ae 8 ae q-8 7 vin -18- Stability of a conventional lighted buo’ 820) “The state Stebliity “ot so that BF tang = ——S- eooncon (©) g OMG where the units are the same as in paragraph 822 The hydrodynamic drag Fy imposed by the current on the buoy is given by Fy=%e, VP cgs ve (8) where F4 = expressed in Newtons p. unit mass of water (kg/m3) WP = current velocity (m/s) s projected area of underwater body (m2) Cy = hydrodynamic drag coefficient The value of Cy lies between 0.8 and 1.2 for buoys with a draught greater than 1/S4of their diameter. If the draught is smaller than this, C lies between 0.3 and 0.5. However, changes in the surface conditio! (fouling) may affect this coefficient to a large extent. Furthermore, tests show that Fy is proportional to V“ only as a first approximation. From this data it folios that Fy can only be rougly approximated. Calculation of the angle of heel caused Sy the current will therefore not be very accurate. The point of application of the drag force exerted by the current is de- termined as the geometrical centre of gravity of the projected surface area of the underwater body of the buoy, so that distance 8 is easily cal- culated.ESTES VUUL -20- The angle of heel of a skirt-keel buoy will generally be in the same di- rection a5 the current, The level of attachment of the chain at tail-tube buoys is sometimes higher than the polnt of application of the drag force and this will cause the buoy to heel against the current, Dynamic behaviour of a buoy (24) The period of the free oscillations (T) of a buoy, when damping forces ace negtected, is that of a physical pendulum and is expressed by: eeu! 2n fe a eee no) mg MG where I, = moment of inertia about a horizontal axis through the centre ™ of gravity’ m = mass of the displaced volume of water (chain attached) Q_= constant of gravity MG = metacentric height, corrected for weight of chain Actual periods of oscillation may be up to 2 seconds greater, due to the damping effect of the surrounding water and, to a small extent, to added mass forces. The period of oscillation of a buoy shauld be such that resonance with the prevailing wave period is highly unlikely. in the event that resonance accurs, the oscillations may become so great that the light will cat be seen during’ a satisfactory percentage of time and that handling the buoy along- side a buoy-tender becomes extremely difficult and even hazardous. The. usual wave period in the English Channel and in the Nortn Sea is 4 to 6 seconds As is apparent fram Formula (9) the period of oscillation of a buoy of Given masa. Is governed by I, and MG. The value of MG is mainly deter Fined by the factors diseuss4 in the preceding paragraphs. ‘The moment Gr interta 1. depenas upon, the: distribution of the masses. about the centre of gravity & = Zam r2, where ris the distance of each small part of mass am from tf centre of Gravity The moment of inertia of a tail-tube buoy where the masses are placed at relativaly great distances from the centre of gravity, is much greater than that of a skirt-keal auoy of comparable dimensions. As a result the period of oscillation of a tail-tube buoy is long and it is usually chosen greater than the wave period, of the order of 6 to 8 seconds. The period of the skirt-keel buoy is generally within the period of the waves, of the order of 4 to $ seconds; the buoy will more nearly follow the movement of the waves and large dscillations may occur, The skirt-keel serves to damp these oscillations, but this type of buoy is not suitable for all locations. The influence of the mooring chaing on the dynamic behaviour af a buoy is not very well known. Caicufations on the natural periods of the buoy- mooring ‘system have shown that the movements of buoy and mooring are independent and that resonance phenomena are not to be feared. (Ref. 6/59 p. 22) Buoy moorings . [8S) “The purpose of a mooring system is to provide a flexible link be- tween tne buoy and a fixed point on the bottom of the sea. The flexible link (permits the damping of the forces imposed by the waves on the uey"Vuil -21~ This is a quotation from the lala "Recommendation on the design of normal moorings" (ref. 7.12), which gives a full description of all known factors which are involved in’ the design of moorings of aid to navigation buoys in depths not exceeding 80 metres. The following paragraphs will be based on this recommendation and will deal with the subject in so far as of practical importance to the user. Drag forces exerted by the current on the chain will be neglected (see also ref. 6.70 p. 3). (828) Generally the moorings of buoys are based on empirical data. The length and diameter of the chain combined with weight, shape and material of the sinker which have given satifactory service for mooring buoys of a specific type in various locations, have been entered in the records of the lighthouse services. This data is commonly used for extrapolation when buoys are established at new positions as it is the most reliable information available. If it appears that a buoy is dragged off station frequently, the remedy is sought in either lengthening the chain or in using a heavier sinker. Tradition and local custom has much to do with the standardization, of chains and sinkers. Moorings are subject to wear and to loss. The yearly expenditure involved in replacement of mooring items is not to be neglected. The probability that empirically evolved moorings are unnecessarily heavy and expensive is very real. Length and diameter of the chain ss rrr weight per unit of length. The breaking stress depens on the material and the shape (type) of the links. The weight per unit of length is a function of the type of link (long, open, short or stud link) and the bar diameter, Rormally called the diameter of the chain for. short. Lighthouse services have commoniy standardized on one type of link so that selection of a mooring line means choosing its length and diameter Of first importance in the selection of length and diameter of the chain is that the force exerted on the sinker should be horizontal under the most unfavourable conditions of current and wind, acting on the buoy. If that condition is fulfilled the shape of the chain will be that of a catenary tangential to the sea bottom (Figure VIII/9). The length (L) of the chain is now given by: Ze Len Jie 40 5 (0) where H = depth of water (m) at high water plus half the maximum wave height; F = horizontal component of the tension of the chain at the buoy (N); P = weight of the chain in water per unit of tength (N/mi) Formula (10) indicates that when a heavier type chain is selected, the length of the chain may be shorter and vice versa It is furthermore required that the chain should have a breaking stress (T,) which is at_least 5/times the maximum tension. ~ ThE tension in the chajn when formula (10) is fulfilled equals F + p H (Newtons) so: that: T= 5 (F + px) eo qa) TTS —— ee RTSVINE =22= ) Although formula (11) would seem to indicate a minimum size chain dia~ | meter, the chains in use for aid to navigation buoys are always much | heavier than needed far breaking strength. The chain. diameter is greater | in order to permit a reasonably short length of the chain and to obtain a | longer life in view of the abrasion between the links The total weight of the chain in water should not exceed the carrying capacity of the buoy. A lighter weight per unit length will necessitate a longer ‘chain of greater diameter. On the other hand a long chain with smaller diameter will cause a lacger watch circle which Is undesirable and a chain with a smaller diameter will not last as long as the heavier chain. (828) It is a widely accepted rule of thumb, supported by the lala recom- mendation, that the length of the chain should be approximately three times the depth at the highest water. This however presupposes @ certain value of p, that is a certain chain diameter. When L = 3 H is substituted in formula (19) we find 2e Jiekies so that per/sH Bee ee) Strictly speaking the rule of thumb is valid only when the chain diameter is selected according ta formula (12) Manufacturers usually state the diameter chain to be used with each type of buoy. Each buoy type is intended to be used in depths of water within a certain specified range and for conditions (waves, winds and currents) for which F may be estimated within certain timits. As a result the recom- mended chain diameter may well be assumed to satisfy formula (12) as an average. When the "correct" diameter chain is used, the rule of thumb L = 3-H may then be applied, but this should be done with caution as it is only an approximation, and because the selection of the chain diameter is not independent of the added stability it should provide for the buoy The effect of using a chain of different diameter than that of the optimum size may be demonstrated by the following example. Suppose that for s buoy at a given location the ratio L = 3H is correct When a chain is used of 35 mm diameter (p = 240 N/ml for open links) Now, if the next lighter chain is used instead, of diameter 32 mm (p = 200 N/mi), the ratio L/H should be 3.26. In the case that the next heavier chain “were used, of diameter 38 mm (p = 280 N/ml), the correct ratio would have been 2.8 The use of approximations when determining the tength of the chain may be defended by the argument that the magnitude of F in formulae (10) and G2) is not accurately Known . There is no specific virtue in rigidly adhering to a length of chain three times the water depth. In shallow water a greater ratio is often necessary to prevent drifting, and in deep water a smaller ratio is frequently used so that the watch circle is reduced and no chain is wasted. An important factor is that the buoy's movements in a seaway should be absorbed by the chain. if the movements are large compared to the length of the chain, jerks will occur so that momentarily the tension will be much greater than that in a static condition. According to reference 223 the tension (F)should be increased by a factor K which is approximately proportional to the quotient wave-height/waterdepth up to a value where the wave height is half the waterdepth: 1+5 h/H R23 (13) where h 4 wave height from crest to trough, water depth without waves. lala recommends that in sites where the buoy is submitted to both waves and current the length of the chain should be increased beyond three times the depth and that this increase should be selected between 0 and three time the water depth when the current varies between 0 and 6 knots. In confined waters it is often essentiaf that the watch circle radius be limited, When the chain forms a catenary, tangential to the bottom at the sinker, the watch circle radius (r_.) is at its maximum and may be given (4) When the length of the chain is reduced in order to obtain a smaller watch circle, the condition af formuls (10) should still be fulfilled so that @ heavier type chain is required. {ala recommends that_l should not be smaller than 2H in water depths less than 50 metres. For greater depths a ratio of 1.5 can be accepted, However, in channels where buoys must fine up on the edge and not swing out into the channel or into the banks, a very short scope is sometimes used (ref. 102): as little as 1 Co 1 times the water depth. in such case the chain will not be tangential to the bottom and a much heavier sinker is required to hold the buoy against the current. z Material_and composition of the-chain (E28) The requirements of @ busy mooring chain are: + sufficient weight per unit length; - sufficient breaking stress; - a long service life with regard to abrasion. As discussed earlier, when the weight per unit of [ength is sufficient, the chain will have ample strength to withstand the tension exerted upon it. But a buoy mooring chain is subject to wear rather than stress. The Jinks sustain wear: from hammering against each other and from the abrasive action of sand and stones. The Greatest wear takes place in the section of the chain where the links are being lifted and dropped anto the seabed through the: movements of the buoy. This section of the chain is commonly called the ‘thrash! (in the U.S.A.: the 'chafe'). Extra severe wear takes place when sand in suspension is carried along by the tide close to the seabed or when the chain lies on a rocky bottom’ When selecting the material for buoy mooring chains it is therefore of prime importance that it has 2 high resistance against abrasion and it is Rot necessary to use steel of a very high tensile strength, unless an improved wear resistance justifies the extra cost. Buoy mooring chain should be renewed when the bar diameter of the {inks has been reduced by wear to a certain percentage of its original thick- Ness. lala recommends replacement when 60% of the original thicknessVII -24= remains. In some countries a reduction of 50% is the offical limit. Ref. 515 mentions a reduction of 28% in exposed positions and of 40% in sheltered areas, which shauld leave the moaring with a reasonable margin of safety in any case, the greater the bar diameter the longer the chain will last before it is worn too thin and should be replaced. The life of a worn chain may be prolonged by using it in a position where a lighter chain is required. Shigs' anchor chains ace replaced when the diameter is reduced by 1% and it ig not unusual that condemned ships’ chains are used for partAof buoy moorings. (820) Buoy mooring chains are different from ships' anchor chains. Stud links are used only exceptionally and ‘open links!! are mostly employed. In some countries ‘long links! and in others ‘short Jinks' are oreferred. The ratio tength/width of a ‘long link! is about 2, of an ‘onan link! 1.7 and of a ‘short link’ 1.4, Stud links are expensive and the extra breaking stress provided by the studs is unnecessary for buoy moorings. Open links and long links are easier to handle than short links. Short link chains have greater weight per unit length than open or long link chains of the same diameter. (831) The composition of a buoy mooring chain consists generally of the following parts, from top to bottom (See Figure Vili/11): the tail chain, either in the shape of a bridle or of a single length of chain; = the riding chain; = the thrash chain (chafe); the ground chain The riding chain is connected to the tail chain by means of a swivel. lala recommends that for depths over 40 metres a swivel should also be used between ciding chain and thrash chain. Synthetic rope for bugy moorings 32) (mh come applications synthetic rope is used as part of the buoy mooring. In very deep water the weight of a chain might b2 toa great for the buoy to carry so that a light-weight mooring is required in which case 2 Jength of synthetic rope may be used between the tail chain and the thrash section. The elasticity af the synthetic rope serves to absorbe the energy of the movements of the buoy in a seaway, but this should not lead Yo a reduction of the diameter of the ground chain or the thrash chain, These lattec diameters should be the same as those of a mooring made up of chain only (ref. 515). Synthetic ropes may also be used for mooring small buoys. In all cases fibre rope should only be used in that part of the pendant which does. not come into contact with the seabed or the buoy body. In moorings which consist exclusively of synthetic rope, special floats may be attached to the line ta keep it off the Sattom and other attachments may serve to enhance the damping properties. Research is still in progress‘ujeus puro — Ye 1 ip ane {trees ste, Fn nag Ht -- 2-H e nen uo tion of @ buoy mooring chain. FIGURE VIN/11 Composi heVill ~26- The sinker T8353) The holding power of a sinker depends on its submerged weight, its shape and on the nature of the sea bottom. The types and weights af the sinkers which are in use in various countries generally resulted from practical experience in national waters and only a few generalities will be summed up here. The holding power is the result of the friction between sinker and seabed In a sandy bottom the sinker will bury itself partly or wholly so that the holding pawer is increased. A sinker is usually provided with a cavity. in its bottom. This cavity acts as a suction chamber and again increases the holding power. The most common type of sinker is made of reinforced concrete, but sin- kers of cast iron are alsa used. Because of the difference in specific mass an iron sinker of the same submerged weight as a concrete sinker will have a volume of only 0.22 times the volume of the concrete sinker and will have only 2/3 of its weight in air. The cast iron sinker is therefore more easily handled and stowed. The concrete sinker an the other hand, has the advantages of a much lower price and it offers the possibility, of manufacture at a buoy depot, thus saving transportation costs. The shape of the sinker in the horizontal plane may be square or circular in order that the sinker does not turn on its side when the tensian af the mooring chain is applied, its height should be less than half its width Full scale tests by the USCG (ref. 1-2-7/80) on the holding power of a concrete sinker on. various types of bottom indicate the following ratios of horizontal holding force over weight of sinker (Ibs): “Type OF bottom | Wolding power/weight of — | sinker (ibs) aK va Hard sand 3 Hard mud | 5: Soft sand ve Sort mud Ws To obtain the Holding power im Newtons per kg mass of sinker, multiply by 10. To account for dynamic behaviour of the ouoy, divide by 4,5). The Table below, which is candensed fram ref, 223, may give a rough indication of the mass of sinker required in various conditions: Wass oF Diameter oF] Current veloeib buoy(kg)Buey (m) | Tass i marmot | Fron Tknots [From 36S knots Mass af sinker in ka Gast jron_ concrete cast iron Concrete 2000.0 80 12007 7000 T500 3000 00-2,20 | 1000 “15007 [~~ Ta5s0~ 2000 _ #000 __ 2.20-2 [1000 _1500. __|__- 1500 __ 2000 ___ 3000 2, 1250 2000 1500 2500 8000 2160-2.80 1250 2000 1750 2500 7000 2:80-3:00 1500 2500 2000 3000 8000 3.00-3.20 1500 2500 2000 3000 9000 3120-340 1750 3000 2500 3500 70000 3..40-3.60 1750 3000 | 2500 4000 12000 4.00 2000 3000 3000 4500Vu +27- The lala does not recommend the use of marine anchors as sinkers because their projections might foul the chain. In shallow waters with strong currents where one sinker proves to be sufficient, a second (smaller) sinker may be attached to the first one by a length of chain of 15 to 20 metres. it is not recommended to use two sinkers attached to a bridle as the sinkers will be dragged off station one by one when the buoy yaws and because there is great risk of kinking of the chain. On some rocky bottoms where normal sinkers do not appear to hold well, use has been made successfully of a bunch of heavy chain instead of a sinker. The angle of heel of a B34) ixed-floating mark (Resilient Beacon) igure Vili/12 shows the forces exerted on this type of mark. FIGURE VIII/12 F,, = buoyant force(N) GP = weight of structure (N) F,, = force exerted by the wind (N) p M) = force exerted by the current (N) t {WAM -28- The moment caused by the wind equals F,, cos @ and that caused by the current. equals F, H, cos @. In the wofst case when these forces are maximum and in the sdme direction, as depicted, the total moment will be (Fy My + Fy Hg) cos The righting mament equals (F, Hy - GH 4) sin 6. Equilibrium exists when: (Fy Hy - G Hg) sing = CF so that Hg) tan > < «sy 7G Hg) The values of F, Hy and Fy may be derived trom formulae (4), (5) and (8) The point of application of Ff, is determined as the geometrical centre of gravity of the projected surfaéb of the underwater body. The buoyant force and the height of the centre of buoyancy increase with the height of the tide. Consequently, the angle of heel at low water will be greater than at high water. Because in confined waters the tidal stream will generally be strongest at half tide, the maximum angle of heel should be calculated both for low water and for the level when the current velo city is maximum Uf the maximum angle of heel exceeds half the vertical divergence of the lantern, the latter may have to be suspended in gimbals Tank tests on a 23 m high fixed-floating mark showed that whilst large waves will cause an occasional [urching movement, there was no danger of any synchronous rolling in a seaway (ref. 6/84 9.3). However, there are aiso less optimistic reports on the dynamic behaviour of these ‘beacons in heavy seas (ref. 8/73 p. 13).