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    xv De. Alan A. Desrochers of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institue, Troy, New York; Dr. Omar Farooq of Aligarh Muslim University, India; Dr. Rajendra S. Gad of Goa University, India; Dr. Vikram M. Gadre of India Insitute of Teckoology, Bombay; Dr E.Gopinathan of National Insitute of Technology. Calicut, India Dr. Lim Heng-Siong of Multimedia University, Malayasa; Dr, Hamid Gholam Hosseini of Auckland Uni versity of Technology, New Zealand; Dr. J. Abdul Jaec! of Thangal Kunju Musaliar College of Engineer: ing. Kerala, India: De Sabira Khatun of University Purra Malaysia; Dr.Ju Liu of Shandong University (China: De Wagdy H. Mahmoud of University of the District of Columbiz; Dr. Ashutosh Marathe of Vist. wakarma Insitute of Technology, India; Dr S\N, Merchant of Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay Dr, Muhammad Javed Mirza of Riphah International University, Pakistan: Dr. Ravinder Nath of National {nsttue of Technology, Hamirpur, India; Dt K MM. Prabhu of Indian institute of Technology. Madras Dr. SM. Sameer of National tnstitue of Technology, Calicut, India; Dr.P Sahu of National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India; Dr. Mansour Tabernezhadi of Northem Illinois University: Dr. Nisachon Tangsangiumvisai of Chulalongkorn Univesity, Thailand: and Dr. imran A. Tasaddug of FAST:National University of Computer & Emerging Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan, The manuscript ofthe fourth edition was reviewed by Dr. Wolfgang FG. Mecklenbrauker of Technical University of Vienna, Austria, nd Dr. Truong Nguyen of University of California, San Diego. Some parts ofthe manuscript of the fourth edition were reviewed by Dr.Subash Dutta Roy of Indian Lastitute of Technology, New Delhi {thank all of them for their valuable comments, which have improved the book tremendously a mante amet research tudes reviewed vations portions ofthe manuscript of al editions and Rafer Gans cat MATA porn: In parca, woud ite o tank Drs. Chares D.Creuser, Sone Lins Les Lane, Sean Hapoel, Zhi He, Hsn-Han Ho, Michal Lightstone, In8- and Mylene Quite de Fara a ose baeME Maker, Norbert Strobe, Stefan Thurmhofer CE 138d ECE 2A hn ME Be Leuk: Lam abo indebted to all omer std a ty class EE 483 at the University of Southern Cy seudonts ‘hich helped refine the book. Supplements All MATLAB programs incladed is from the Intemet site wwwece sn eine isbedu/Faculty A solutions manual prepared by te #08 to all problems and MAT; ‘Most materials ofthis ‘CD accompanying this book a itraBookse Hsin-Han Ho, Travis LAB exercises is avaiab book are available to isin are also available Smith, and Martin Gawecki and containing the eo instructors from the publisher, PowerPoint RctOrs from the author. Table of Contents Preface ix Acknowledgements 1 Signals and Signal Processing 1 1.1 Characterization and Classification of Signals 1 1.2. Typical Signal Processing Operations 4 13. ExamplesofTypical Signals. 13 14 ‘Typical Signal Processing Applications 21 15 Why Digital Signal Processing? 37 Discrete-Time Signals in the Time Domain 4 2.1 Time-Domain Representation 42 22 Operationson Sequences 46 23. Operations cn Finite-Length Sequences $5 24 ‘Typical Sequences and Sequence Representation 62 25 TheSampling Process 72 26 Correlation of Signals 74 27 Random Signals 80 28 Summary $1 29 Problems 81 2.10 MATLAB Exercises. 87 Discrete-Time Signals in the Frequency Domain 8 3.1 The Continuous-Time Fourier Transform 89 3.3 Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Theorems 105 34 Energy Density Spectrum of a Discrete-Time Sequence IL 35 Band-Limited Discrete-Time Signals 112 36 DTFT Computation Using MATLAB 113 3.7 The Unwrapped Phase Function 113 3.8 Digital Processing of Continuous-Time Signals. us ae 39 Samplingof Bandpass Signals 129 3.10 Effestof Sample-and-Hold Operation 131 3.11 Summary 132 3.12 Problems 133 3.13 MATLABExercises 142 4 Discrete-Time Systems 143 4.1. Discrete-Time System Examples 143 42. Classification of Discrete-Time Systems 149 43° lmpute and Step Responses 153 Time-Domain Characterization of LTI Discrete-Time Systems 1 Simple Interconnection Schemes 161 $10 su siz saa sas sus ae EEE Finite-Dimensional LTI Discrete-Time Systems 164 (Casification of 11 Discrete-Time §; stems Frequency-Domain Representations of LT] Discrete-Time Systems Phase and Group Delays 185 Summary 189 Problems 199 MATLAB Exercises 198 rngth Discrete Transforms 199 99 The Discrete Fourier Transform 29] Kelanon Between he DTFT and the DET and Theis lnverses Circular Convolution 244 Classifications of Finite-Length Sequences 216 DET Symmetry Relations 3) Discrete Fourier Tran orm Theorems Fourier-Domain Filtcring 230 Computation ofthe DFT of Real Sequences Linear Copvolition Using the DET Short-Time Fourier Transform 234 24s Discrete Cosine Transform yy The Haar Transform 56 Escrty Compaction Froperies 959 Semmary 39 Problems 3g 5.17 MATLAB Exercises 275 Transform 277 6.1 Definition 62 Rational =-Transforms 281 6.3 Region of Convergence of a Rational z-Transform 283 64 The Inverse z-Transform 289 6.5 s-Transform Theorems 7 6.6 Computation of the Convolution Sum of Finite-L 308 6.7 The Transfer Function 308 68 Summary 320 69 Problems 320 6.10 MarLas Exercises 332 7 LT Diserete-Time Systems in the Transform Domain 7.1 ‘Transfer Function Classification Based on Magnitude Characteristics 333 7.2 Transfer Function Classification Based on Phase Characteristics 342 7.3: ‘Types of Lincar-Phase FIR Transfer Functions 349 7A Simple Digital Filters ) 7.5 Complementary Transfer Functions 379 716 Inverse Systems 385 7.7 System Identification 389. 78 Digital TwoPairs 392 7.9 Algebraic Stability Test 394 7.10 Summary 399 7.11 Problems 400 7.12 MATLAB Exercises 44 Digital Filter Structures 417 8.1 Block Diagram Representation 418 82 Equiva 83 Basic FIR Digi Structures 421 Filter Structures 42: 84 Basic HR Digital Filter Structures 4 85 Realization of Basic Structures Using MATLAB 433, 86 Alipass Filters 436 8.7 Parametrically Tunable Low-Order IIR Digital Filter Pairs 445, 828 IIR Tapped Cascaded Lattice Structures 447 xvii 89 FIRCascaded Latice Structures 452 8.10 Parallel Allpass Realization of IR Transfer Functions 460) 8.11 Tunable High-Order Digital Fits 465 \ 8.12 Computational Complenty of Digital Fier Structures 472 813 Summary 472 8.14 Problems 473, 8.15 MATLAB Exercives 487 9 TIR Digital Fiter Design 499 9.1 Prciminary Considerations 489 92 Bilinear Transformation Metiod of IR Filer Design 494 93 Design of Lowpass IR Digital Fiters 499 94 Desig of Highpas, Bandpass, and Bandstop IIR Digital Filters. SOL 9S Special Transformations of1IR Fess 503 6 MR Digital Fier Design Using MATLAB 512 97 Computer-Aided Design of IR Digital ters §15 98 Summary $19 99 Problems 519 9.10 MATLAB Exercises 595 10 FIR Digital Fiter Design 37 104 Preliminary Considerations $97 102 FIR Fite Design Based on Windowed Fourie Serie 331 103 Compate * Aided Desin of Equipe Linea: Phase FIR Filters of Minimam-Phase FIR Fite 105 FIR Digital iter Design 106 Desig 546 104 Design 585 Using Matias 556, of Computationally Efi 107 Summary $6 108 Problems 109 Mar FIR Digital Fiters 573 307 AB Exercises 554 DSP Algorithm Implementation 599 N11 Basic Issues 55g 112 Structure Simulation nd Verification Ui 3 : ‘ing MATLAB, Compa 610 on ofthe Discrete Fourier T ; ransform 647 114 Fast DET Algoritms Based on lode Mapping 63 S DFT. ‘oi }OFT Compustin Using Mating 0 116 Sliding Discrete Fourier Transform 642 ns 19 11.10 wu M2 12 Analysis of 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.3 12.14 12.5 DFT Computation over a Narrow Frequency Band 642 Number Representation 647 Handlit Summary 653 of Overflow 652 Problems 653 MATLAB Exercises 661 nite Wordlength Effects 663 ‘The Quantization Process and Errors 664 Quantization of Fixed-Point Numbers 665 Point Numbers 668 lysis of Coefficient Quantization Effects 668 Quantization of Floatiny An A/D Conversion Noise Analysis. 681 Analysis of Arithmetic Round-Off Errors 691 Dynamic Range Scaling 695 Signal-to-Noise Ratio in Low-Order IIR Filters 706 Low-Sensitivity Digital Fiters 710 Reduction of Product Round-Off Noise Using Error Feedback Limit Cycles in IR Digital Filters 719 Round-Off Errors in FFT Algorithms 727 Summary 730 Problems 731 MATLAB Exercises 736 13 Multirate Digital Signal Processing Fundamentals 739 13. 3 B4 BS 136 137 Bs Bg 1340 ‘The Basic Sampling Rate Alteration Devices 740 Multirate Structures for Sampling Rate Conversion 750 758 Multistage Design of Decimator and Interpo ‘The Polyphase Decomposition 760 Arbitrary-Rate Sampling Rate Converter 771 Nyquist Filters 783 CAC Decimators and In ‘Summary 796 Problems 797 MATLAB Exercises 805 polators 792 116 xix 14 Multirate Filter Banks and Wavelets 807 14.1 Digital Filter Banks 807 142 Two Channel Quadature-Mirror Fi Bank 813 143 Perfect Reconstruction Two-Channel FIR Filter Banks 144 L-ChannelQMF Banks 832 145 Mulilevel Filer Banks 840 46 Disereie Wavelet Transform 844 47 Summary 853 48 Problems 853 4.9 MATLAB Exercises $61 A Analog Lowpass Filter Design 863, A.| Analog Filer Specifications $63, A2 Butierworth Approximation 865 A3 Chebyshey Approximation 867 AA Elliptic Approximation 870 A. Linear Phase Approximation 871 A Analog Filter Design Using MATLAB 872 A.7 Analog Lowpass Filter Design Examples AS A Comparison of the Filter Types $77 A9 Anti-Aliasing Fier De 880 A.10 Reconstruction Filter Design 882 875 Design of Analog Highpas, BL Analog Hi B2 Anak Bandpass,and Bandstop Filters. $87 hpass Filter Design 7 Bandpass Filter Design 889 B3 Analog Bandstop Filter Design 92 © Discrete-Time Random Signals 93 C:1 Statistical Properties of a Random Variable erties of a Random Signal ‘Wide-Sense Stationary Random Signal 496 mceptof PowerinaRandom Signal 497 S Ergodic Signal 893 895 C2 Statistical Ps ae ® Transform-Domain Represenations of Random $i 899 7 White Noise 9g C8 Discrete-Time Pr Bibliography 997 Index 927 ing of Random Signals 901 Chapter 1 Signals and Signal Processing Signals play an important role in our daily lives. Examples of signals that we encounter frequently are speech, music, picture and video signals. A signal isa function of independent variables such as time. dis- tance, position, temperature, and pressure. For example, speech and ignals represent air pressure as a function of time at a point in space. A black-and-white picture is a representation of light intensity as a function of two spatial coordinates, The video signal in television consists of a sequence of images. called frames, and is a function of three variables: two Most signals we encounter are generated by natural means. However, a signal can also be generated synthetically or by computer simulation. A signal carries information, and the objective of signal provess- ing is to extract useful info ied by the signal, The method of information extraction depends on the type of signal and the nature of the information being carried by the signal, Thus, roughly speak: ing, signal processing is concerned with the mathematical representation of the signal and the algorithmic ‘operation carried out on it to extract the information present. The representation of the signal can be in terms of basis functions in the domain of the original independent variable(s), or itcan be in terms of basis functions in a transformed domain. Likewise, the information extraction process may be carried out in the original domain of the signal or in a transformed domain. This book is concerned with discrete-time representation of signals and their discrete-time processing This chapter provides an overview of signals and signal processing methods, The mathematical char ‘acterization of the signal is first discussed along with a classification of signals, Next, some typical signals ‘are discussed in detail, and the type of information cartied by them is described. Then, a review of some ‘commonly used signal processing operations is provided and illustrated through examples. A brief review of some typical signal processing applications is discussed next, Finally, the advantages and disadvantages of digital processing of signals are discussed. ial Coordinates and time. ation c 1.1 Characterization and Classification of Signals Depending on the nature of the independent variables and the value of the function defining the signal various types of signals can be defined. For exampie. independent variables can be continuous or dis crete, Likewise, the signal can either be a continuous or a discrete function of the independent variables. Moreover, the signal can be either a real-valued function or a complex-valued function. A signal can be generated by a single source or by multiple sources. In the former case, itis a sealar signal, and in the latter case, itis a vector signal, often called a multichannel signal. A one-dimensional (1-D) signal is a function of a single independent variable, A two-dimensional (2-D) signal is a function of ‘wo independent variables, A multidimensional (M-D) signal is @ function of more than one variable. The speech signal is an example of a 1-D signal where the independent variable is time. An image signal, such Speech Demo 1 Image Demo 1 Video Demo 1 Chapter 1; Signals and Signal Processing xpos sm cxmape of 2D sian wer the wo independent warble ar the two spatial ee i see 2 ieee pel hte 5 fction of v0 vel ati el oe fm cng vont roi of ine. Hence, ‘black-and-white video signal can be considered an example ofa three-dimensional (3-D) signal whe thee independent variables are the two spatial variables and time. A color video signal composed of three 3-D signals representing the three primary colors: red, For transmission purposes, the RGB television signal is transforme signal composed ofa luminance component and two chrominance components. ie. ls The value of the signal at a specific value of the independent variable is called its amplitude. The ‘variation of the amplitude as a function ofthe independent variable is called its waveform. ; For 0 1-D signal, the independent variable is usually labeled as rime. If the independent variable is continuous, the signal is called a continuous-time signal. If the independent variable is discrete, the signal is called a discrete-rime signal. A continuous-time signal is defined st every instant of time. On the other hand, a discrete-time signal takes certain numerical values at specified discrete instants of time and between theve specified instants of time, the signal is not defined. Hence, a discrete-time signal is basically a sequence of numbers A continuous-time sign 1 is a three-channel een, and blue (RGB) ther type of three-channel into i with a continvous amplitude is usually called an analog signal. A speech of an analog signal. Analog signals are commonly encountered in our daily lives and are usually generated by natural means. A. isrete-time signal with dscrete-valued amplitudes rep serced by a fine number of digits is referred oa a digital signal. An example ofa digital signal is the tietiesd music signal stored in a CD-ROM disk. discrete-time signal with continuous-valved amp {oies i called a sampled-data signal This last type of signal occurs in switched capacitor (SC) cireuits. ized sampled-data signal. Finally, a continuous-time signal with discrete red 10 a8 a quantized boxcar signal ($ie93). The latter type of signals curs in digital electronic circuits where the signal is kept at fixed level (usually one of two values) between two instants of clocking. Figure 1.1 ih ustrates the four types of signals, ‘The functional dependence of signal in ts mathematical representation is often a daca astne ED signal, the continuous independent variable is usually denot 8 discrete-time 1-D signal, the discrete independent variable i uscal al and {vn} epresents a continuous-time 1-D si plicitly shown. For ied by 1, whereas for y denoted by n, For example, u(t) represents a discrete-time 1-D signal, Each member, ple. I many applications, a discret. ated -time signal is gene y sampling the later at uniform intervals of time, Ifthe discrete fined are uniformly spaced, the independent discrete to assume integer values sch tinwous- time 2-D signa, the two independent variables are usual ig ° nt variables are usually the spatial Can be oop wally dence by x and y. For example the inten ofa tee and- white imag Primary cena MCE?) A color image u(r). 1 compared of thre signe ing the Primary colors, red, green, and blue 7 fist ia rx,9) u(r») =| gix.y) d(x, y) fn], of a discrete-time signal is called from a parent coatinvous- On the other hand, ad discretized spatial variables lon). Likewise, a black-and where x and y denote the two D discrete signal, and its two independent Variable pc and its two independent variables arc Lahhecd by m and n. Hence, digitized image tan be represented as spatial ero oauesce isa 3-D signal and can be sepresenscn as u(x, y,t), *paial variables and + denotes the temporal vatiabhe tine A color video 1.1. Characterization and Classification of Sign \ ampl > Time, f (@) ) Ne i =| a © @ Figure 1.1; (a) An analog signal, ) a digital signal, (c) a sampled-data signal, and (4) a quantized boxcar signal signal is a vector signal composed of three video signals representing the three primary colors, red, green and blue. ‘There is another classification of signals that depends on the certainty by which the signal can be uniquely described. A signal that can be uniquely determined by a well-defined process such as a math- ematical expression or rule, oF table look-up, is called a deterministic signal. A signal that is generated in.a random fashion and cannot be predicted ahead of time is called a random signal. In this text, we are primarily concemed with the processing of discrete-time deterministic signals. However, since practical discrete-time systems employ finite wordlengths for the storing of signals and the implementation of the signal processing algorithms, it is necessary to develop tools for the analysis of finite wordlength effects ‘on the performance of discrete-time systems. To this end, it has been found convenientto represent certain pertinent signals as random signals and employ statistical techniques for their analysis. ‘Some typical signal processing operations performed on analog signals are reviewed in the following 4 Chapter 1: Signals and Signal Processing 1.2 Typical Signal Processing Operations in and frequency-domain operations are employed. In cither case, the desired ‘operations are implemented by a combination of some elementary oper ions. These operations are also ly implemented in real-time or near real-time, even though, in certain applications, they implemented off-line ay be 1.2.1. Simple Time-Domain Operations The three most basic time-domain signal operations are scaling, delay, and addition. Scaling is simply the ‘uliplication ofthe signal bya positive or a negative constant. In the case of an is usally called amplification if th cone. If the magnitude of the multi Ths, if x(¢) i an ignals, this operation nitude of the multiplying constant, called gain, is greater than ng constant is less than one, the operation is called attenuation. ialog signal. the scaling operation generates a signal y(t) = x(t), where a is the ‘multiplying constant The delay operation generates a signal that is a delayed re Signal x(t), y(0) = x(t ~to) i the signal obtained by del Vo be a postive number. If is negative, the Many applications require oper Sea ag i) +2200 — an) isthe signal pened by the addition ofthe three analog signals two ipa ey: Amor elementary operation isthe product of two signals. Thus, the product ‘wo signals x(t) and x2(¢) generates a signal y(t) = x(t) 19(0) Two other elementary operations are integration and differestiation, x(t) generates a signal y(i) =f de(y/dt plica of the original signal, For an analog laying x(t) by the amount ‘9, which is assumed nit is an advance operation. rations involving two or more signals to generate a new signal. For The integration of an analog s(t) dr, while its differentiation results i signal w(t) = The first three clementary ope: discn da rations, namely, scaling, delay, and addition, discussed Further in later pe i differentiation are im view some commonly used! complex F more ofthe elem better understood in the frequer c-time signals a also carried out on ‘Sof this text, The other two elementary opera. plemented approximately in the discrete-time domain. al processing operations that are implemented by NAEY Operations. The characteristics of some of these operations are 3 domain by making use of the continuows-lime Fourier treesform, The transform X(j2) time signal x(t) is given by! tions, namely, integrator Next we re ‘combining two ) of «continuous xg XQ) is ca led the spectrum of x(t) 12.2 Filtering ‘One ofthe most widely sed complen si Wo ales the spec ignal processing operations is filtering, er, Far cea lit Soe given specifications. The system : For example, the filter may be designed to the system and 10 block other frequer called a through whose main objective is n implementing this operation is requency components in a signal ange of frequencies of the signal 8S certain fn ¥ components. The 1.2, Typical Signal Processing Operations 5 components allowed to pass through the filter is called the ‘components blocked by the filter is called the stopband. Various types of filters can be defined, assband, and the of frequencies of the depending on the nature of the filtering operation, In most cases, the filtering operation for an als is performed by a linear, time-invariant filter. If the filter is characterized by an impulse response /i(?) then its output y(¢) to an input is given by the convolution " ve) = [Meats 2) assuming the filter is relaxed with zero initial conditions at the time of application of the input signal, In the frequency domain, the above equation can be expressed as ¥(JQ) = HUQ)XUD), a3) where ¥(j2), X(j2), and H(j22), are, respectively, the continuous-time Fourier transforms of y(t), x(0),and h(t) A Jowpass filter passes all low-frequency components below a certain specified frequency fp. called the passhand edge frequency, and blocks all high-frequency components above f,, called the siopband edge frequency. A highpass filter passes all high-frequency components above a certain passband edge frequency f, and blocks all low-frequency components below the stopband edge frequency fy. A band: ‘pass filter passes all frequency components between two passband ed eS fp and Syn where fri < fa» and blocks all frequency components below the stopband edge frequency f,, and above the stopband edge frequency Jr2. A bundsiop filter blocks all frequency components between two stopband edge frequencies fy, and fz and passes all frequency components below the passband edge frequency fyx and above the passband edge frequency fy2. Figure 1.2¢a) shows a signal composed of three sinu: soidal components of frequencies 50 Hz, 100 Hz, and 200 Hz, respectively. Figures 1 2(b) to (e) show the results of the above four types of filtering operations with appropriately chosen cutoff frequencies. ‘A bandstop filter designed 0 block a single frequency component is called a notch filter. A mult ‘and filter bas more than one passband and more than one stopband. A cont filter is designed to block frequencies that are integral multiples of a low frequency ‘A signal may get corrupted unintentionally by an interfering signal called interference or noise, In ‘many applications, the desired signal occupies a low-frequency band from dc to some frequency fi, He, and itis corrupted by a high-frequency noise with frequency components above fv Hz with fir > fi In such eases, the desired signal can be recovered from the noise-cormupted signal by passing the latter through a lowpass filter with a cutoff frequency f, where fi, < fe < fy. In some applications, the noise corrupting the desired signal may be a single-frequency sinusoidal signal. For example, the noise generated by power lines radiating electric and magnetic fields appears as a 60-H.z sinusoidal signal. The desired signal can then be recovered by passing the corrupted signal through 4 noteh filter with 2 notch frequency at 60 Hz? 1.2.3 Generation of Complex-Valued Signals As indicated e called a real signal, while the latter is called a compler signal. AM naturally generated signals are ied, In some applications, it is necessary to develop a complex signal from a real signal having more ier.a signal can be real-valued or complex-valued. For convenience, the former is us a many countries, powerlines generate 5-H me Chapter 1 Signals and Signal Processing 0 % «0 6 a 10 Time, msec TTT TTA “ll nM Wy HAL 2 40 6) 100 Time, msec © ©) ter ouput Blandstop fier output TI 2 TI Vth] 2 an 20406080100 Time, mee a Pree 12: fpr _— He, (d) output of a bandpass iter with cutofis at 80 Hz a Pare poeven 4 150 Hz, and ¢e wtpet of a bandstop filter ‘desirable properties. One ‘ es. One approach t Hilbert transformer t if & Complex signal from a aby "Scharacterized by an impulse response hyn Teal signal is by employing a en by [Fre94}, [Opps3} 1 fuee(t) = 1.2. Typical Signal Processing Operations 7 Figure 1.3: Generation of an analytic signal using a Hilbert transformer. with a continuous-time F rier transform Hyrr(j82) given by =f. 250, Hyr(j2) = Dak as j < Let.x(¢) denote areal analog signal with a continuous-time Fourier transform X(/22). The magnitude spectrum of areal signal exhibits even symmetry, while the phase spectrum exhibits odd symmetry. Thus, the spectrum X(/@) ofa eal signal x(t) contains both positive and negative frequencies and can therefore be expressed as X(jQ) = Xp(JD) + Xalj2). a6 where Xp(j£2) isthe portion of X(j2) oceupying the positive frequency range and X, (22) is the portion of X(/2) occupying the negative frequency range. If x(¢) is passed through a Hilbert transformer, its ‘output £(1) has a spectrum X(/32) given by U2) = Myr JQ)XUA) = ~]X (4) + jXnl2) a7 It can be shown that £(F) is also a real signal, Consider the complex signal y(t) formed by the sum of x(0) and £(0): yf) =x) + J800), aay ‘The signals x(t) and £(¢) are called, respectively, the in-phase and quadrature components of y(t). The continuous-time Fourier transform of y(t) is given by (Problem 3.9) YUM) = XUQ) + JX U2) = 2X,A). a9) Thus, the complex signal y() called an anaiyric signal, has only positive-frequency components ‘A block diagram representation of the scheme for the analytic signal generation from a real signal is sketched in Figure 1.3, One application of the Hilbert transformer is in the implementation of a single- sideband modulation as indicated in Figure 1.8 and discussed in Section 1.2.4 1.2.4 Amplitude Modulation For transmission of signals over long distances, a transmission medium such as cable, optical fiber, or the atmosphere is employed. Each such medium has a bandwidth that is more suitable for the efficient transmission of signals in the high-frequency range. As a result for the transmission of a low-frequency signal over a channel, it is necessary to transform the signal to a high-frequency signal by means of a modulation operation. At the receiving end, the modulated high-frequency signal is demodulated, and the desired low-frequency signal is then extracted by further processing. There are four major types of modulation of analog signals: amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, phase modulation, and pulse Chapter 1; Signals and Signal Processing 2) 2-2, w ty the modulated signal y(t). For Figure 14: (a) Spectrum of the modeling signal x(t) and (b) spectrum of the modulated smvenience, both spectra ae shown as rel fubctions amplitude modulation. Of these schemes, amplitude modulation is conceptually simple and is discussed r [Fre], [Opp83} “i Inthe ample modulation scheme, the amplitude ofa high-frequency sinusoidal signal A cos(2st), called the carrier signal, i varied by the low frequency band-limited signal x(1), called the modulating signal, generating a high-frequency signal, called the mo ated signal, y(t) according to vit) = Ax) c0s(250), (10) Thus, amplitude modulation can be iny the carrer signal. It can be shown plemented by forming the product ofthe modulating signal with that the spectrum ¥(/22) of y(t is given by YUQ) = $X (0-25) + 4x (112 + 9,)) aay where X(/2) isthe spectrum of the moc tlating signal and the modulated signal under the ass than 2, the highest frequency contained in x() high-frequency signal with a bandwidth The portion ofthe amplitude-modula Whereas the portion between 2, and £2, of two sideband ing signal x(t). Figure 1.4 shows the spectra of the mod. iption that the carrier frequency 2, is greater As seen from this figure, y(t) is now a 2m centered at 2p ted signal between 9, 2 and the absence of a carrier ouble-sideband supp \d-limited and $2y-+ 2y_ is called the upper sideband, im is called the lower sideband. Because of the ‘component in the pressed carrier (DSB-SC) modulation, he demodulation of Y(t) assuming 2, > Qy.is cared out in two s ‘ith sinascidal signal ofthe same frequency as the yeneration al, the process is called First, the pr Cartier is formed. This results in = Ax(t) cos? yt ne rewritten as (C05 Dot = 4x40) + 4x66) cos( ) a3) This result indicat factor 1/2 and an an i as indicated that the product signal is comy tude-modulated signal with Figure | S. The original modula through a lowpass filter with a cutoft fn ‘output of the posed of the origi carter frequency 2 signal can now be: tequency 2 satisfying the re 4 replica ofthe modulating signal iagram representations of assumption i I modulating si ignal scaled by a o- The spectrum R(j2) of r(t) fecovered from r(1) by passing it lation 2m < 2e < 22, ~ 2m. The er is then a sca Figure 1.6 shows the block schemes. The under f the amplitude mo the demodulation proc: odulation and demodul 288 outlined above is that a sinusoidal 1.2. ‘Typical Signal Processing Operations 9 a a, | 2, ° 2 (22-2,,) 22-2, Figure 1.8: Spectrum ofthe pr oat oO Mt hot duct of the modulated signal and the carrier seos cos 0, @ © Figure 1.4: Schematic represeattions ofthe DSB-SC smpltnde modulation and demodulation schemes (a) mesltr and b) demodulator Maalting signal Modulted cai ~ / 4 / sy 4 | f i A tl geese Navy hate a I mn i ih E Ul / a \ 2 Seo spare soe Nhs in at ee a a a ee Time, mee Tankee @ b) Figure 1.7: (a) A sinusoidal modulating signal of frequency 20 Hz and (b) modulated carrer with a carrier frequency of 400 Hz based on the DSB modulation signal identical to the cartier signal can be generated at the receiving end. In general, it is difficult to ensure that the demodulating sinusoidal signal has a frequency identical to that of the carrier all the time. ‘To get around this problem, in the transmission of amplitude-modulated radio signals, the modulation process is modified so that the transmitted signal includes the carrier signal. This is achieved by redefining the amplitude modulation operation as follows: ye) All + mx(t)}e0s(Qot), (tay where m isa number chosen to ensure that (1+m.x(¢)] is positive for all 1. Figure 1.7 shows the waveforms ‘of a modulating sinusoidal signal of frequency 20 Hz and the amplitude-modulated carrier obtained ac cording to Eq. (1.14) for a carrier frequency of 400 Hz and m = 0.5. Note that the envelope of the ‘modulated carrier is essentially the waveform of the modulating signal. As bere the carrier is also present Chapter 1: Signals and Signal Processing Acos yt Hiker transformer Asin 2,1 Figure 18: Single-sideband modulation scheme employin as { : fae 1 au 7\ ne a =a, 0 a, Figure 1.9: Specira of pertinent signals in Figure 1.8. « modulate signal the proces is called simply deuble-sideband (DSB) od. carrier signal is Separated first and then used for demodslatacy ni cae ofthe conventional amplitude modulation, a canbe seen from Figure 1.4, the modulated capac wih of 225, whereas the bandwidth of the modulating esate eek ae mission medium, a motied form ofthe amplind ne in which citer the upper sideband oF the lower sidcben corresponding procedure is called single-side sideband modulation scheme of Figure 1 6a), or 2 to implement the single sdchand amplince modulation ig Hilbert transformer used is defined by Ea, (1.4), The spectra of pertne in Figure 19, ) modulation. At the receiving ’m- To increase the id of the modulated signal *hand (SSB) modulation to distinguish from the double- indicated in Figure 1.8, where the nt signals in Figure 1 8 are shown 1.25 Multiplexing and Demuttipiexing For an efciem utilization o sigmais are combined to fo Process of combining these: the XM 4 composite wideband sign signals is called mul arTON-bandwid led demutipexing ‘One widely used the frequenc method of combining division multiplexing band-limited to a low-frequency different voices (FM) scheme [ band of width 2225, ls in a telephone commu ication system is + each voice signal, typically 83), [Opp83}. Here, is freque ncy-transiated into a higher frequency 1.2. Typical Signal Processing Operations " -2,° =a 0 a, a, a, (b) Figure 1.10; ustration of the frequency-division multiplexing operation. (a) Spectra of three low-frequency signals and (b) spectra of the modulated composite signal ‘band using the amplitude modulation method of Eq. (1.10). The carrier frequency of adjacent amplitude- modulated signals is separated by 25, with 2, > 22y to ensure that there is no overlap in the spectra of the individual modulated signals after they are added to form a baseband composite signal. This signal is then modulated onto the main carrier developing the FDM signal and transmitted, Figure |.10 illustrates the frequency-division multiplexing scheme. At the receiving end, the composite baseband signal is first derived from the FDM signal by demod ulation. Then each individual frequency-translated signal is first demultiplexed by passing the composite signal through a bandpass filter with a center frequency of identical value as that of the corresponding carrier frequency and a bandwidth slightly greater than 22,_. The output of the bandpass filter is then ‘demodulated using the method of Figure 1 6(b) to recover a scaled replica of the original voice signal. 1.2.6 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation ‘We observed earlier that DSB amplitude modulation is half as efficient as SSB amplitude modulation with regard to utilization of the spectrum. The quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) method uses DSB ‘modulation to modulate two different signals so that they both occupy the same bandwidth; thus, QAM. takes up only as much bandwith as the SSB modulation method. To understand the basic idea behind the QAM approach, let; (t) and :r9(t) be two band-limited low-frequency signals with a bandwidth of 2, as indicated in Figure | 4(a). The two modulating signals are individually modulated by the two carrier signals A cox(S2y1) and A sin(Qot), respectively, and are summed, resulting in a composite signal y(¢) given by Y(t) = Axi (1) cOs(2p1) + Axa(t) sin( Qo) (us) Note that the two carrier signals have the same carrier frequency 2, but have a phase difference of 90° In general, the carrier Acos(¢t) is called the in-phase component, and the carrier A sin(S2et) is called the quadrature component. The spectrum Yj 12) of the composite signal y(1) is now given by Chapter 1: Signals and Signal Processing cw = cos Nyt phase] @- oO OF phase se shiher } Lowpes L, a, Pas fiker ¥ 6) ) 1.11; Schematic representations ofthe quadrature amplitude modulation and demodulation schemes: dala YU) = $11 (2-24) + Xi 2 + 2, +4 (Xa U(2-2.)) - X24 and is seen to occupy the same bandwidth as: To recover the original modulatin, the quackature components ofthe +2,))} (1.16) the modulated signal obtained by a DSB modulation ignals, the composite signal is multiplied by both the in-phase and cartier 5 gnals: rately resulting in two U0) = yO) cos( ot). ralt) = y(t) sin(2r), (17) Substiuing »() ftom 89 (115) in Eg. (1.17), we obtain, afer some algcbra, U0) = $rrl0) + $y eos(2t + 4x0 sin’202, us) 12) = 40 + Srey sincrs ot) ~ Sxa(t)ons122,1), Lowpass filtering of r,(¢) and ra nals. Figure 1.11 shows the block demodulation schemes ) by filters with cutoff at 2m yields the two nodulating sig: Am representations of the quadrature amplitude 1 modulation and Asin the case of the DSB suppressed carrier mod ne at act epic of the caricr signal employ Ie in therefore not employed in the direct tansmnission of discrete-time data e-time segue ulation method, the QAM method also req ed in the transmitting end for accurate de ission of analog sig Seavences and in the transmission of analog =s by sampling and analog-to-digital conversion, res atthe discte Signals converted into 1.2.7 Signal Generation Ane ly important part o Signal generators is a devie integral partof the: It also has various ot There are # Signal processing is synthetic signal © generating & sinusoidal vPltade-modulaton and demodulation system de ther signal processing applications, plications that require the generation riangular waves. C simplest such Such a device is an signal, called scribed in the Previous two sections, of her types oF per : odie signals such as square iertain types o all fre fandom signals with a spectrum of constant amplitude for viomatan le white noise; often find applications rs Practice. One such application is in the fencration of cscrete-time synthetic speech sient, 1.3. Examples of Typical Signals 13 | { ft A i i { ede @ 0 01 02 03 04 03 06 Seconds ) Figure 1.12: (a) A typical BCG trace and (b) one cycle of an ECG waveform. 1.3 Examples of Typical Signals’ To better understand the breadth of the signal processing task, we now examine a number of examples of some typical signals and their subsequent processing in typical applications Electrocardiography (ECG) Signal ‘The electrical activity of the heart is represented by the ECG signal [Sha8 1]. A typical ECG signal trace is shown in Figure 1.12(a). The ECG trace is essentially a periodic waveform. One cycle of the blood transfer process from the heart to the arteries is represented by one period of the ECG waveform as shown in Figure 1.12(b). ‘This part of the waveform is generated by an electrical impulse originating at the sinoatrial node in the right atrium of the heart. The impulse causes contraction of the atria, which forces the blood in each atrium to squeeze into its corresponding ventricle. The resulting signal is called the P.wave. The atrioventricular node delays the excitation impulse until the blood transfer from the atria to the ventricles is completed, resulting in the P-R interval of the ECG waveform. The excitation impulse then causes contraction of the ventricles, which squeezes the blood into the arteries. This generates the QRS part of the ECG waveform. During this phase, the atria are relaxed and filled with blood. The T-wave of the waveform represents the relaxation of the ventricles. The complete process is repeated periodically, generating the ECG trace. Each portion of the ECG waveform carries various types of information for the physician analyzing ‘patient's heart condition [Sha8!]. For example, the amplitude and timing of the P and QRS portions “This sexton hs been adapted from HandBiook for Dial Signal Processing, Sant K. Mitra and lames F Kaiser, Es. ©1993, John Wiley & Sons. Adapted by permission of John Wiley & Sons Chapter 1: Signals and Signal Processing igure 1.13: Multiple EEG signal traces, indicate the condition ofthe cardiac muscle mass. Loss of amplitude indicates muscle damage, whereas plitude indicates abnormal heart rates. Too long a delay in the atrioventricular node is in dicated by 2 very long P-R interval. Likewise, blockage of some of all of the contraction i pulses is reflec! by imtermitent synchronization between the P- and QRS-waves. Most of these abaerretigs trees een with various drugs, and the effectiveness ofthe drugs can apain be monitored by obec i the new ECG waveforms taken after the drug treatment In practice, there are various types of externally produced artifacts theta {Fomé] Unless these interferences are removed, itis difficult fora physician to A 60-Ha power lines whose radiated el evpled io the ECG instrument throwgh capacitive coupli interference ae the electromyographic signals These and other interferences can be rer appear in the ECG signal make a correct diag lectric and magnetic fields are andlor magnetic induction. Other sources of Aare the potentials developed by contracting muscles. ‘moved with careful shielding and signal processing techniques. Electroencephalogram (EEG) Signal The summation of the elect the brain is represented by placed at va dif common source of noise is the ical activity caused by the random the EEG signal (Con), (Tom). In Positions on the scalp wi erences between the various electrodes a rom 0.5 to about 100 Hr, with the ampiit traces is shown in Figure 1.13, Both frequency-domain and time-domai epilepsy, sleep disorders, psychiatric ‘subelvided into the followin ‘ ‘multiple EE wo common electrodes placed on ue recorded. A typical bandwidth tudes ranging from 2 to. 100 m" recordings, the earlobes, and potential Of this type of EEG ranges NV. An example of multiple in analyses of the EEG signal have been use ‘malfunctions, and so forth, five bands: (1) the deita range, occupying ng the band from 4 19 & Hz; (3) the alpha ran ~oesupying the band from 13 10 22 Hz: and (5 for the diagnosis To this end, the EEG spectrum is ig the band from05 to 4 Hz; 2) the 8¢. occupying the band from 8 to 13 Hz; ) the gamina range, occupying the band 1.3. Examples of Typical Signals 15 ‘The delta wave is normal in the EEG signals of children and sleeping adults. Since itis not common in alert adults, its presence indicates certain brain diseases. The theta wave is usually found in children even though it has been observed in alert adults. The alpha wave is common in all normal humans and is more pronounced in a relaxed and awake subject with closed eyes. Likewise, the beta activity is common in normal adults. The EEG exhibits rapid, low-voltage waves, called rapid eye- movement (REM) waves, in 4 subject dreaming during sleep. Otherwise, in a sleeping subject, the EEG contains burst of alpha-tike waves, called sleep spindles. The EEG of an epileptic patient exhibits various types of abnormalities, depending on the type of epilepsy that is caused by uncontrolled neural discharges. Seismic Signals Scismic signals are caused by the movement of rocks resulting from an earthquake. a volcanic eruption or an underground explosion [Bol93]. The ground movement generates elastic waves that propagate through the body of the earth in all directions from the source of movement. Three basic types of elastic waves ‘are generated by the earth movement. Two of these waves propagate through the body of the earth, one moving faster with respect to the other. The faster moving wave is called the primary ot P.wave, while the slower moving one is called the secondary or S-wave. The third type of wave is known as the surface wave, which moves along the ground surface. These seismic waves are converted into cleciical signals by a seismograph and are recorded on a sirip chart recorder or a magnetic tape Because of the three-dimensional nature of ground movement, a seismograph usually consists of three separate recording instruments that provide information about the movements in the two horizontal direc- tions and one vertical direction and develops three records as indicated in Figure 1.14. Each such record is a one-dimensional signal. From the recorded signals, it is possible to determine the magnitude of the ‘earthquake or nuclear explosion and the location of the source of the original earth movement. Seismic signals also play an important role in the geophysical exploration for oil and gas [Rob80}. In this type of application, linear arrays of seismic sources. such as high-energy explosives, are placed at regular intervals on the ground surface. The explosions cause seismic waves to propagate through the subsurface geological structures and reflect back to the surface from interfaces between geological strata, The reflected waves are converted into electrical signals by a composite array of geophones Isid out i patterns and displayed as a two-dimensional signal that is a function of time and space, gather, as indicated in Figure 1.15. Before these signals are analyzed, some preliminary time and amplitude corrections are made on the data to compensate for different physical phenomena From the corrected data, the time differences between reflected seismic signals are used to map structural deformations, whereas the amplitude changes usually indicate the presence of hydrocarbons, Speech Signals ‘The acoustic theory of speech production has led to a range of mathematical models for the representation Of speech signals. A speech signal is created by exciting the vocal tract using either quasi-periodic puffs of air or by creating turbulent air flow around a constriction in the vocal tract or by a mixture of these ‘two sound sources (Del93], [Rab78]. So-called voiced sounds are generated when air is forced through the tensed glottis, causing it to vibrate in an oscillatory manner and generating pseudo-periodic pulses of air that excite the vocal tract. Included in the class of voiced sounds are vowels such as /V/ (as in *big’) ‘rae (as in *bad"), voiced consonants such as /b/. (/ /g/./m/, in/ and so on; and so-called liquids and ‘slides such as (wi, /V, and /y/* are generated by forming a constriction at some point in the vocal tract, “The sounds ofa speech signal are wvally veprescnted picioilly wing 2 “phonetic alpaber” by inserting the marker “/* on oth sides ofthe eters representing the sound wih uppercase levers rpreseting vaced sounds that are stronger in amplitudes Chapter 1: Signals and Signal Processing Nee Lt Chino Hits aneock reonded at sation Padiagsone Reser Southern California Seis Setect. Souhem Califoriaarthquake DataCenter. 29 uly Sve -chuip/iwwwalata scee one durations ofthe P-waves Approximate and S-waves have been aed tothe original seis ph which causes the air low to become turbulent (noise such asf), band so forth, Finally. there and hence has characteristics of both voiced 4 he woiced fricatives such as /v/,/x), and /aby There are sounds, called duction, such as fp) /V, and /k along the tract (thereby tot vocal trict). Pressure build Tike) and to act as the excitation source for sounds 8 & class of sounds that utilizes both sources of excitation nds and unvoiced sounds. Among this class of sounds are re sounds, whose For these ally blocking th ds up behind th removed. leading 1 a sound, ‘characteristics cha Sounds, the vocal tract hi 1 flow of ai ange dynamically during their pro- Ws a total constriction at some equivalently the production of sound i sudden release of pressure (nae BY a gradual release ofthe built-up air flow eure 1-16(a) depicts the speech waver point in the as the con. peech Dem 1 ey, mb titerance“ like digital signal processing * The ation of the speech waveform shown is 3s Magnified versions of Vin the word “like” aad the SY setment inthe word “processing” are sketches arying | in Figu ow-frequency voice, are evident from the mag, Periodic and can be modelo ind (c), respectively. The slowly -d waveform of 1 frequency unvoiced fricative 'eform in Figure 1.164) is of sinusoids. The lowest eMeY OF pitch, waveform of /S od by asum ofa finite number Presentation is called the fur lamentalfreque to be quasi frequency af oscillation Aequency. The unvoiced waveform in 1.3. Examples of Typical Signals 17 Figure 1.15: A typical seismic signal trace gather. (Courtesy of Institute for Crustal Research, University of California, Santa Barbara,CA.) Figure 1.16(¢)has no regular fine structure and is more noise-like. ‘One of the major applications of digital signal processing techniques isin the general area of speech Processing. Problems in this area are usually divided into three groups: (1) speech analysis, (2) speech Synthesis, and (3) speech analysis and synthesis [Opp78]. Digital speech analysis methods are used in automatic speech recognition, speaker verification, and speaker identification, Applications of di speech synthesis techniques include reading machines for the automatic conversion of written text into speech and retrieval of data from computers in speech form by remote access through terminals or tle phones. One example belonging to the third group is voice scrambling for secure transmission. Speech data compression for an efficient use ofthe transmission medium is another example of the use of speech analysis followed by synthesis. A typical speech signal after conversion into a digital form contains about 64000 bits per second (bps). Depending on the desired quality of the synthesized speech, the original data can be compressed considerably; for example down to about 1000 bps. Musical Sound Signal The electronic synthesizer is an example of the use of modem signal processing techniques [Ler83]. [Moo77}. The natural sound generated by most musical instruments is generally produced by mechanica Vibrations caused by activating some form of oscillator that then causes other parts of the instrument to Vibrate. All these vibrations together in a single instrument generate the musical sound. In a violin, the primary oscillator is a stretched piece of string (cat gut). Its movement is caused by drawing a bow across its this sets the wooden body of the violin vibrating, which in turn sets up vibrations of the air inside 2 well as outside the instrument. In a piano, the primary oscillator is a stretched steel wire that is set Pigure 1.16: Speech he let in “ike ES adatblenndbeel mh Chapter 1: Signals and Signal Processing [ie ty — Hn ath m example: (a) sen Pe: (a) setence-length segment, (b) magnif 4 segment (the letter () aged veson ofr so sin ofthe voiced segment in “processing”, 1.3. Examples of Typical Signals 19 sme |e | cr a) ) Figure 1.17: Waveforms of (a) the cello and (b) the bass drum. (Reproduced with permission from J.A. Moores, Signal processing aspects of computer music: A survey, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 65, August 1977 pp. 1108-1137 ©1977 IEEE.) into vibratory motion by the hitting of a hammer, which in tar causes vibrations in the wooden body (ounding board) of the piano. In wind or brass instruments, the vibration occurs in a column of air, and a mechanical change in the length ofthe air column by means of valves or keys regulates the rate of Vibration, The sound of orchestral instruments can be clasified into two groups: quasi-periodic and aperiodic. Quasi-periodic sounds can be described by a sum of a finite number of sinusoids with independently varying amplitudes and frequencies. Figure 1.17(a) and (b) show the sound waveforms of two different instruments, the cello and the bass drum, respectively. In each figure, the top waveform is the plot of an éntire isolated note, whereas the bottom plot shows an expanded version ofa portion of the note: 10 ms for the cello and 80 ms forthe bass drum. The waveform of the note from a cello is seen to be quasi-periodic On the other hand, the bass drum waveform is clearly aperiodic, The tone of an orchestral instrun commonly divided into three segments called the ariack part, the steady-state part, and the decay part ‘igure 1.17 illustrates this division for the two tones. Note thatthe bass drum tone of Figure 1.17(b) shows no steady-state part. A reasonable approximation of many tones is obtained by splicing together these parts, However, high-fidelity reproduction requires a more complex mode! Time Series The signals described thus far are continuous functions with time as the independent variable. In many cases, the signals of interest are naturally discrete functions of the independent variables. Often such 16 197 Month © (b) Figure 1.18: () Seasonally adjusted quan 1976 wo 1986 Gross National Product oft apt from (L491). (2) Monthly mean St.Louis, Mssou sary 1975 v0 1978 (adap fom (Mar) United States in 1982 doliars from temperature in degrees Ce ius For th jon. Examples of such sig of total monthly exports of a s are the yearly average number of sunspots, daily ‘country, the yearly population the annual yiclds per acre of crops in a country, and the monthly totals of Mional airline passengers over cerain periods. ‘This type of finite exient signal, usually called a rict,oxcars in business, economics, physical sciences, socialsciences, engi ical time series are shown in Figures 1.18(a fe many reasons for analyzing a particular time se to develop a mode! to determin. Variable and use it to forecast the future reasonably stock prices, the va i geograph eering, medicine, and ind 1.18(b) pli BoX70}. In some Ne the nature of the dependence of the data behavior of the series. As an e: accurate sales forecasts are necessary ‘components, and iti impe for predictin ations, there may on the independent ample, in business planning Some types of serie eran! fo extract these components. The study climate variations Fequire models based on their 8 Possess seasonal of periodic Of sunspot numbers is important invariably, the ime series data are noisy, and their representations statistical properties, earlier, an im ‘wo spatial varables,. Commot chest and dental X-rays dimensional signal for which the Variables and time. Figure 1.1 eS, radar and sonar images, three nction of three variables: two spatial fa digital i are image signal representation and modeling ions, analysis, and coding [Jai89) n physical quantity; a characterization of 4 photograph represents the luminances of n by a satellite oran airplane represents the the type of image and its applications, various dels are also based on perception and om local or ofthe image processing algorithms depend on the at any point is a fun a) shows the photograph o Problems in image processing io, reconstruction from project Each picture element i the element is called the Various objects 3s seen by th temperature profile of a The basic restr enhancement An infrared image taker Seographical area, Depending ‘ypes of image models are usually defined. Sect al characteristics. The natu image model being ased, re and performance g 1.4. Typical Signal Processing Applications at Figure 1.19: (a) A digital image and (b) its contrast-eahanced version, (Reproduced with permission from Nonlinear Image Processing, S.K. Mitra and G, Sicuranza, Eds,, Academic Press, New York, ©2000 ) Image enhancement algorithms are used to emphasize specific image features to improve the quality of the image for visual perception or to aid in the analysis of the image for feature extraction. These include methods for contrast enhancement, edge detection, sharpening, lincar and nonlinear filtering, zooming, and noise removal. Figure 1,19(b) shows the contrasi-enhanced version of the image of Figure 1.19(a), developed using a nonlinear filter [Thu2000} The algorithms used for elimination or reduction of degradations in an image, such as blurring and ge- ‘ometric distortion caused by the imaging system andor its surroundings, are known as image restoration. Image reconstruction from projections involves the development of a two-dimensional image slice of a three-dimensional object from a number of planar projections obtained from various angles. By creating a ‘number of contiguous slices, a three-dimensional image giving an inside view of the object is developed. Image analysis methods are employed to develop a quantitative description and classification of one oor more desired objects in an image For digital processing, an image needs to be sampled and quantized using an analog-to-digital con- verter, A reasonable size digital image in its original form takes a considerable amount of memory space for storage. For example, an image of size 512 x 512 samples with 8-bit resolution per sample contains ‘over 2 million bits, dmage coding methods are used to reduce the total numberof bits in an image without any degradation in visual perception quality as in speech coding; for example, down to about 1 bit per sample on the average. 1.4 Typical Signal Processing Applications® ‘There are numerous applications of signal processing that we often encounter in our daily lives without being aware of them. Originally the signal processing algorithms used in these applications were carried ‘utinthe continuous-time domain. However, they are now being increasingly implemented using discrete signal processing algorithms. Due to space limitations. itis nt possible vo discuss all of these applications However, an overview of selected applications is presented “This section han ben adapted for Hondiook for Digital Signal Processing, Sanit K. Mien eal James F: Kaiser, Es, ©1993, John Wiley & Sons. Adapt by permission of Jon Wiley & Sons Chapter 1: Signals and Signal Processing 401 compression <— Input in dB Variable threshold Figure 1.20 Transfer characteristic ofa typical compressor. 1.4.1. Sound Recording Applications The recording of most musical programs nowadays is usu ‘ound from cach instrument is picked up by its own micropho corded on a single n individu ‘made in an acoustically inert studio. The onc closely placed to the instrument and is track in a multitrack tape recorder containing as many a8 48 tracks," tracks in the master recording ar then edited and combined by the sound e system to develop a twortrack stereo reconting ick ty isthe clowenes ofeach individual microphone to its assigned insinment provides & senate orscarion terween he instrument and minimizes te backgreund nie in heecording cea, apart f one instrament canbe recorded ler if necessary Tit, dusing these don Avie, aha, nine can manipulate individ signals by using @ varity of sg ths musical balances between the sounds generated by the instrusnents eg ¢ signals sig There are a number of reasons for following I processing n change the 10 improve the quality of the transmi are (1) compressors and limiters, (2

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