joint allowing a move both in an axial direction and in a normal to axis direction. 83 -For such a joint a sleeve coupling type is used. A sleeve type expansion joint i of structure to insert the leak preven- tion packing into a stuffing box between two pipes, je. internal and external sleeves, and to press the packing with a packing gland, as il- lustrated in Fig. 1.24-1. Four to eight square flax strings with grease ‘thoroughly permeated and one or two round rubber packings are usually used as packing. An internal sleeve should be designed so as to resist an external pressure by the packing. As a sliding portion of the inter- nal and external sleeves is liable to generate rust due to coating inappli- cability, it is desirable to use a stainless clad steel on the outside of an internal sleeve or to apply a metalikon process s0 as to prevent corro- sion and make sliding better. Savate ax packing 5 on eee ad cl sane Sleeve pe ig. 1.241 Example of Expansion Joint . A slide distance / of an expansion joint due to temperature change is given by the following formula: = LaT +: Distance between anchor blocks a: Coefficient of linear expansion = 0.000012/°C T : Temperature change (°C) ‘The range of temperature changes in penstocks used for the above formula should be decided taking into account the highest and lowest temperatures at site. A penstock temperature under direct sunshine with no water in it reaches as high as 60°C, thus requiring attention to be id. As for the highest temperatures for the above penstock i.e. under direct sunshine and with no water in it, various observation data have been reported, and the following empirical formula is presented: - 84 -x Ta4445¢ where T: Max. temperature of an empty penstock under direct sun- shine (°C) 4: Ambient temperature (°C) In case of an empty penstock under direct sunshine, one of the ex- ‘amples of paint effects on the penstock temperature is shown in Fig. 1.24.2, (measured on Aug. 3, 1957) “0 a] Fa ow 4 6 te = g — Rust colo pint on surface & off | = Wie ptt on sre & ‘=seeAmblent temperate | - Goudy l Tol ea Tao fae tee > Time tm Fig. 1.242, Example of Temperature Observation on Empty Penstocks under Direct Sunshine 4. As for an allowance of a slide type expansion joint, it is specified to bbe more than 5 cm longer than the calculated value from the previous formula, taking account of structural safety and adjustment of instal- lation. ~ 85Article 25, Manhole 1. Amanhole necessary for maintenance and inspection shall be attached to a steel penstock, taking its length, diameter and gradient into con- sideration. 2, The manhole shall be of ellipse type, having a 450mm major axis and ‘a 350mm minor axis, or circle having a 450mm internal Description: 1. A steel penstock requires a manhole for maintenance and inspection, and the number of manholes are dependant upon the penstock’s length, diameter and gradient. Manholes are usually spaced 120 to 150 meters apart. The location of a manhole is principally determined so as to gain an easy access and usually to be at the top or lower sides. 2. In Japan, a manhole either of an elliptical shape with a 450mm major axis and a 30mm minor axis or of a circular shape with a 450mm in- ternal diameter is usually employed but the size about 400 x 300mm is also used for a less than 1.0m diameter penstock. ‘The plate thickness of a manhole cover can be given from the fol- lowing formula, by assuming that the cover is an elliptical flat plate subjected to distributed loads under the edge free support. where f: Cover thickness (cm) Bb: 1/2 the minor axis (em) Internal pressure (kgf/cm?) @: Allowable stress of steel plate (kgf/cm?) €: Corrosion allowance (cm) K: Stress concentration coefficient Coefficient K is provided in Table 1.25-1 based on S. Timoshenko's theory: ‘Table 1.251. Stress Concentration Factors wT 10 Tr 12 TH a i 124 | at 137 1 [1a | 198 K 217 the major as om) Ke SUT or elise of 450 > 350mm‘A rubber packing is usually used for the manhole. It is desirable to attach chains to the cover so as not to fall inside the penstock when the cover is removed. With a high water pressure, the cover plate for an elliptical manhole ‘gets thick, and so opening and closing becomes difficult. Thus, a cular manhole, as illustrated in Fig. 1.25-1, has been employed. Pipe shel plate Fig. 1.25-1 \ Example of Manhole Article 26. Air Pipe and Air Valve 1, An air pipe or an air valve capable of keeping the pressure difference inside and outside the penstock less than 0.2kgf/cm? during the water discharge shall be installed. 2. In case of a possible freeze of an air pipe and air valve in a cold sea- -ar-son, or in case of clogging of the above with leaves, etc., an effective measure to protect a discharging function shall be provided. Description: 1 . The purpose of an air pipe or an air valve is to discharge air when fill- ing water into the penstock and to release air into the penstock when discharging water, and this is the most important device for the preven- tion of crushing during water discharg¢ In case that the pressure difference is likely to exceed 0.2kgf/em* when the internal pressure of the penstock becomes lower than the ex- ternal atmospheric pressure during water discharge, an air pipe or an air valve shall be installed which is activated at a pressure less kgf/emt. If a pipeline is higher than the hydraulic gradient horizontal or almost horizontal portion of a penstock, there are some examples that an air pipe or valve is also installed downstream at that portion. This is to prevent negative pressure produced in a penstock due to a sharp loading change in addition to filling and discharging water. Limit ewitch ~ $ Fig. 1.26-1 Typical Type of Air Valve — 88 -‘The minimum intake sectional area of an air valve is given by the following formula: 2 A= cy 294? where A: Min, intake sectional area (m?) Q: Max. discharge inside the penstock (m/s) AP: Allowable pressure difference (tf/m?) ‘ya: Specific weight of air (0.001226tf/m’) §: Acceleration of gravity (9.8 m/s*) C: Discharge coefficient of air (normally 0.6) 2. As an air pipe or air valve may probably be frozen in cold areas, it is necessary to protect it from freezing by using various measures such as electric heating, pressing in grease, etc. Attention should be paid so that no foreign matter enters when closing these devices, and care- ful provisions for protection should be arranged in cases where an air pipe or valve may be clogged with leaves and snow. ‘Anair valve is subject to an impact in closing and opening, and thus it should be strong enough to resist the impact. In addition to the above consideration, it is advisable to install two ‘or more air valves 50 as to ensure safety against an unexpected acci- dent for the purpose of increasing reliance on workability of the valve. Article 27. Anchor Bolt, Anchor Band, Thrust Collar 1, At the place of an anchor block where an upper portion of a steel pen- stock is exposed or when a tensile stress is generated in an anchor block with a thin concrete cover, a penstock shall be fixed against an exter- nal force by means of anchor bolts, anchor bands or other devices. 2. Ata place where a steel penstock is fixed into an anchor block or embed- ded in a tunnel, anchor bolts, anchor bands or other devices shall be used to cope with buoyancy acting on a penstock when the concrete is filled, and a thrust collar shall be used to deal with the axial force. Description: In many cases, an anchor block is installed at a bend pipe portion. Ex- ternal forces in this case acting on an anchor block are those listed in Article = 89 -55., of this Chapter. In order to fix a penstock to an anchor block, this should be structured so as to transmit these external forces enough to an anchor block. In particular, when a fixed bend pipe is convex upward and an outward force is big, or when an upper portion of the pipe is exposed, or when excessive tensile stresses take place in concrete with a thin con- crete cover, it should be designed so as to transmit an external force directly to an anchor block. AA thrust collar should be installed to cope with an external force acting in an axial . For an anchor block placed at a bend pipe which is not convex upward and for a tunnel embedded pipe, an outward force does not act but buoyancy acts on a steel penstock when concrete is filled, and thus necessary to protect an installed pipe from displacement or deformation by means of an anchor bolt or an anchor band. “Allowable bond stresses of an anchor bolt embedded into concrete are listed in Table 1.27 Allowable bearing stresses of concrete should be less than 0.30.4 (28 days design standard strength of concrete). The strength of concrete differs from ratio of water to cement, strength of cement and aggregate, curing, etc., and so its stress value should be decided depending on work execu- ting conditions. Table 1.27-1 Allowable Bond Sureses of Anchor Bolt [28 dae dei mandard strat of cneicie ‘Type of steel bar ou (kate) Teo 0 30 E400 Round bar 7 . 3 wo Deformed bar a6 i a Unit weight of concrete before it hardens should be 2.3tf/n". Allowable stresses of concrete taking account of effects by earthquakes, wind and temporary loads are given below: 1) In case that temperature change and dried shrinkage are considered, the above allowable stress may be increased up to 1.15 times. 2) In case that an earthquake or wind effect is considered, the above al- lowable stress may be increased up to 1.5 times. 3) In case that effects by temperature change, dried shrinkage, and earth- ‘quake are considered, the above allowable stress may be increased up to 1.65 times.4) In case that a temporary load or a rare load is considered, the allow- able stress should not exceed twice the above allowable stress. Article 28. Movable Part of Support ‘A movable part of a support shall be of structure enabling a steel pen- stock to move safely and smoothly while it is expanded. Description:‘Anchor bolt Example of side bearing Fig. 1.28-1 Bearing Type of Various Bearings A type of support of penstocks is divided into a saddle support type and a ring support type. A saddle support type is liable to be used for 4 relatively small diameter penstock and a ring support type for a rela- tively large diameter penstock. Types of support and bearing for the pen- stock should be decided taking account of importance, safety, and economy of the steel penstock. For a saddle support type, there are a concrete saddle and a steel sad- dle. A steel saddle is used as a special support in tunnels or dams. There are some types of bearing of concrete saddles, such as the one to be sup- ported in direct contact with concrete, to be applied with a supplemental Jubricant such as graphite and asbestos on the upper surface of the con- crete, o fix a plate to a bearing concrete with more than a 3mm thick steel plate and to be applied with some lubricant on the upper surface of the plate. ‘A saddle support type, compared with a ring support type, has a larger circumferential pipe displacement at a support, and thus vibration of a Pipe is likely to be generated because of the pressure fluctuation produced ata turbine. Consequently, care must be taken to a saddle bearing having a relatively thin plate in comparison with a pipe’s diameter. A rocker bear- ing, a roller bearing ora slide bearing, etc., are employed for a ring sup- port type. (See Fig. 1.28-1) ‘A supporting method for penstocks should be ofa structure to minimize the pipe’s deformation at a support, and to enable the pipe to move freely against its axial expansion due to the temperature change and an internal pressure. As shown in Table 1.19-1, Article 19., this Chapter, as for fric- tion, a ring support type bearing is superior in an axial move. -2- baAs for bearings of a concrete saddle support, the use of a steel plate or a slide supplement material is recommended. A pipe’s deformation at a support gets maximized during water filling and discharging. Extreme care should be exercised to a saddle support. ‘A 120° supporting method is common to a saddle support. ‘A penstock at a saddle support is subject to a circumferential bending moment in addition to an internal pressure. A circumferential bending ‘moment gets maximized when the water is just filled, and its values can bbe determined from Fig. 1.28-2. Max. bending moment generates at a point “AM, and it reaches M = 0.0528QR in case of 8 = 120°. Es FEE Moment coefficient (C) EEE ys Values of 0 (dep) Fig. 1.282 Circumferential Bending Moment of Penstock on Saddle Support ‘According to Arriaga’s analysis, the stress due to a bending moment at a saddle support decreases to some extent as the internal pressure in- creases, and so a stress due to a bending moment is not required to be added to a stress due to the internal pressure in case of a penstock sub- jected to an internal pressure. But, the internal pressure in a penstock with thin wall close to the head tank is low, and thus itis desirable to pay such attention as taking a small 8. -93-It is permissible to increase the allowable stress up to 1.5 times as far as the stress due to a bending moment caused by water filling is concerned. It is said that, with no stiffener around a saddle, a pipe shell plate, either ‘equal to the pipe’s diameter or 1/2 the support interval, whichever is the smaller, works effectively to this bending moment on each side from the center of the saddle. Stiffeners should be installed around the saddle when just the pipe shell cannot resist the bending moment. In this case, the cross section working effectively to this bending moment should be the area of the afore-mentioned pipe shell plate plus the stiffener's cross section. Article 29, Ring Girder 1. Aring girder shall be so designed as to be safe against the internal pres- sure, self weight of pipe, water weight in pipe, temperature change, earthquake, and wind pressure. 2. Earthquake considered in design shall be assumed to work horizon- tally and its horizontal seismic coefficient shall not be less than 0.1. 3. The wind pressure considered in design shall be assumed to work horizontally toa right angle projected face of the penstock, and its pres- sure shall not be less than 0.15tf/m?. 4. The allowable stress used in design for a ring girder shall be the one listed in Table1.12-1, Article12., this Chapter in case that temperature ‘change, earthquake, or wind pressure are not considered. The allow- able stress may be increased up to 1.5 times in case the above is con- sidered, Description: 1. Contrary to a saddle support type penstock of which circumferential stress is only considered, an axial stress is also considered for the pen- stock of a ring girder support type. Thus it is possible to design a pen- stock as a girder to support its weight, and to take a relatively long supporting span. 1) With water fully filled in the pipe If reacting forces act as illustrated in Figure 1.29-1, circumferential cross section forces of a ring girder can be given from the following formulae: T=Q(Ki+BK) M=Q(RKs+ XK) S=Q(Ks+ CK)N=P| cara Stresses in the above become as follows: XN External edge stress of ring: ‘00=—¢—M> +77 ing: oe Lames. Internal edge stress of ring: om T+ mZ 44 whereas, 1, x 0128s trl Rf a (2+ ¥)L a] -ali- xotpfatia-af-B) Sg where r: Poisson's ratio = 0.3 x “ta ok Neutral ax of combined bet secon itn ro. one 4 Y-¥ cross section Fig1.29-1 Ring's Cross Section with Water Fully Filled ~ 95 -where ': Water pressure der (tf) © Ovzeo a (f/m?) +: Reaction force by both self weight of + Sectional area of combined rings (m') : Moment of inertia about ¥-¥ axis (m‘) + Length of one span (m) Bending moment of ring (tf-m) + Tensile force of ring section due to internal pressure (tf) + Reaction force by self weight of pipe acting on a ring gir- and water weight ‘S: Shearing force of ring girder in a radius direction (tf) Tensile force of ring except N (tf) K, to Kg: Coefficients (See Table 1.29-1) ‘Table 1.29-1 Coefficients with Water Fully Filled in the Pipe oa OR + BR) [OM = RK + XRD [5 = OR + CRD. x & K Ke | anemia | Vaio rr 1st +3064 -+-019651 | + 082385 20° 215664 03230 | + 159155 a + nas079 012117 | + 225079 o + iss1ss lovesi7 | + 218668 15° + eases 2294s } + 307463 50° — ° csr | + 318310 son ° =inesr1) + 3110 105° 082345 =lonns4s] + 307463 nao | 426708 | — siss otaei7 | + 275666 nis | 4-2snse | —2asor9 Sonaui7 | + 225079 130° | +-2anas | — 275066 ‘s032390| + 159155 esr | + 2an3e4 | = sonst -+loisesi | + omnes wor | 23a | —Saue10 o ° _t “+ Tension —: Compression 2) Earthquake occurrs with water fully filled in the pipe Circumferential sectional forces of a ring girder by seismic loads with water fully filled in the pipe can be determined from the following formulae: M = kQ (RK, + WK)T = kQ (Ky + BK) S = kO(K, + CK) ‘Stresses in the above become as follows: External edge stress of ring: 0: (re) ae ara) TAR oi +a-(1-$) + Gtk L [rw ara! (m4) fy. 2 ole Na) a a= "75+: Poisson's ratio = 0.3 where A: Sectional area of combined rings (b+ 1.56vrgi) + Ut, (a?) LL: Length of one span (m) Neutral axis of combined rings FF cross setion Fig. 1.29:2 Ring Cross Section when Earthquake Occurs -7-‘Table 1.29.2 Factors when Earthquake Occurs [A= AORK, + WR) | T= ROK + BK) [5 = ROK + CKD * KK Ke 0 ro +3110 019681 ~ 019651 + Some = “032380 = o3z80 + 25664 = loans =‘oxani9 + sons loner ovat? 4159185 + 072946 ons + anes ‘ost +onsn ° sm9s77 os ° + on5a6 022346 + 8238s = ovat? =a? +is9iss = ‘oszui9 Tous + ns09 = ono = ‘osz380 + 215664 = 019681, 019651 + 30784 ° ° + 3i8310 oisest | - + 019651 + bose +.082380 | = +0380 + 215664 osanis | i son + aso onan? | = ower | + 275666 + sss = oa | = + Somes + s2ses loss | = perry) ° = iangs77 | + 230000 + 318310 ° = lonasas | 4 201482 + Sones +0385 ‘sotaar7 | + 216506 ++ mrseot | + 328463 | 139188 on | +676 + asor9 | + 32103 | + 22879 omaso | + 12500 asoisa | + 277269 | + 273600 *oig6st | + osa70s ssromasas | + rowot | + 30746 ° ° 0 | + onsr | + 318310 : Bending moment of ring when earthquake occurs (tf-m) Reaction force by self weight of pipe acting on a ring girder « Q: Reaction force by both self weight of pipe and water weight acting on a ring girder (tf) : Horizontal seismic coefficient Shearing force of a ring girder in its radius direction (tf) T: Tensile force of a ring girder when earthquake occurs (tf) K, to K,: Coefficient (see Table 1.29-2)From these two group calculation formulae, it is possible to make cal- culation for self weight of pipe, water weight in pipe, internal pres- sure, earthquake and wind pressure. Incase of a supporting angle of 120°, ‘on the above. It should be noted that a careful design be made taking the tempera- ture change due to the sunshine in particular into consideration as well as ambient temperature change when the pipe is empty. Uneven tem- perature-distribution of the pipe generates a big thrust and moment at a bearing, and thus a thorough examination is required for this, together with overturning and sliding stability against earthquake and wind pressures. + As for earthquake, a force P acting on a structure with weight W (self weight of pipe and water weight) and horizontal seismic coefficient k, is expressed by P = kW. Values of k should be those suitable for the site to be constructed, dependent upon regions and grounds. In the designing of structures, generally, if correction of a horizon- tal seismic coefficient is made to regions and grounds, k becomes 0.24 {a soft ground in a region where a big earthquake has ever happened) 10.0.1 (a good ground in a region where no earthquake has ever hap- pened). Since steel penstocks are installed in a good ground, the value 0.10 t0 0.15 is commonly employed as a horizontal seismic coefficient. - The wind pressure acting on a pipe line horizontally and perpendicu- larly to a pipe line should be considered. Wind pressure Q, to the pen- stock's perpendicularly projected face is given from the following formula: is possible to calculate based = Sov'Ace where Q.: Wind pressure per axial unit length (tf/m) ‘A: Perpendicularly projected area per axial unit length (m*/m) Cp: Drag coefficient in relation to shapes of objects (0.8 for a cylinder) @: Air density = 0.000125 (ts*/m‘) v: Wind velocity (m/s) Accordingly, approximately 0.15 tf/m* for max. wind velocity SSm/s.4. An increase in allowable stress is recognized in each case when taking account of the temperature change (with empty penstocks), earthquake and wind pressure. ‘The above seldom happens or only temporarily if it happens, and so 50% increase in allowable stress is specified, and this means that more than 1.5 safety factor against fracture is secured. For these con- ditions, a thorough design should be conducted not only from a struc- tural viewpoint but to concrete and anchor bolts and so forth to secure the safety against sliding and overturning of the structure. = 100 =Section 3 Manufacture Article 30. Processing of Shell Plate 1, A shell plate shall be bent uniformly and carefully by a bending roller or other machines. 2.A hammer shall not be used for edge bending. Description: 1. A bending roller or a bending press should be used to bend a steel plate to manufacture a shell plate. A steel plate is usually cold processed, but a hot process by heating a steel plate is also permissible in case that a plate is so thick that a bending roller or press is incapable of dealing with the plate. But a hot processing system should not be employed for the steel plate of which material is changed by heating like a heat treated steel plate. punid paels vol lbe ere ie Wwe eo qyge me A 8 Fig. 130-1 Bend Processing of Shell Plate by Bending Roller 2. When using a tri-pyramid roller, both edges of a plate cannot be bent by the machine, and thus a bend processing should be made to approx- imately 30cm range of both edges in order to get the required are shape. ‘must not inch roller type machine as illustrated in Fig. 1.30-1B, it is possible to make an edge bending, and so it is not necessary to ‘make it by bending press. Edge bending greatly influences the roundness of a penstock after welded in any case, thus requiring a careful and precise execution. ~ 101 -Article 31. Fabrication 1. A steel penstock shall be fabricated in a work shop or a field shop, and shall be completed as a pipe section. Dimensions and shapes of a completed penstock shall be exactly in accordance with the design. 2..As for branches and other deformed penstocks, when inconvenient to complete as a pipe section in a work shop due to a transportation limit or some other reasons, a trial assembly in a shop shall be made so that dimensions and shapes are in accordance with the design. Description: AA steel penstock should be processed and fabricated in a work shop or a field shop as a pipe section, and the completed penstock should be transported to the installing site. The length of a pipe section is generally 66m in case of a straight pipe. In case that a pipe’s size and its weight exceed the transportation limits, ‘manufacturing limits should be decided after investigating conditions of transporting routes, and a penstock should be completed as large-sized as possible at a work shop. In other words, the branches and other important deformed penstocks exceeding these dimensions and weights should be tral-assembled ina shop as a whole, and then the dimensions and shapes should be inspected. There- after, they should be divided into large-sized sections as much as possible as stated above, and then each section completed should be transported. In a trial assembly, the following should be inspected: a. diameter of penstock b. length of penstock c. bending angle for deformed penstock 4. angle of penstock end plane to its axis e, weld groove shape, etc. For a straight penstock, circumferential length, plate width, radius of curvature, groove dimensions, etc, should be checked, and atrial assembly may be omitted. ‘The main purpose of a trial assembly is to fabricate and complete the penstock exactly as designed without rliworking at site or ina field shop, and thus it is necessary to place match marks for fabrication and marks for installation on the pipes after their inspection completed during atrial assembly. At site or in a field shop, assembly and welding should be ex- ecuted according to these marks. = 102 -Article 32. Tolerance for Circumferential Length ‘The manufacturing tolerance for the circumferential length of a pres- sure lining part shall not be more than + 0.25% of the design length. Description: ‘There are two ways to determine the tolerance for a penstock’s section- al dimension: to determine the allowable value for out of roundness by ‘measuring an internal diameter of a penstock, and to determine the toler ance for a circumferential length by measuring it. {As for a steel penstock, its out of roundness varies with its supporting method because the penstock is a thin walled tube, and a deflection gener- ates in an actual measurement as the penstock is measured while being placed horizontally. Thus, itis difficult to strictly stipulate. Accordingly, in order to secure the roundness to such an extent as not to have any trouble for field welding, the roundness should only be corrected by fixing jigs inside pipe and the tolerance for the circumferential length should be re- ‘gulated instead. 02 Seem ‘The tolerance for a steel plate thickness influences the circumferential length. Since the thickness tolerance isthe value shown in Article9., this ‘Chapter, it is necessary to take this value into account for the tolerance of the circumferential length. ‘Approximately 2mm of contraction by weld is unavoidable as shown in Fig. 1.32-1. Cutting errors of a steel plate, and circumferential errors ' due to a cold bending process by a roller or press are generated. The cit- | ‘cumferential error/frequency curve is shown in Fig. 1.32-2, This circum- \ ferential error is the result of these cumulative errors. As shown in this, | figure, itis not practically harmful even if a circumferential error of ap- | \ proximately + 4 to 6mm is permitted. Thus, it is specified to set the ‘manufacturing tolerance for a circumferential length at + 0.25% of the design length taking allowance into consideration. 19 Furthermore, offset for the joint of adjacent pipes should satisfy the “regulation of Article 28., Chapter 4, pot i | | ai a 2 af £0 |g, é — Error = error (and Fig. 1.32-1 Differences in Fig. 1.32-2 Example of Circumferential Circumferential Length Length Error/Frequency Curve for Between Tack-Welded and Welded Penstocks Completely Welded Articte 33. Hydraulic Test ‘A hydraulic test, or a nondestructive test such as a radiographic test shall be executed for a pressure lining part in a shop or at site so as to censure that there exists no unsoundness. Descriptio A hydraulic test or a nondestructive test such as a radiographic test in place of the hydraulic test should be executed for a steel penstock before installation in a shop, or at site after installation so as to ensure that there exists no unsoundness. ‘A hydraulic test is executed to verify the design and to prove effective: ness and safety of the steel piates and welded joints, as well as to relieve mechanical stresses to some extent. = 104 =In recent years, with the quality improvements of steel materials, weld ing and nondestructive inspection tests have made remarkable progress and their reliability has been increased, and thus as for a straight pen- stock and a deformed penstock which ensures a thorough analytic confir- mation, the safety is confirmed by executing a nondestructive test with a hydraulic test omitted in many cases. A hydraulic testis executed either in a shop as a pipe section or at site after installation as a completed pipe. Since a hydraulic test for a pipe section requires much time and cost, is sometimes convenient to substitute a hydraulic test as a completed pipe at site after installation in view of progress of work and economy. For a hydraulic test of a completed pipe after installation, an end plate is prepared for both ends of a pipe, and then water is filled inside the pipe and it is pressurized by a pump. ‘The hydraulic test pressure should be more than 130% of the design internal pressure in a shop, and more than 110% of the design internal pressure at site after installation, and it is standardized that its duration should last more than 10 minutes. This value is derived from actual results in Japan as well as examples in Europe and USA. The reason for setting the test hydraulic pressure at site after installation at more than 110% is that keeping 130% of the design internal pressure in the whole pipeline is difficult because of changes in waterhead and hydrostatic pressure water hammering pressure in relation to the design waterhead and hydrostatic pressure, Thus itis set at more than 110%, considering that a testis ex- ecuted by dividing the pipeline into several sections depending on the site condition. line, special study and examinations should be made because an internal pressure acts to an anchor block in addition to the design pressure, and the continuity of pipeline is disrupted with an end plate fixed, and so the thrust other than design conditions acts. It should especially be noted that, some cracks were generated in an anchor block concrete when a field hydraulic test was conducted without making the above review. Aneend plate is generally of elliptical, standard dished, or semi-spheric shapes, and a flat plate is used in case of a small diameter pipe. An end plate should be in accordance with JIS B8243 (1977) Construction of Pres- sure Vessels For branches in particular, the following various stresses are com- pounded and cannot be grasped in detail: = 105 =1. Stress concentration and local stress generated from discontinuity in shape due to connection with reinforcement girders, etc. 2. Additional stress generated by an irregular radius of curvature due to angular distortion by assembly and weld. 3. Stress generated from a supporting method during a hydraulic test. Moreover, there exists the portion of which distortion is restrained, and so a britle fracture may take place in the steel material having a high yield- ing ratio. Consequently, when planning a hydraulic test for branches of a high tensile steel having a high yielding ratio, the test should be care- fully executed by making a detailed plan on test pressures, early notice of danger by a stress measurement during the test. There are some examples which regulate the test pressure at 110% of the design internal pressure irrespective of in shop or at site, for branches having a very high water pressure, which are located just upstream of a power station, considering that high tensile steels having a high yielding ratio are often used as well as safety during the test. A nondestructive test without a hydraulic test should basically be in ac- cordance with Article 32., Chapter 4. However, its desirable that an in- spection is conducted by expanding the scope of the nondestructive test for the branches having complicated structure or made of a high tensile steel which requires special attention to the brittle fracture. = 106 - | | | | | l | JSection 4 Installation Article 34. Handling Special attention shall be exercised in handling steel penstocks s0 as not, to produce any deformation or damage in the process of transportation in manufacture and instal Description: ‘A power station is normally located at a remote place difficult of ac- cess, and transportation conditions are poor in many cases. In addition, on the site, exposed penstocks are installed on a sharp mountain slope ‘or embedded penstocks are carried in passing a narrow construction road. Itis common that the transportation conditions from a penstock yard on the site to an installation point are poor. Therefore, special care should be taken in handling penstocks so as not to give any deformation or ‘damage to the penstocks in the process of transportation in manufacture and installation, by using proper jigs for a large diameter penstock. Pipe shell plate Jig Jie Fig. 1.34-1 Example of Jig for Prevention of Penstock Deformation Itis desirable that the penstocks are transported as large-sized as possi- ble so as to reduce field welding. A straight penstock is normally carried in asa pipe section with 6m in length, and for a larger diameter penstock as a unit section with 3m in length or a half segment pipe. For field transportation, a trailer, cable crane or inclined track, ete., are used. = 107 =Before installation, a thorough inspection should be made for installa tion equipment so that pipes may not fall onto the ground due to the wire cut off while carrying them with a cable in the process of installation at site, or so that a pipe may not slip down along the route while installing with an inclined track. Article 35. Installation in General ‘A steel penstock shall be installed exactly so that its position and shape are in compliance with the design, Descriptio In installing the penstocks, the penstock center line and its height should ’be marked precisely on the neighboring structures as reference points, and then centering should be conducted based on these references. First, a bend pipe is installed and fixed, and then for an exposed pipeline, pipes are installed upstream in case that an expansion joint is just downstream of ‘an anchor block or both upstream and downstream in case that an ex- pansion joint is in the middle of two anchor blocks. For an embedded pipes are installed in the direction from downstream to upstream in view of the concrete placing. The roundness should be kept by inserting jigs ‘or beams into a pipe when installing a thin walled tube because of its siza- ble deformation by its self weight. puntos dy vsldeadet= ‘A pipe section after centering should be t&k-welded keeping an accurate groove dimension from the preceded pipe, and then a permanent welding should be made. It is desirable that permanent welding is made at sym- metrical places about the pipe center on both sides of the pipe at the same time. It should be noted that centering may be incorrect due to the weld- ing contraction if this sequence is improper. In installing, the final adjustment for the length between anchor blocks should be made with an expansion joint. When a distance between an- chor blocks is excessive, a pipe having an allowance to the designed length is prepared and is cut into a required length at site in some cases. This pipe is called an adjusting pipe. With no expansion joints between fixed blocks, adjustment is made by cutting a pipe, of which joint is preferred to be welded at a Hesigned standard temperature by using a lap joint having a small axial contraction as is shown in Fig. 1.35-1 x do At ‘ok = 108 ~wy ‘All round fed joint Fig. 1.35-1 Example of Lap Welded Joint ‘A connecting work of the penstock’s end to a turbine or a turbine’s main valve is often a working scope on the side of a steel penstock. In this case, it is common that a turbine or its main valve has already been installed, and upstream penstocks have already been fixed by anchor blocks, ete, Accordingly, in order to connect these two fixed objects, some ‘measures shall be adopted which are capable of absorbing the discrepan- cy in axial line between these objects as well as the difference in length from the designed dimension. The former can be absorbed by deflecting the last two or three pipes, and the latter by cutting the pipe. ‘A loose flange is commonly used to connect the last portion of the pipe to a turbine or its main valve. The final circumferential joint is usually made by welding which is less contracted and strained, and thus the displacement of an end of pipes after installation is absorbed within an allowable amount of a loose flange. For a big capacity turbine, its main valve is in many cases fixed to the end pipe of a steel penstock and a loose flange is installed downstream of the valve. In this case, the axial thrust generated when the valve is closed is supported by a steel penstock. The axial stress generated in a pipe shell is 1/2 the circumferential stress, and the above stated connecting method works with no problem. It is necessary that this axial force is properly transmitted to an anchor block and that an anchor block is also reinforced, thus being capable of resisting the axial force. For the final joint of an end pipe, a riveted joint has tong been used so far, but has not been employed of late because of the extensive use of high tensile steels for the pipe shell plate, increasing plate thickness, difficulty in securing riveted joint strength, and inappropriateness of caulk- ing to high tensile steels. Extreme care should be exercised in installing embedded pipes in atun- nel, paying much attention to ventilation and scaffold in particular in view of the narrow working space condition. Water-proof and drop-proof meas- ures are also required. = 109 —A penstock is installed by filling concrete with an interval of approxi- mately 12m, depending on a tunnel’s slope. While filling concrete, a buoyancy and a transverse force act on the pipe, and thus the pipe should be sufficiently fixed so as not to move. Article 36. Consideration of Temperature during Installation 1. An expansion joint shall be installed so as not to cause trouble with expansion taking account of temperatures of a steel penstock during installation, 2, As for a steel penstock of a ring girder supporting type, a bearing such as rockers shall be installed at the required position taking the penstock’s ‘temperature during installation into consideration, and moving the pen- stock’s end during installation shall be considered when the direct sun- shine influences much. Description: 1. As stated about the temperature of exposed steel penstocks in Descrip- tion of Article 24, this Chapter, the maximum temperature of an empty penstock in direct sunshine goes as high as 60°C and the range of tem- perature change goes as far as 70 to 80°C, and thus it should be noted in installing the exposed penstocks that an expansion allowance during installation should have a correct length designed for temperature dur- ing installation, thus resulting in no trouble in expansion after installa tion. Accordingly, when a penstock is in direct sunshine at the last stage of installing the expansion joint, itis necessary to determine the ex- pansion length in accordance with the temperature of the penstock by using a surface temperature measuring device. 2. As for a steel penstock of a ring girder supporting type, a bearing such as rockers should be adjusted in the correct position taking the pen- stock temperature during installation into consideration, so that the bearing can make an appropriate and smooth bearing within the designed range of temperature change. When the influence by direct sunshine is excessive e.g. strong sunshine on one side and shade on the other side, itis difficult to maintain the pipe's straight alignment dur- ing installation. ‘The temperature difference generates a large moment at a support, which gets excessive in a ring girder supporting type with a long span. ‘When installed with a cantilever beam method, a large displacement = 10 -is generated at the free end of the cantilever beam between day and night, and thus stability against the moment at the rocker bearing is required. An example of a computation formula for a moment at a fixed end when expansion and displacement of a pipe in direct sun- shine are restrained is shown in Fig. 1.36-1 for reference: ‘With the assumption that the temperature difference between the direct sunshine side and the opposite side is T°C, the temperature gra- dient is straight, and the pipe is not restrained by bearings etc., the elon- gation 8 for the micro length dx becomes: b=AT+arde where a: Coefficient of linear expansion of steel 1.2 x 10% (°C) dy=(L—x)dp If this deflection is restrained, the temperature stress +E E “Qdx *2 is generated, and the bending moment at a fixed end becomes as follows; El if Ma Fava Sanshine direction - =Article 37, Longitudinal Joint ‘A longitudinal joint shall not be in line with an adjacent longitudinal joint. Description: It is necessary to decide the arrangement of longitudinal joints and weld- ing sequences so as to minimize deformation and residual stress, when ‘each pipe shell and pipe section are welded in shop and at site. If longitu- inal joints were. line, a cross-shaped joint would take place on each pipe shell and the deformation and residual stress caused by welding would concentrate on a longitudinal joint line, and thus longitudinal joints in alignment should be avoided. In Fig. 1.37-1 is illustrated an arrangement of longitudinal joints on pipe shell sections. (See Article 7., Chapter 4) Circumferential joint (shop vo Circumferential joint (field weld) “Longitudinal joint (shop weld) Fig. 1.37-1 Example of Arrangement of Longitudinal J. Article 38. Coating 1, A steel penstock shall be coated in accordance with the specification suitable for the installation environment and shall ensure enough dur- ability. 2. Prior to coating, rust oil, grease and dust on the surface of a steel pen- stock shall be carefully removed and cleaned, and then the surface shall be thoroughly dried. It is desirable that alkaline fume deposited on a weld line or its ad- jacent place by a low hydrogen type electrode be removed. 3. Coating shall be avoided in an excessive hot or cold temperature or when humidity is high, or when a rainfall or snowfall may be forecast before the paint gets dried, or other cases, e.g. when coating can not bbe made properly. Description: 1, Generally, paints are applied to a steel penstock to prevent it from cor- rosion. There are a variety of paints, of which selection is important. = 12 =Effect of coating is greatly influenced not only by the properties of paints themselves but also by surface preparation and coating work con- ditions. Internal surface of a stee! penstock is always under hydraulic pres- sure and very severe conditions in view of corrosion caused by water quality, velocity of flow, and sands and soils flowing in. Once water is filled in the penstock, an opportunity for recoating and repair is sel- dom and, if any, its work is very dangerous and difficult. In addition, it is also-hard to get a dry enough condition. Exhalstion and removal of generating gases are difficult if synthetic resin type paints are ap- plied. Accordingly, coating should be made so as to ensure perfect dur- ability as much as possible from the outset. ‘Anexternal surface is often wet by dew condensation due to the tem- perature difference between the water temperature inside the pipe and the ambient temperature, and damage to the coats is often seen at the underside of the pipe and at the portions in the poor sunshine in par- ticular. Thus, itis also required for an external surface to make a coat- ing with an excellent durability suitable for the environment, likewise the coating for an internal surface. AA large-scaled work increases its construction period, resulting in a longer period from the under coating in shop to the finish coating af- ter completion of installation. Careful consideration should be given to a prolonged interval between coats. A rust preventing oil paint of water proof type was often applied twice to the internal surface in the past, and its effect was not satisfac- tory because its life was considered only several years even if enough drying time was provided. In place of this, next came a heating type coal tar enamel, then a tar-epoxy synthetic resin coated at normal tem perature has been widely used in recent years. Bituminous material from which these paints are made, has a low water absorbing capacity and water permeability, and has a high insulation resistance. ‘A heating type coal tar enamel might decrease its adhesiveness un- {ess amount of primer applied, dried time, and heating temperature of ‘enamel were strictly controlled, and a centrifugal coating device was ‘commonly used. This coal tar enamel, however, has been seldom used since 1960 when tar-epoxy paint was practically used. ‘Tar-epoxy synthetic paint is of amine type material combined with coal-tar and epoxy-resin and is a two fluid type of a curing reaction. = 3 -This resin paint, capable of making a very strong film, is superior in corrosion resistance. But itis absolutely necessary to pay attention to strict observance of a perfect blend and the volume ratio as well as the time control after blending, —\>mc slate Since hardening takes place by chemical reaction, this paint is sub- ject to the influence of temperature, and hardening is slowed below 7 to 10°C. But the paint has been put into practical use up to $*C by, adding a hardening agent, and the resin paint recently developed ex- clusively for low temperatures can be used at —5-to 5°C. After a thorough study of paint properties, a suitable coating method should be selected. ‘When applied to multilayer coatings, tar epoxy-resin paint has such 1 defect as to easily cause a separation of the layer, and thus a careful coating is preferred after the influences by coating intervals and tem- peratures are fully confirmed beforehand. Recently, a high build type paint has been developed, and a thick film can be obtained by coating just once with an airless spray, and thus the layer-separation probability has been decreased. The portion ‘which was coated in shop and completely hardened should be of rough surface s0 as to increase adhesiveness in case that this portion should bbe coated at site. Coating on an external surface should be studied by dividing into ‘exposed pipes in open air, exposed pipes in tunnel, and embedded pipes in conerete. For exposed pipes in atmospheric air, a finish color matching their environment, and having a good atmospheric corrosion resisting property as well as a water resisting property is required. If a long interval is predicted between shop coating and final coat- ing at site coating is performed in following manner, for instance, Example A: in shop, First coat, Lead type rust resisting paint in shop, Second coat, Phenolic type MIO paint at site, Third coat, Chlorinated rubber type paint shop, First coat, Non-bleed type tar-epoxy-resin type paint in shop, Second coat, Epoxy-resin Type MIO paint at site, Third coat, | Chlorinated rubber type paint Asan example of manufacturing at a field shop, for the pipe coated with a high build type zinc-rich paint is transported to the site and the Example B: = 4 -chlorinated rubber type paint is applied to the pipe after installed. For exposed pipes in tunnel, tar epoxy resin coating is commonly used as the internal surface coating. Generally, coating is not applied to embedded pipes in concrete, but in case of a long period required from the completion of manufacture to installation, primer or cement milk is applied in some cases. - Mill scale and rust on the surface of steel material should be completely removed before coating. If coated as they are, rust would be expanded, thus resulting in swell and separation, and paint films would come off together with mill scale. Sand blast or shot blast is usually employed to remove rust and mill scale. It is necessary to apply paint after complete removal of grease and dust, and moisture as stated hereunder. Coating materials of a low hydrogen type electrode used for welding a high tensile steel contain sodium oxide (Na,0), potassium oxide (K,O) and so on, and, after welding, they are reduced to be sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), which are of a strong alkali component (pH9-11), and then they are adhered around the weld- ed portion. These products, having a high solubility, get wet with high humidity. Then, if the dew condensation starts running, the painted part might be deteriorated. If coated on a wet steel surface the paint adherence gets lowered. In order to prevent such defect, itis desirable to remove the adhered alkali component by using phosphoric acid agent. But this may not be necessary if the steel surface is exposed long and washed with rain etc. Such a phenomenon takes place in case of lime-titania type, high cellu- lose type, and high titanium oxide type in addition to low hydrogen type, then showing an alkaline nature. As its thickness increases, tar epoxy resin paint film increases its co- hesion during hardening, and the adherence between the steel surface and the paint film tends to be lowered. As corrosion allowance of the plate for various tanks in a ship has been considered, its film thickness is set at 0.35 to 0.4mm. Generally, itis considered enough that a film thickness is approximately three times the surface roughness. Thus, 0.4mm is considered to be a standard film thickness taking account of some additional safety to the above and coating unevenness —— Anyhow, itis essential to avoid such defects as pinholes, and for Ail wr ie) ‘mal { 2 Aut arpa sen | vores) Ccopeune rene Pei of enke ey «rn oa ire po a smoeeP | Cone sie ae 0 {eines fe eee (ort a) ‘ides comes we or ‘os coal | A a seal wea 8 pie ‘Ac to et eo ue | i < i acl ‘ares Manet 4 1400-98) 1 Sane baw ae peat a eanresie fae tx) & ab oompesne tek [| eee mee vteunoan) | amend nc! san sash? ee er | | | SMAS0 | Tetesstnm | 50 200 tel sate! sc en od? 200 | 098 Table 2.1240) Stee! Castings and Steel Forgings 1. Anal tensile stress 2. Axial compressive stress 3 Bending stress 4. Shearing stress 5. Bearing sess = 163 (nit kere Sas4. The allowable stresses of materials not specified above shall be deter- mined based on the above provisions. . When other stress in addition to axial stress exists, the combined stress shall be determined from the following formula, and the stress should be within the allowable value. where of combined stress (kg{/em®) axial stress (Lension taken as positive) (kgf/em’) axial stress square (0 9, (tension taken as positive) (kgf/cm) 1 shearing stress (kg{/em*) ‘Allowable values for combined stress Normally 150, During earthquake 0.9 6, allowable stress (kgf/em*) yield stress 6. Steel for joint Table 2.124 Steel for Joint (uni tatfemty_ = Sel Sa Sal Suess | Tienes aomm [> [Thickness im [> River “set vai 1. Shearing stese Snes | ee cama Stop tet wid eet ad tet at ‘ee 2 Beane sees Ps [ins ‘Shop awet, bel Fd ret | sce Bol hr 7 shaarng wes Fred bot | ‘anchor bo Fearing ares Nasties ‘Finished bolt 1,700, Viet | Pin 00 ‘ee — 164 -7. High strength bolt for friction joint Table 2.12.5 High Strength Bolt for Friction Joint (unit ket/om) 8. The allowable tensile stress of steels for pre-stressed concrete shall be the smaller of the values in the right column in Table 2.12-6, correspond- ing to each application stage in the left column. Table 2.12-6 Steel for Pre-Stressed Concrete - “Alowable stress for uncoated srexe-elieved wee wire fand strand for prestessed concrete, and ste! bar for prestresed concrete 0.60 op, oF 0.70, Aepicaton During Pee-stesing [Alter Prestesed (0.50 op, OF 0.60 oy ‘Alter completed 0.40 ope 0F 055 ory ‘where eps: Tensile virength of set for prestressed concrete Yield stess of sel for presuessed concrete Description: 1. Allowable stresses used in calculation for hydraulic gates, gate guides and anchorages have been set at 1/2 yield stresses. ‘There are two types of hydraulic gates: one in full-time use and the other not in full-time use. The former is further divided into low pres- sure gates such as crest spillway gates and high pressure gates such as high hydraulic gates. Taking into account importance, safety, economy and technical difficulty of these hydraulic gates, it has been decided to consider the allowable stresses separately for the following three types: hydraulic gates and high pressure gates which are in full-time use and hydraulic gates which are not in full-time use, 2. In view of the occurrence of vibrations and other unexpected increases in stress, the allowable stress of a high pressure hydraulic gate has been set at 87.59% the value in paragraph one (hydraulic gate in full-time use), and its application is shown below. This concept is also applied to a valve substitute for a gate. ~ 165 -5. Wher (1) High pressure outlet equipment for dam main control gate para. 2 guard gate at normal water level para, 2 at surcharge water level para. 3 @) For power generation intake gate (when closing under current) para. 2 intake gate (when operating hydraulic balance) para. 3 para, 3 imake gate (when closing under current) para, 2 intake gate (when operating hydraulic balance) para. 3 (4) Diversion tunnel gate para. 3 ‘Where the high pressure outlet equipment discharges the water reservoir through a spillway of a pipeline. ‘The water level for a guard gate at the time of closure under cur- rent may be determined separately each time. }. The web plate, flange plate and trussed member of a hydraulic gate’s structural member, as well as the shell plate of a shell-type hydraulic gate should be checked for the combined tensile, compressive and shear- ing stresses, and attention should be paid so as not to cause local buck- ig. Refer to Article 21. of this Chapter for the slenderness ratio. |. The allowable tensile stress, when using a material not specified in the previous paragraph, should be within 1/2 the yield stress of the material concerned, and should be proportional to each allowable stress in the previous paragraph. The allowable stress whose yield point is not speci- fied in JIS should be determined in proportion to the tensile strength. Refer to Article 13., Chapter 4 for the joint efficiency when materials are welded. is necessary to calculate the combined stress to a skin plate, the shearing strain energy theory (Mises-Henky-Huber Theory) has been adopted, as in Article 15. of Chapter 1. ‘The allowable stress of the steel for joints is specified for the case in Para. 1. }. The allowable stress of a friction joint high strength bolt should be based on the allowable shearing force determined by using the sectional area, taking the external diameter of the threads as the diameter. Aside from the above, the allowable force of a high strength bolt can generally be determined from the following formula: = 166 -Law N= «0A where P,: Allowable force of the friction joint of a high strength bolt Safety factor for slide (take as 1.85) 1: Sliding factor as a basis for design (take the ratio of bolt axial force to sliding load as 0.4) N: Bolt axial force regarded in design as basis 0.85 (F8T), 0.75 (FIOT) i7 Proof stress of bolt (from JIS B1186) A: Effective sectional area of bolt's threaded portion (from JIS B1180) 1 is the safety factor against the sliding of a friction joint, and is usually proportional to the ratio of the yield stress of steels to the al- lowable stress. The ratio for a hydraulic gate in this standard is taken as 2, and if a slide at a joint before yield of material is permissible. may be somewhat smaller than the above ratio, Accordingly, the ratio for: has been set at 1.85. The value comes close to 0.$ for a small, test-piece surface with an unfinished surface and deep rust, dust, oil and grease removed, and this value tends to increase as the strength Of the steel increases. Therefore, if approximately 80% is taken as a sliding factor for design, it is said to be safe, taking the variance of sliding loads, creep and relaxation bolts into consideration. Since 0.4 to 0.45 is adopted for bridges and structures, 0.4 has been set in this standard provided that the friction face is processed as stated in Arti- cle 16. of Chapter 5. Based on the above values, the allowable shearing stress in this Arti- cle can be obtained by converting and arranging for a sectional area by taking the screw thread external diameter as the diameter. If the allowable force is determined from this Article, it is not necessary to check the shearing stress of the bolt itself or the bearing stress ofa plate. ‘Comparing the figures in Paragraph 7 of this Article with a shop rivet, F8T corresponds to SV34 ‘When a tensile force acts in the direction of bolts axial on a friction Joint, the compressive force on a joint surface decreases and the proof, stress of the bolt is reduced so the allowable friction force should be ~ 167reduced, A decrease in allowable force can be determined from the fol- lowing formula: Po No Pa ~ PY where P,: Allowable shearing force for one friction joint high strength bolt per one friction face simultaneously subject to tensile force. Pz Allowable shearing force for one bolt per one friction face Ng: Tensile force acting on one bolt when Ng < NV Bolt axial force regarded in design as basis As reference, data for friction joint high strength bolts is listed in Table 2.12-7 and Table 2.12-8. ‘Table 2.12-7 Proof Stress of Bolts (unit: kgt/em’) Class of the bolt Fer Flor “Proof stress of the bolt 2a 20. Table 2.128 Sectional Area of Bolts (writs em) Sie ofthe bok Mis [_Ma0_[ M2 | Mae Effective sectional area ofthe bolt 1st | 245 [3s Sectional area calculated considering the zor | sie | sao | aid Outer diameter ofthe bolt thread asthe | Sameer 9. As for the allowable tensile stress for pre-stressed concrete, it has been specified that it be used as an anchor of a high pressure gate and large radial gate. Concrete used together with steels for pre-stressed concrete should be of high quality. Article 13. Increase in Allowable Stress during an Earthquake The allowable stress, when the effects of an earthquake are considered, may be increased by S0% above the value in the previous Article, but this, shall not apply to steels for pre-stressed concrete. Description ‘The duration of an earthquake is so short that it is set to permit the allowable stress to increase by 50% above the value in Article 12. of this - 168 ~Chapter. However, the earthquake combined stress should not exceed 90% of the yield stress. Article 14, Loads to be Considered In designing a hydraulic gate, consideration shall be given to the fol- lowing loads and effects: weight of the gate, hydrostatic pressure, se ‘ment pressure, wave pressure, buoyancy, gate operating force, ice pressure, ‘dynamic pressure during earthquake, inertial force during earthquake, wind load, snow load, effects of temperature changes, changes in hydraulic pressure by flowing water, and load increase due to vibrations caused by changes in the hydraulic pressure. Description: 1. Hydrostatic pressure Hydrostatic pressure of the reservoir water acts on the contact face of a hydraulic gate at a square, Hydrostatic pressure is determined from the following formula: P= Why where P: Hydrostatic pressure at a given point on the contact face (f/m) We: Weight of water per unit volume (tf/m?) ‘hg: Head from water level just upstream of a gate plus the wave height to any point on the contact face (m) When calculating /,, the wave height is as follows 1) when the water level just upstream of the gate is normal water level: wave height by wind + wave height by earthquake 2) when the water level just upstream of the gate is the surcharge water level: wave height by wind + 1/2 wave height caused by earthquake 3) when the water level just upstream of the gate is the flood water level for design: wave height by wind 2. Sediment pressure ‘The sediment pressure for the vertical force should be taken as the weight of sedimentary silt in the water and the horizontal force should be determined from the following formula: CW = 169 -where P.: Horizontal force of sediment pressure at a given point on the contact face (tf/m*) Cz Sediment pressure factor W,: Unit weight of sedimentary silt in water (Uf/m?) : Depth from deposit level of sediment to given point on con- tact face (m) As for sedimentary silt, particles of the sediment are not drifting in the water, but the voids of the sedimentary silt are filled with water, and they are mixed together. Thus the weight of the sedimentary silt is: W=Ww-- 9m where W: Apparent unit weight of sedimentary silt ((f/m) Void ratio of sedimentary sit Wo: Unit weight of water (f/m) Generally, the following values have been used: W: 1S ~ 1.8 (W/m) ¥: 0.30 ~ 0.45 We 1.0 (f/m) Ce 04 ~ 06 . Wave height by wind Where the upstream face of a concrete dam is almost vertical, the wave height should be determined by the S.M.B (Sverdrup-Munk- Bretschneider) method. hy, = 0.00086 VFO where /,: Total wave height (one third maximum wave (m)) Distance to opposite bank (m) Wind velocity (average of 10 minutes) (m/s) Where the upstream face of a dam is inclined like a fill dam, a com- bination of the S.M.B method and Saville method can be used. Wave height by earthquake kr eH where fg One half wave height (m) = 170 -Seismic intensity of design 1 Seismic period (8) : Acceleration of gravity (m/s") H: Water depth from reservoir water level to foundation ground (m) ‘5. Dynamic pressure during earthquake The dynamic pressure acting on a gate leaf can be determined from the Westergaard formula: cook VR Dynamic pressure ((f/m!) : Unit weight of water (f/m) Seismic intensity of design Water depth from reservoir water level to foundation ground (mm) (wave height by wind and earthquake not included) +h: Water depth from reservoir water level toa given point (m) ‘The external force acting on the bank includes dynamic pressure in Addition to the inertial force during the earthquake. In order to determine the dynamic pressure, the Westergaard for- mula or the Zangar empirical formula is often used. However, here Westergaard’s simplified formula is shown. This formula was origi- nally derived from conditions when an upstream dam face is vertical, but if the upstream face higher than 1/2 the total depth is almost vert- cal, the Westergaard’s formula can be used. To 0 Ct [a tncined anes of a up sett oor op oF 04 OS 06 OF em 2141 6.0, Curve =~In the Westerguard formula, the total dynamic pressure Zp, and the height from the foundation ground to the working point of the total dynamic pressure h, can be expressed as follows: Epa = 0.S83agkH? hg = OSH In addition, when the upstream face is of a gentle gradient and a special study is required to find the dynamic pressure, Zangar's for- mula can be used: Pe= CwokH c= SUh- a) Vaal where C,: Value of C when ZP, becomes maximum (refer to Fig. 2.14-1) In Zangar’s formula, the total dynamic pressure (Zp,) above the depth of water (h), and the height from (h,) to a working point of to- tal dynamic pressure can be expressed as follows: De Bh and a, B can be obtained from Fig. 2.14-2. ‘When a dam's upstream face consists of a vertical face and an in- clined face, the inclined angle (6) in Zangar’s formula is as follows: 1. When the vertical height of the dam's upstream face is more than 1/2 the dam's height, the whole upstream face is regarded as vertical 2. When the vertical height of the dam's upstream face is less than 1/2 the dam’s height, the following gradient is used, i.e. the gradient ofa straight line connecting a point where the dam’s upstream face intersects the water level with a point where the above face inter- sects the foundation level aS gktisec 0 hg -In-a p42 a 0 a o.29 0.28 a7 0.26 o.35, OUT Or 03 Oe OF 06 OF OF OID 7 h a h 14.2 a~ © Curve and p~ * Curve Fig. 2142 Curve and a 4 Seismic intensities for design should be determined based on the actual situation depending upon the type of dam and region, etc. In Japan, however, the values in Table 2.14-1 should be employed, le 2.141 Seismic Intensities for Design Region] Violet Medium | — Weak ~ tesmal | Seamal | sesmat - To | 010 —_ om | 0.20 “YBa dike with almost uniform ais) on dam | materials Others [on | oo Seismic intensities should be around the values in Table 2.14-2, taking account of areas, conditions of foundation grounds and types of dam. But the seismic intensities for design more than those listed Table 2.14-2 should be decided, taking account of the earthquake ‘occurence in the past of the area and the dynamic characteristics of the dam, when big earthquakes had ever taken place at the site concerned or frequently occurred or there exist some geographical problems. In this case, a seismic stability may be studied by the dy. ‘namic analysis in addition to the seismic method described in this standard, When the water level just upstream of a non-overflow part at an arched concrete dam is surcharge water level, the seismic in- tensities can be half those in Table 2.14-2, - 13‘When the gate of an arch dam is installed at a place other than the dam, the intensities can be more than half those in Table 2.14-1. ‘Table 2.14.2 Seismic Intensives for Design Meciom esa Weak seis Conditions of dam foundation ‘Normal bedrosk foundation Bedrock foundation having a conspievous weathering and factor | Ing or Neoorne uncon Solidaed sediments Gravel foundation, soil foundation ‘Bedrock foundation having a conspicuous weathering and Factr. Ing or Nescene uncon fehidaed sediments Cone iy dan, Flow | Arh am gmt dam | o.2~0.13 [028-030 ous - os | = Rock i ‘oom os 0.15~0.18 020 012-015 Fah i dam o.1s~0.18 020-022 035 as ous ‘Gravel foundation, soil foundation | ‘Normal bedrock four ation Bedrock foundation having ‘weathering Ing or Neocene uncon soidaed sediments. 0.40-0.12 on 02 on ous “Gravel foundation, soil founda oe 6. Inertia force during earthquake ‘An inertia force during earthquake acting on the gate leaf should be the value obtained by multiplying the weight of the gate leaf by the seismic intensity. This force acts horizontally ‘The seismic intensity used for a structural calculation of a gate for ‘a movable weir should be 0.12 for violent or medium seismal areas, and 0.10 for weak seismal areas. The seismic intensity for design of a hydraulic gate installed on top of a dam should be a seismic - 14 = tensity of the dam different from theabove value. ‘The seismic intensity for design upward and downward is not nor- mally considered, but if this directional earthquake force is considered to greatly influence the stability of a hydraulic gate it should be included in the study. 7. Wind load ‘A wind load is assumed to act on a clear projected area, and can be obtained by multiplying the following value by shape factors. for a vertical projected area 300kgf/m* where shape factor is: flat shape 12 16 12 07 trussed shape, the windward trussed shape, the leeward cylindrical shape (single) 8. Snow load ‘The snow load is largely different depending on each area, The rough values are as follows: Less compact snow which has just fallen 150 (kgf/mm?) Slightly compacted snow 300 (kef/m) ‘Compacted snow or snow which has absorbed a large amount of water 500~700 (kef/m) 9. Ice pressure Ice pressure should be considered depending on various conditions such as the rising temperature ratio, ice thickness, conditions of both banks at a reservoir, direct sunshine on a frozen ice surface, etc. Ant ‘example of the above is shown in Fig. 2.142. Bath ses of reserve fee ‘A Temp. sing ratio 28°C/ (S*F/m)

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