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STRESS AND
INTONATION
STRESS
In linguistics, stress is the
relative emphasis that may be given
to certain syllables in a word. The
term is also used for similar patterns
of
phonetic
syllables.
prominence
inside
Understanding Syllables
To understand word stress, it helps to understand
syllables. Every word is made from syllables.
Each word has one, two, three or more syllables.
Word
Number of
syllables
Dog
Quiet
Dog
Qui-et
1
2
Expensive
Ex-pen-sive
Interesting
In-ter-est-ing
Unexceptional Un-ex-cep-tion-al
Prominence:
It would have been logically possible for every
syllable to have exactly the same loudness, pitch, and so on.
(Some early attempts at speech synthesizers sounded like
this.) But human languages have ways to make some
syllables more prominent than others. A syllable might be
more prominent by differing from the surrounding syllables in
terms of:
loudness
pitch
length
Prominence is relative to the surrounding syllables, not
absolute. (A stressed syllable that is nearly whispered will be
quieter than an unstressed syllable that is shouted.)
TYPES OF STRESS:
The ways stress manifests itself in the speech stream are
highly language dependent. In some languages, stressed
syllables have a higher or lower pitch than non-stressed
syllables so-called pitch accent (or musical accent). In
other languages, they may bear either higher or lower pitch
than surrounding syllables (a pitch excursion), depending on
the sentence type. There are also dynamic accent
(loudness), qualitative accent (full vowels) and quantitative
accent (length). Stress may be characterized by more than
one of these characteristics. Further, stress may be realized
to varying degrees on different words in a sentence;
sometimes the difference between the acoustic signals of
stressed and unstressed syllables may be minimal.
Emphatic Stress
One reason to move the tonic stress from its utterance final position is
to assign an emphasis to a content word, which is usually a modal
auxiliary, an intensifier, an adverb, etc. Compare the following
examples. The first two examples are adapted from. Roach
(1983:144).
i.
It
was
very
BOring.
(unmarked)
ii.
It
was
VEry
boring.
(emphatic)
i.
You
mustn't
talk
so
LOUDly.
(unmarked)
ii. You MUSTN'T talk so loudly. (emphatic)
Some intensifying adverbs and modifiers (or their derivatives) that are
emphatic by nature are
Indeed, utterly, absolute, terrific, tremendous, awfully, terribly,
great, grand, really, definitely, truly, literally, extremely, surely,
completely, barely, entirely, very (adverb), very (adjective), quite,
too, enough, pretty, far, especially, alone, only, own, -self.
Contrastive Stress
In contrastive contexts, the stress pattern is quite
different from the emphatic and non-emphatic
stresses in that any lexical item in an utterance
can receive the tonic stress provided that the
contrastively stressed item can be contrastable in
that universe of speech. No distinction exists
between content and function words regarding
this. The contrasted item receives the tonic stress
provided that it is contrastive with some lexical
element (notion.) in the stimulus utterance.
Syllables that are normally stressed in the
utterance almost always get the same treatment
they do in non-emphatic contexts.)
Examples
Consider the following examples:
a) Do you like this one or THAT one?
b) b) I like THIS one.
Many other larger contrastive contexts (dialogues) can be found
or worked out, or even selected from literary works for a
study of contrastive stress. Consider the following:
She played the piano yesterday. (It was her who...)
She played the piano yesterday. (She only played (not.
harmed) ...)
She played the piano yesterday. (It was the piano that...)
She played the piano yesterday. (It was yesterday..
Tonic Stress
An intonation unit almost always has one peak of stress, which is
called 'tonic stress', or 'nucleus'. Because stress applies to
syllables, the syllable that receives the tonic stress is called 'tonic
syllable'. The term tonic stress is usually preferred to refer to this
kind of stress in referring, proclaiming, and reporting utterances.
Tonic stress is almost always found in a content word in utterance
final position. Consider the following, in which the tonic syllable is
underlined:
I'm going.
I'm going to London.
I'm going to London for a holiday.
A question does arise as to what happens to the previously tonic
assigned syllables. They still get stressed, however, not as much as
the tonic syllable, producing a three level stress for utterances.
Then, the following is arrived at., where the tonic syllable is further
capitalized:
I'm going to London for HOliday.
The questions given above could also be answered in short form except
for the last one, in which case the answers are:
George,
Wales,
in Bonn
in May
TIMING:
English is a stress-timed language; that is, stressed
syllables appear at a roughly constant rate, and nonstressed syllables are shortened to accommodate this.
PLACEMENT:
English does this to some extent with noun-verb pairs
such as a rcord vs. to recrd, where the verb is stressed
on the last syllable and the related noun is stressed on the
first; record also hyphenates differently: a rc-ord vs. to recrd.
DEGRESS OF STRESS:
Primary stress:
It is the stronger degree of stress.
Primary stress gives the final stressed syllable.
Primary stress is very important in compound words.
Secondary stress:
Secondary stress is the weaker of two degrees of stress in the
pronunciation of a word.
Secondary stress gives the other lexically stressed syllables in a
word.
Secondary stress is important primarily in long words with several
syllables
Tertiary stress:
It includes the fully unstressed vowels. An unstressed
vowel is the vowel sound that forms the syllable peak of a
syllable that has no lexical stress.
Quaternary stress:
It includes the reduced vowels. Vowel reduction is the
term in phonetics that refers to various changes in the acoustic
quality of vowels, which are related to changes in stress,
sonority, duration, loudness, articulation, or position in the word
which are perceived as "weakening
NOTATION:
Different systems exist for indicating syllabification and stress.
In IPA, primary stress is indicated by a high vertical line
before the syllable, secondary stress by a low vertical line.
Example: [slbfken] or /slbfken/.
In English dictionaries which do not use IPA, stress is
typically marked with a prime mark placed after the stressed
syllable: /si-lab--fi-kay-shn/.
In ad hoc pronunciation guides, stress is often indicated
using a combination of bold text and capital letters. Example:
si-lab-if-i-KAY-shun or si-LAB-if-i-KAY-shun
in
long
words.)
INTONATION:
In linguistics, intonation is the
variation of pitch when speaking. Intonation and stress are
two main elements of linguistic prosody. Intonation is the
"music" of a language, and is perhaps the most important
element of a good accent. Often we hear someone
speaking with perfect grammar, and perfect formation of
the sounds of English but with a little something that gives
them
away
as
not
being
native
speaker.
meanings
to
the
utterance:
question,
else.
Tone
A unit of speech bounded by pauses has
movement, of music and rhythm, associated with
the pitch of voice. This certain pattern of voice
movement is called 'tone'. A tone is a certain
pattern, not an arbitrary one, because it is
meaningful in discourse. By means of tones,
speakers signal whether to refer, proclaim, agree,
disagree, question or hesitate, or indicate
completion and continuation of turn-taking, in
speech.
Types
fall
low-rise
high-rise
fall-rise
Example
Consequences of his unacceptable behavior.
I'll report you to the HEADmaster
A falling tone may be used in referring expressions as well.
I've spoken with the CLEAner.
Questions that begin with wh-questions are generally pronounced with a
falling tone:
Where is the PENcil?
Imperative statements have a falling tone.
i) Go and see a DOCtor.
Requests or orders have a falling tone too.
i) Please sit DOWN
Exclamations:
Watch OUT!
Yes/No questions and tag questions seeking or expecting confirmation
a) You like it, DON'T you?
b) YEES.
Here it is used when it is sure that the answer is yes.
Have you MET him?
b) YES.
Fall Rise
Cross-linguistic differences
People have a tendency to think of intonation as
being directly linked to the speaker's emotions. In fact, the
meaning of intonation contours is as conventionalized as
any other aspect of language. Different languages can use
different conventions, giving rise to the potential for crosscultural misunderstandings. Two examples of cross-linguistic
differences in intonation patterns:
Contrastive emphasis
Many languages mark contrastive emphasis like English, using an
intonational accent and additional stress. Many other languages use only
syntactic devices for contrastive emphasis, for example, moving the
emphasized phrase to the beginning of the sentence.
Instead of
I want a car for my birthday. (as opposed to a bike)
you would have to say something like:
A car I want for my birthday.
It's a car that I want for my birthday.
Listeners who speak the second type of language will not necessarily
interpret extra pitch and volume as marking emphasis. Listeners who don't
speak the second type of language will not necessarily interpret a different
word order as marking emphasis (as opposed to assuming that the speaker
doesn't know basic grammar). Questions
Questions
The normal intonation contours for questions in English use:
final rising pitch for a Yes/No question
Are you coming today?
final falling pitch for a Wh-question
When are you coming? Where are you going?
Using a different pattern typically adds something extra to the
question. E.g., falling intonation on a Yes/No question can be interpreted
as abruptness. Rising intonation on a Wh-question can imply surprise or
that you didn't hear the answer the first time and are asking to have it
repeated.