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    [Brian Barry] Political Argument International

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    559 views191 pages

    (Brian Barry) Political Argument International

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    Priha Lechsa
    Ebook

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    ee ee eee ae een a or il POLITICAL al Saint Nites” SS ARGUMENT boron ra Honoenc ‘AousonY EDIT sited Seas : IAM: oy ea ely published in the it Tina tata ae : ben ey ® ROUTLEDGE & KEGAN PAUL NEW YORK ! THE HUMANITIES PRESS P63 SEES EEE SEE oo tenet eres ett teeeereeeeereeeeeeeee Senet ereeererereeeee eos og ir pubis 1963 : by Routes > Kegon Paal Lid Brondvey Hos, 68-74 Carter Lane Landen, B.C Pri in Great Britain Richard Cley (The Chaner Pr), Ltd ‘To JHB. Bang, Safle © Bran M, Barry 1965 [Ne part of this bok maybe reproduced in ay form without geriztion from ‘he plier excep for the qt of bee pase in rtm Send imprcion 196 pee ry yk CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ad 1 The Scope of the Study A. Persson’ B. ‘Jutifvaton versus ‘Exaluation’ 2, Rationality and Incommensurables in Evaluating A. Rationality as Consitency B. Sabrtitaton and Importance 4. Evaluating and Points of View A. Evaluating and Appraising B Appecte © Referee Grompe Introduction “Argument of the Chapter B. Methd of Proceeding 2, Two Theories of Meaning A. Th Canal Tory B. The ‘Itecon’ Try . The Element of Comention 4. The ‘Conventional Intention’ Theory A. Summary B. Linguistic Forme 6 6 ” . Linguists Content and Soil Content pages Di. Kind of Uta +4 Breton snd Meaning A. Langa Eng B. Ex Ofiio Evlting Wr . Fit! Note J. Prins Far and Concisive Arguments A. The Distin 3 Appin Pata Argon TL rourica, scouts +. nodtion s. "eon Pinca tnt Condens “caging Pane Rpg Pasar da epg A Wa ti iy ii 2 erin oo © Wt, td pin 4 Distbation and Aggregation Tae and Agarepton of Wane Station B. nterpersnal Comparins 5+ Two Disicalt Cases A.Ned B. Parte Optimaliy AV. conse ST, AjontrAnsa 1 Tetoduetion 2 Conservation A. Defiton B. Aut Pobial 4 7 38 = 8 8 3 39 4“ 4% ” 6 4 6 EEE EEE B, Primary and Corced Wises 8039 ©. The Argent Cried o 4. Liberalism A, Liberalism Def 6 1B. Uhtraton: Te Welfendn Report & 4 Impotence of Ideal i Polites % 6. Ierelevance of Ideals in Polities A Inraductin n B. Supporting Om's Oom ltt Palicaly () n Sporting One's Ox leas Polly (i) ” D. Sipporting Others deals Pally ” 1. Socal Confice and Social Decision Procedures A. Why Study Proves? % B. Conflict and Proedre 8 2 An Outline of Social Decision Procedures (0 Combat s (2) Brgsnng 6 (6) Disesin on Merit 7 ) Voting " (6) Chere 8 © Contest 9 () Aubritative Determination ” 5. Mixed Processes and Combined Processes ” L. osrce AND PaINNESS Totroduetion ” 2 Proedutal Fimess, Background Faimess and Tegal Justice A. Prcearal Fairs 7 B. Backrond Fairmsr 3 © Lege Jute 2 SEES assets erate DX. errr » Jan ve Cl nos A Le ue 120 1. Equity a an Ini 2B, Prada en Backend Pais et 2. Three Examples us : A Taxation es A. Grit of Det 106 ee 16 B.A Worl Witht Det 109 c= C Toe Rel gt Dent m 5: Child Allowances - 4, Fac Stare and Pai Exchange A. Serer 5 j A Far Shere ns B. Ince ond Desert 6 B Far che H6 ©. Hardt and Egatiy o | D. Epa ad Child Alawar ‘VIL saute, nmecnano nso Now pscanteatton ' + Inteduton snd Defaions X. su concert oF renrst » A Introduction 1 Introduction ce vA 2, The Definition of “Interest” C letertin end Now Diet 1A. Three Dofus Rajat + Branples B. Inert Defd : | feta aad be Segrome Cour 14 rtrt~t~— CSC Cd Maal Ca (y 16 4 etn’ ee hm | Sita oid Maia Care Gi) 9 B. First Difference pg 5 Doubts ane Qualictions = ©. Sand Dire a 1 D. Third Difference a | VIL rsooa ano arora mcs B. Faris Diferme % | * Prsdom aan Aggrepative Principle F. Fifth Diference Be 136 XL conceeTs B, Frome Wot Stiactin : ome Accarcunive | © Fmd a Nov Gr 1. ‘Good? and "Welfae’ ” | - AL Welfare’ mnie llRepng Mince ny Hee » "ea a 2. Public and Common Interests Je of ‘Negetie Fredo? ta A. Public? a B. Appleton ¥ 7 i ' Rights oe B. Common Interests: Introduction ae | ‘cichemen” ‘and the National Minimum 9 © Common Interests in Policies | & a | xm. D. Common Inert i Rae for Ching “Acton aed Police 4 Public Good and Common Good 1 Introduction 2. Negative Applications: Publie Policy A. ble Inter in Publi Poiy B. Pablc Good in Public Pay . Pehle Cnc in PabiePoiy 3. Positive Applications A. Th Pable Interest 1B. Thy Pablc Goud ©. The Corl Walfre Josnmeari09s OF ‘re ponc nerEREs? 1. Government at Trustee + Harmony and Common Enjoyment A. The Pringle of Hermony B. Th Ca for Common Erigment (Page 20 207 209 a4 at a6 aay ar 5 Why Should the State Promote Shared Interests? 234 ‘CONSTITUTIONAL citorce AND rite uc neTEREST (1) 2. The Instsational Problem Ac Inrsictin B, Too Simple Vier G. Critics ofthe Two Theree D. Thy Poser Dificion These "The Calla of Cones” + SeleDefence and Collective Provision () A. Inirsiction B, Laisee-Sire ad Una iy © The They of te Ofte Veto D. Inficey ofthe Unaimiy Pringle 337 37 39 ar aa as 2s as 29 5. SeléDefence and Collective Provision (i) page 250 1A. Does Majority Vetng Over-Provide Public Conds? 250 B. ‘Reasonable Solutions 28 4, SelEDefence and External Costs ‘A. The Solution Ofered 256 B. Objections to the Solution aT . Alternatives tothe Solution a8 XV. coxsirrunosaL cnosce AND fe runuse mTEREse (1) 1. Intoducton so 2 The Ee of Bargaining Cons A. The They of Sond Best 260 B. Open Vong nth Barnng Cat (O Vetng jor Meares wo ©. Open Vong with Barring Cats (i Voting for Repreetsina an D. Qualified Majorities Without Bribery 266 5. ‘The Eee of Information Costs A. Iefermation Ct and Casa Mairi ea B. The'Snnd Be wth Information Ctr mm C. Information Costs and Marketable Goods 276 Deformation Carts andthe Supply of Palle Conde 278 4. SelBIntcrest and Constitutional Choice A. Intrauction 29 B. Argument forth Self lteet Astamption 380 ©. Can Mejeriter be Trusted? at D. Colao 2 ‘concusion 386 A, Rowsieae and Majoritrianiom 9 B. Wollicin' Paradox’ 293 © Sincerity ond Sra for a Majeritarisn 294 D. Hare on Want and Ideals bees 295 E. Kinds of Want 297 F, The Effect of Partpting in a Callatve Dcion 299 G. Lira Sect and Mass Svey seo H. The Price Mecho? er L Gompromie jet J. Comer Powered Fires 53 K. Patron end Veiggy 00 Teacher Fs 525 1. Arbieins 406 1M. Laman en ‘Goe for Yo’ and‘Ged for M307 N: ‘Crap’ an he Welfare Report xr ©. Dano Pubic Coon and Pac Interest 308 . Hos’ Prinple of Harman gu Q Coraption asd Tratortinar ya R. Buchanan ond Talk on ‘Mjoriy Re ue S. Voluntary Provision of Public Goods 316 ‘T. The Explanation of th ‘Pork Bare? 7 U, Toe States Quo ad Equi at"Obio” Seaton $19 LV. External Cut ond Iefiny ba We Inga Infciay a X withing Ca a . Paver Dison and Majority A . 2 Wald Eine WO mttocnarae yt ors san ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IN the six years that have elapsed since T began this book Ihave received so much assistance that I sometimes wonder if Tam en- tiled even to claim the usual credit for my mistakes, let alone anything more. My frst thanks must go to my graduate study Supervisor, Professor H. L. A. Hart. Duting my fst ewo years after graduating he read and criticised, always ina wonderfllyde- tailed and constructive way, the enormous quantities of l-weiten And inchoate material which I brought to him. Since theo, too, he has given valuable advice on successive drafts ofthe manuscript, hich has greatly improved its final state. During the fist wo eats I was supported Snancially by the British taxpayer: T can ‘only hope that he has at last got romething of use out of it. In 1960-1962 I held the Lloyd-Muishesd Fellowship in Social Philosophy at Birmingham Universi end oa two occasions was allowed to subject my colleagues there to some of the ideas T was working on atthe time. Then in 196-1962 the Rockefeller Foundation awarded me a grant under its Program for Research in Legal and Political Philosophy and Harvard University elected ‘me to an honorary Research Fellowship. Among the many benefits provided by that year, I must single out the opportunity it gave me for discussion with Profestors John Rawls, E. C. Banfield and 7. C. Schelling. My two D. Phil. examiners, Mr PF Strawson and Mr John Plamenatz, both made very belpfal stitcisms at the sise soe examination and in addition Mr Plamenatz was kind enough to copy out his notes and send them to-me. At many points their eiticisms were so clearly well taken that T have simply met or evaded them as best I can without ‘specific mention. However, in afew place Ihave wanted to stick {p for what I said against Me Plamenata’s criticisms and there T hhave quoted the exticism from him with atribution, Finally, T should like to express my real gratitude to Miss Diana Marshalls, Assistant Librarian in the Socal Seiences faculty at Southampton University, for preparing the Index and helping with the Bibliography. Southampton INTRODUCTION Tutsi todo te elton berwee pres nd insttons Is fos esata rather tan oul Ws conered ay ‘hth inital (patel) mpteons ef een pple to lok at these thing Rony the eer end wt the re plc (boven joienton of een isos, Ol ‘Senta tethowe rato questions red which om Parvo the domino the boctogy of koe edges or example thout the ougin of certain prntples and theeiet fo which princes area sigiieant dependent motve force soc exon, No dovb, though, ica safely be sumed that body ‘oul pend ine sudjng the mpltons of pine ibe id ot ble that they ad tome cla efieacy i sol coo. If tetons onthe sage of poles ar controled exclaely bythe Bland or the wall, and peicpes are merely soelitogs of Snconious dives orm inter woul suny be fool wotate tom sesh” ‘The snp ofthe dy is lo limited in pace and time. The principles Shove for weaent are these wich have ben ete inc sce 94) nse ine USA. Nataly oof ee Principles wer sb pominn before that bt cha secmed tore fect to have ve etteren for leon, however ong tuto, a analy wih pls to Brain ad che USA st i sana snl Sp a etcetera on of pn pts eed pis eat a ploy cel ces oreo thn tk ce ror se tare eee ee ak ‘as rte Feo tn eet he fess tens Fos areca od Tt ca ln apart ‘il aso apply more of les closely to other counties according tothe dnt inthe eleva respects, Canada, Asta, New Zealand and the ace Scandinavian monarchies are examples ‘om thea? end of the spectrum ‘What ae the ‘relevant respec in which a couney must r- senble Benin andthe USA before ny analyse can have a close ‘zouph tobe uscll? Accepting the vt of oversimplieaton, Jet me sae evo. Fis, some Working agrement must ave been each on those questions the exet of atonal boanda- 4s the form ofthe goverment and the method of changing i, the sus of religion and whether there are to be groups With Iedtary priveges on grounds of “ace, Hinege, language, iepwhch go to the heat of a state's exsence, With these fundamen crocs of disunity and dsintgration somehow Te daced to manageable proportions, questions canbe rave about the Knd of wcety to which the famework of pola ordet should conibute, Secondly, iti only when the mass of the soembers ofthe society have the posit of living at something storeibisenclee thatthe lis of rier reed debate restions which form a lage pst of my discussion have Wey tach apptstion, a ig thes vo conditions, would say that until some ‘lain amount of order and materia welfae has been secured thes at technic dificalies but no philosophically intresting oblems the later ate only where choice between ends is ‘caulol exible This doesnot, i should searcely be necestary {G08 Bean tht philosophically interesting. problems, 2° Gray: seul) more imporant than techie heli « seme undesiabilty ofan allot mutes wat 29 pain 10 pilosopiclysnatereating; bat quite key tat Pangea ae Problems, and philosophers to wort wil be eliminated from the planet beonuse 10 EERERIY acepube means to this obviously desible end an fun To ritions between sates the problem of eablhing 4 Pacul order oventadown ll ahers pnghle iow all thers. No dou ite possible pitti gener prnipes tobe put forward and wily a- ELSE tht ich ations have some hed of obligation to Fel Piptsition develop this economies, Bur any strap to develop ingle sty ofpolicl pipes inthe sence ofa work, ingens onder scm a dolly rewandingenespie I EVALUATION A. Pera The good izes wiloe hold be_pusioatiy devoted se any moment oa nome of gene print, ae ‘ecenty acquired, fe prof nant melee igbeseanee ten largely contador among theese In pace, be il Sneonsousycompromir thea, or choore between thes inthe light of te emphasis bing given thew in the Cuceat fow of ‘etre to which he is bring subject. The eflecive crusader or ood csc wil ln any cpap of persion eoantely oy {empernet or inignnce rc fo emphasis spreme shore is th enn ar ge ea Precip ora small amber of presumprively harmonious genes Pinal sod willanetotnkchonaloReeae te eeeni Ines or pac faws ais sgsmen. Tse eed Rind cf short whet sa hat gia aad acelin ometitand {o wily, whose tak ti explore the confit betwen Plas ipa, n search out the inspostnc of degee, elation, an po Bron, to cover or pasar lus tr spproprie placa {beprcen of pemuasion. Tore thst ind theron sees tno appropiie one forthe scdemic scholar ad pronding ‘non and fat muppor for ove who attempt Yo we & seams the most aus serie » eet nies can fender {0 the proces of aching worthy decons on Gusts of seca ali. “This work i «stady within the spice of Vines ‘thie kind of ‘etre and mos ofits paces taken up withthe development and application of sof concepts which I claim to be uefa for sucha sud. Howeves, ia this chapter andthe next {shal mit tDyeelf vo 2 diseusion of tome more general questions about "Joh Vie, The ltl History of Lal Fai Ts Jarl of Law snd El (Osc Spt cra digg gat oo er el a Berea a ae a Togs naw inks ce Veen ait eedae hao ete ee Fe in pa eo Sst aetna ne Se SE in’ ply ty ae by Sth ee Sebi ctgeurain Satan donee a Sire tate pee eco a ae Sen ia a en ed we Fett ner Nodes ot se eters ea ren ese ce a ik Peer a nis og ne na Pe teresa Hi a tine oe Wetton epg gb on a to's toson cesT aac ena 8 het wr at’ Den eo 1B eth nati Se pneieeced Sano ae cas gant ef hope at spe Til yw ee Jn shale a Soars ates jah ecco eam cat Sronepulectini ees fea fied; believe that the conclasie tioa’ and hunch’ to cover it}! And secondly, even if someone is abl ojastifythe results of his evaluating to some degree by bring. ing his conclusions uader certain concepts or principles, these may bbeno way in which he can justify (by reference to Further concepts ‘or principles) his king of one at more important than another, For example, a committee setup to evaluate some (actual or peo. posed) security arszngements might conclude that they ae lable to ring hardship oa people for no faults oftheir own, but that 20 weaker set of arrangements would safepuacd security to an ade. quate degece; the committee might then conclude that in thei ‘view the requirements of national secusty should be allowed to override th incidental haedship and inequity. TThave now sueceededin showing a divergence berweea evalu- ating and being ina postion to justify (or argue for) a decision, all that is lefts to suggest why jstiiatio, rather than evaluation, should be the subject of his study. The answer eth the limits of language are also the limits of philosophical analysis. It is no ddoube frustrating that nothing can be said in detail about those could be answer by seing stich provided hm with he gets ow’ of lesare o waite lose aealogy would be the queton which of two tape was Eotebstng mor tothe iling ca btn) But f grapes a poe toes cannot be compared in cis way, the question canner be 30 intexpeted.Tnstead one mst ak: how soy grapes would be fave tobe given to compensate fo losing poor linportance, AEitis to mean anything, most be related tote nrg ate of substation ofthe commode Exactly th tame reasoning can be apliedo pote principles values ate ncommensralthen Fe regare eficenty as more imporant than equity cannot be wndentood to mean eran efiency 2 coneibting a laner amount co he total goodness of 8 state of afte than does guy’ Forte gocdars ease of iis isnot « quant to which fice td equ eontbute bot merely a shorthand expresion forthe toa set ofthe man's indiferencecorvesexpeting the radu between esuity an ttceney which woul leave him eal satsied The scent ‘must be understod o mean IFirsaquestonef choosing between ficiency an equity, ake age potential ners in ety take him cep potential eduction incflency and ivr)? + Olver Wen Hoy, Js The Pah of thea, nin Tha ci ey hr ee ane pyc “tmpranc an oly be pad of ncmmererie in ro of (cca pri cess whitey read Sorin hn guns vel on cme coma onlerwceoldverl ion brs mone 7 In puting forward this corollary, I have deliberately over- simpli by talking of rb margial tte of substitution berween ‘aes and potatoes or ficiency and equity. Infact, one can only safely tlk abou the marginal ate of ubstitation ascertain point, ‘There ace relly two separate arpects ofthis, both of which have ‘levine: to political principle: ist indiference curves need fsotbe stsightlins; and second, indference curves need not be Pale o one anther, The fst implies that if we seek to situa. $s which reall udge equally dsiabe, it may well beth the end siden onder to know J. EVALUATING Ax PORTS OF viEW cA. Evaluating and Appraise So far Vhave ben aking the notion of evaluating’ for granted; and onthe whole fam more concerned with using i than with adding tothe voluminous literature on the subject. However, since most discussions seem to testi evalua. tion’ greatly, compared to is ordinary ue, I should pechap say that intend tin its ordinary wide ente “Bralae is fom the Pench “ralue’ the English word has « se rather like that ofthe French ord. As te structure of the ‘word sugges, ‘value’ has to do with the notion of dawing ot ‘eactng the value fom someting; ths rae? conse with “appre ze l aver, ester thos one ca sy ‘raat a ‘Yaeur d's teri’. imal in English ‘rau’ has to doth {he potion of ding or enticing the vl foes something bt ‘ot of couse ia the vente of sig value fom ‘raat one ‘ers with appecite’, bot that Sense of spec’ tht hs {6 do with sizing p (Undoubtedly the primary sense ofthe iter ing word), eg. appreciate the fae, an epprecstion ofthe Bare of utd Eva’ ao connec with teeming the ale “iat 28, in this quotation, rightly defines ‘evaluat’ ia terms of ‘value? foitisnecesaty to consider that word, Value’, used a verb as ‘0 meanings, Fis, it efers to an activity of determining the ‘worth (generally n money tems) of something. Thus the Vala. tion Officer of loeal authority, who assests the rateable vale of| houses, may say“ spent the whole afternoon valsing’ Appraise’ can also be used fortis.) And secon, ‘value ised torte #2 Someone's ‘sate of mind:* To say that one values someting in this sense is vo say that iis important to one, that i is worth a Food dealt one; butt does noe unl eee to monetary vale. ‘Thus, ypica examples ofthis use would bel value his Gsendship) servces/upporfencouragement greatly.’ T think iis file to say (asa mild coneesion co the prescriptive schoo) that these can be faken as expressing aot only gratia buta certain willingness UC oneself out 10 retain what is valued this should prove ecesay Pal 26, Smo ms ihc, New Yor, 19) p48. { Gompate sproved tat patna eet spre of he bla’ ting pot ino eect Ak, gave an apprenion fe and 9 Peps jus because ‘va’ used a vet for the action of tsemining wort, fas preenpte the Geldof deeding what bc soning would th orinsome sense ‘ought to fetch) the fore cunbertome‘ralat’ doesnot scm tobe ted in that tee tal Indeed, mse be dat itis a sed much nay sre! The contr in wich, acoring to my ohration ‘mot fen rps up ae) erating te evidence (His expect Aly ocr wh thc eas of fw data och te Ca isos from a sate or the records of 1 note tet) ( evalating poles (asually this expression tend toe eat ‘oj whee the policy has already ben in force for some tie ted segs a te made how i he wore fr ‘sample shoyptl may erate experienc guinelin applying the ayo abolihing et visig houn)s"Appane’ winch ave shady ated may besed aa approxima yaonyun for ale, tay be ed in wer ways a we, Thun, one ay gp ton whic comes to uch the sme as weighing hi op and would this fetch, what does this 2 , what does this prove, ete mst, thy vane ‘weighing up (isan pole ‘Tre oaks SME they are wort dal ll is proses ‘ome approximate synonym would be rote cee erate onto‘! ml pil: joi cad bh ov ene Seinen ri eg Liinoctemenne ORES Sr td ory Sibniinnersncmste mh hace eg Wins he Si lpaetetoe Siete ame a eae 980). a oi 4:B. Aspects, Evaluations ay be cased out from different arpcts, and using diferent ean group. These two distinctions can both be included under the heading of pier of rio and thats how they are usually referred to. Thus, in the aspect sense one may evaloe ate a new housing estate from the economic, the political or the aesthetic aspects or points of views a pie of writing might be evaluated from the stylistic, the logical or che factual sepects ot points of views and 40 on. A roomful of fusniture might be cvaluated by a carpenter for workmanship, an asthete for appear- ance, an ergonomist for comfort and convenience, n auctioneer for cash value and a pyromaniac for combustibility. Which pois ‘of view are ‘appropriate’ ina particulae case depends on what one’s Purposes or attitudes are—aad these in turn ean of course be Appmised by oneself or by others. Nero may be extczed for ‘Mlopting an aesthetic rather than a fire-fighting point of view in ‘examining the ize in Rome, even iit is granted that he may have been more skilful withthe violin than with the Gre-bucket. Or someone may be eritcized for adapting an exclusively economic Poin of view when considering the advantages and disadvantages ‘of Britain's joining the Common Market. C. Reforce Groxps. Consider these examples of the ‘reference group" sense of ‘point of view" fom a single shor article: Problems of intemnational tide from the point of view of Single county». Onesitaatoninctually beter tha the otee fom eversbody's point of view. The wate cased by tif from the pot of view of he uni- ‘etseas a whole deta etal he they fet adversely the welfare ofa single county. ‘When one speaks ofthe aesthetic point of view” nobody supposes ‘that there has to be an entity “Aesthetics with “point of view" "Laver in Nor Satan, x Desens 9p, by H. St Stoke: “Me Dow ny dor ne ent te ple mparane ofthe Con ‘Mate fot ey ws my ease hen spe fhe Common ‘Mahe debe Though eae sue tat Jy sk by {>on poin, be mane wig ton vp tbe Coton ae om ‘hcezogomi ne 17 Slory A Noton Welz penos ie Economie of Br Sa Nov Gomme eh Pe ‘The point ie’ ith of theasatr, act the obec of his tvaluing els. When oe pats of ae pot of view oft oun ex eepbodys ple view iti x eit suppose Shr ean or opto of coun” or “verbouy Aad although ‘everbody’ may be sud to have an opinion if thee is ‘ontniy, taba of view toa group were is dived fis ver loge icles! However i wos! be oso Sach mike hk thas coun what has he ics ‘thik that ‘Achte wat ha the view "A coun spy ola tothe ange af pepe ernie ase ns cecoee 5 sling hs ealatons Isa el tis ge of people she ral ‘sens groping somata i ike fea th mde ocho we of he tam, Th seo ear sun etn ply is avanngeons ty he tet ak Ter ucannh powy cette member of ase hate ent do's spy to ignore the mene of the group he a ot ffoup. someone objects to hss. ‘mest that the policy i advantageous from the point of toe of te Feu by lying ‘Jone wll be won of salts ettes = rove’ he mas eply either that this is not so of that in his. ‘station te lo curwghed bythe gan ef oe member ofthe grou * ‘Beaken ofthe group, He cannot tay “Jones doesnt count! oF Por © taking ao evalua, tog r lato, though it may sel hehe {Si ofa fankes cleo: “es sash of ean ee ‘tow dese ino account Howeres pre oes Poort eh very eb ely and evaluations with everyone of some lage group such as a ‘country as thei object shal eal adc rented Just as dsagreements in evaluation may orm n5%on any die ein piniples but mather on one person's giving a umber of ‘gred principles diferent relative weights fom anoles person, {0 difeeaces in reference group alto account for many deagrs” ‘ments without involving say diferenes in pincples* Indeed, justas problems of a conf of loyalties give rie to some ofthe ‘ost intractable problems of peronal moms, co problems of hich reference group fo take lo acount provide many of the ‘nos intacable plial problems Think there would bea general tendency among people to say when asked that when evaluating + policy the puopersefeence soup is comprise ofall those who ane alecred by i. But if 0, ‘his vesbal response conspicuously fs to correspond to ates evalustions. How many people in this country worsed sbout anvclear werpoas while it was ony the Resins who were going to behitby them? How much of tr national income would we give sway if we were relly willing to say tat everyone wast count forone and nobody for more tha one? ‘Towards the ead of the World Refugee Year a man wrote to The Grain signing hie "Midle Clase Milionaite, saying ‘hat compared wih the efogers he could be considered milion sire and he was sending £50 tothe fund; ad inthe following couple of months several hundred more people did these. have the grentese respect for these peopl, who gave fit ore than i, Bot mse ps out chat thy ad ake themes at ‘what point would poundecasctodomeless good thanarefugee?” ‘ott of them would buve been commited at last to giving fen times so. So jt looks asifharly anyone counts everyone for one; “1 would be egaenint to be able oui the expressions lege? pli ean’ bet Mls conuing se of (lad ‘the®) ea tna (GF scon) for seting’ in Or Laer bas peated i at ae English philosopbia aape Bue we Lamont, Pri of rel Jen (Oro, 94), pp. 8-4, for x we of elsepeding. ade sepa ng’ applied to ends and vlog to be sfernce group cooceed inte indgemen Thi why bo re uted by Gieserg ine arguments or iors of pencipe undedying difzencen inthe rir of valuation fom coe, Society to another. See i. Ginsberg ‘On the Dine of Mom, Sona Seca Php, afteury Books, London, 1968) 3 Ee all more or les willing to jugele the addition, whether we make it come out at £50 or at the national average contribution se Wold Refage Yat of for slings it even if in practice reference groups tend to stop at state oundaces, there has, think, been a clearly visible move within the list century and’ probably longer towards treating all the ‘Bembes of one's state as forming a single reference group, rather ‘an picking out particular groups within the state er $5 pitacey wit cl rive without omepontig eater a het cee foun Nel ii of ie hat fats shouned ia history. We are thos foced to ate Upon what eid mc yh intr ees tae es So, eal? Hana wea be ec ci ne bn ecgna nl one ores es Serene cy defen car nc tttcs sk Ssionsdetistiitocinmid suariorereeaal iit ine sia cer he tod ede te Sits Erte whch rv ong nee ithe toni peal ear nee tthe pper onder Paes advances th aa sate the most import ate reference 7 at rennin sepa SEEM es, although ie would be eat to cxagent ‘ation ro Senet tendency for those who wish vo justly sci that screen ther that Negroes, (ete.) are really ‘inferior’ or att at Bete for ae One may think these are bad fom the univesalit point of view it's stly at fon whnese graition wher iis hough thc unter rosa for. Would even a Southern white suprema "Then Maine's Brahmin? an pct hot oes Mi Glover MLA, ad wdaarae tcc tune yee Thonn oe cia jaderou rai wht aay ad ify do Peet ater ooinotvenjncer tc eda tea pont mean mon tad Chisamenandehc Unroncnabloot nan St hintaan wet YOU, i will mean ‘compared with black Smee Focal Utena pa poe Tree Tove eis for youve a te devi ae sient can ne Joe Ca "RT v8 Aen ane ton Sl eae ew York 500), pp 44s 4 : Sic Heney Maine tells os that he has himself eae high este Tin declare thst itis the teaching of religion that « Beth ‘entitled to twenty times as much happiness a sayone el, and this ‘ot upon the groand of individual meri aising fom any conduct ‘or mode of ie on his par, but bees intially, ga Bahn heistwenty times the soperioe of thowe of lower exes | Siow, . 36 sessing 0 Sie Heary Mine, Lacs a be Early ier of Irn (Londen, 1914), p38. However, ny calle, ‘At Duaupta, assggesed that he Beka mph well cam ti he wa ‘etiled fo exes hapiaes of account of his proupvly erttons ‘mei la previous enstences, Sofie do man Ung fo odd tring opie rene (ower fn) for deans in ect 5 Tr LANGUAGE ee t. nernopucrion: ri gegaci ae ete Ste tc er ele pe er ris on ae Wie ahtnthan uinemronenens serie acc ropa, Soran oa age, me ding ene Se orendiesaae tees wandl Souci besten Sceceive and ‘eauative soe the latter into Ppa ie nat te ect ka une pees mee Anything essential tohie under- of Sim teten wilt anys Mato" of proceeding in the next aa antiga oto otenince to fave meaning eis ‘Then, by refectng on the inadequacies ofthese two aecounts I stall develop what seems 2 mote satisfactory one. After that (Section 4) I shall apply this general theory of meaning tothe par cular problem in hand—the problem of so-called ‘evalustre? ‘meaning. Ie wll be obvious thatthe subject-matter of thee thse sections could eomfortably fila large book by itelf. 1 should therefore like to strike two cautionary notes before pong, further festly, thatthe theory of meaning developed in this chapter it elaborated only inthe diections and to the exient necessary for ‘making the poins that are directly relevant to my pretent pt poses; and secondly that where alternative views on the question ‘of meaning are mentioned ths is purely as a means to making my ‘own plainer Te would be foolish to pretend to any adequacy in slscussng the views of others in sucha small compass sobriety tree ta ett ie ae fag ste ce i wih nana a mp Soka Te die as jr ei mc ae nt a Aer eds a ne sc mpen bomiarsie nena te sonora aemeon Drvang hs ieriarpacdaeas 3 fee mh ie ft Soe ta et espace Ciiefalae wiedageotgosemi manage eam Serancanlieranyoroomet ais ret taney wpegeeag en sr ieoh cae creas el em nt oem Somteenmmerence ‘ays couse one to pet themselves which have the Moreover, (a point I stall line doesn include any 0877 itis not the sounds hearted but the cnt oF his tenance ‘tum to) the meaning of You ae coc to people geting angey, apie lat Thay 1 he easly td The oty is rejected, the next See te te ‘According to ‘hich the peas eanceis tobe dented witht ween mle athe thea SESS ttl eee leisure peptic) irrtesaeas ene waht aginst the causal theory: vt as PeaPieeestthcraternces tobe Seyret ce wc meaty at he ee Signet Racers speakers atone : Steer Robe *taaa Raha rey rare ne _ ‘lid, Suppose that know Jones is counter-sugestibles chen in ‘order to get him to dos (which what I wat i to) Ihave to tel him not to do x. My intention i that he should do but sorely the meaning of Do not do +” does not change beeause of this? Indeed, i is prcsly because ‘Do not do wears what does that Tena us iti oder to get Jones to do = ‘This ctcism canbe generlied. The meaning ofan uteance sannot be equted with the ata intention ofthe speaker in ang it. Aswelas the case wherel tll Jones notto do in oret to ge him todo the opposite, consider agin the case of cling somes Aline. The cava theory had to incude ‘anger inthe meaning of “You're lin’ ifthe actual efertof the utterance was to anger the hearer; but the speaker's-nteation theory must ele em the teaning ifthe speaker intends to produce anger in the hacer (Whether he succeeds or not is ielevant forthe speaker's Inteation theory) itis ofthe spake’ ntnio theory an be met pal by introducing a modiestion due to Grice. According this, the meaning of an uteranc isto be dated with hose tects which the apeater intends to produce in the hearer by means of the hearers ecognition of datintenton’ Ths, ven you ecopize ty intention of making you angry, is not now necessary say ‘hat this has any connection with the meaing of "You + lag? Beeanse Ido ot intend to make you angry putly by rcogeiion ‘of my intention to do so Inthe conta ase where ef Shut the dooe” my intention isto get you to shut the door prey by ‘Scogniion of my mention, The counter-uggestion empl dlso fal ino place on the presen theory. When fa) to Jones Don't dow Lam ceraialy aot eying to gt him todo» by means of his recognition of my intention Lam pretending that | am tying fo {et im mito do's by means of ie rcogaition of da intcation, Ad this is what Tut be taken to mean "ALP. Gti, Messing Phil Rein, LXV (19) 38 Pe boos we my sam up wat ncoary fo a mesa ig by flows mat nd onda bys tnt aN sold ernest bipognsed so ned Gein neil, 4 cnered ih Gong eon orton cig something Sieur a propeig the te aon for cing et be Neha eth and ay homie never. doesnt make ‘27 reef he eof mening whee Ion yng oe to 9 2G. Th Bee of Cane Sil te Grice theory i at com lly adeqate at itstands becasitdoes not ena one fo dn 4 dtacion terwen ‘What Jone ect and What thes ons (eb ons) "What it Jones mean? ean be fay el SEs Nites iona wating hour og ‘ion fis intention? (oro nfm, What was eon fe Savy?) Ba ‘Wha di his wonds mea? seques oe comple answer. Roughly, i is equvdent to "What hes od area wing thove words normaly be incaing ten ‘nehyssognion of hat intention" Ths sill ek sogeee gh at hat people meats primary ad what he ene ee Shier commen yetdowe St ns ete Rl Ct bart hes Tae Sg {aedit ean Cea etna nwpesak SHh oe What Sete dices na eae te mes hee sanng (where “ving meng to bead Soadinthe wy feng). Tapert eisai heinpoanc convention by alps isnt erane tno core cmecing ine ttn by ono wing. Bu jt because te eto Convention nial ng tre bad aeog? oa Steroee n'a lngunge A sig ttn cf ihe ee wh which a hcl canoe ty what doin oy phic pronto tn he ingen of hs weg tremecng of netomat ese knows eng inc te awe one) oer ind eee ‘een inte new lnguge ston fe dx nw ae cloner slope wo beat gs or salvay sgl, which mena wit hey mn ite ode Tse ve oo Ine nae dnergenehetwen oh hsp mene de the lgainan a nguge hayes dvoag doe have toom ort When augulig devices angel os te prac gs ich nv «ting isthe se tse oo pol in sing Wat i eigen San? ans these Bote in stig “What de ce someone aes co ‘Renn wih or wns goal sys angst ay ep ne cone Supe hgh at sme sanion nee eco cc hese ih ene nce 1 ang by a socovenoal range lg tnd thshappess ihc pone soa bx We doe a int ich woul py art dares aang cde Bene dn now i) Eo Wit dsr nea tise foto snoncoeoa us ong The exception, wbich prove ny pot, ea cip whic sil euloely ctor cone whete the symbols are nce (me eval 1) coer oaaize? or employed for their phone valu in acing the spoken angus. 2"The exception sania ilsmiating It wete a atone sgl hen {ay gevltion from the presi paern would secewury be due to ‘weakdown. Te would thea be appropiate wk os deviate igalWhat dot fat mean butte see of et? woul be tae which at “Coad mean nn other word, one would te sking aot wha thie wat geal Iwasa sympiom of (Te word gn coves Bot, which at ‘en responsible fora good deal of cone). 3: ‘convo econ razon 4h Summary. The theory a which Tate in the previous sec- Son hough ci ofthe alan intent rs say be bleh convendonlitention teary Intis een {dll begin by sing i a8 developed wo frie ee ed Toy Then clad vain complains which aren {pmb to cope wit the queens sel bysoeclon cee ‘re word andre scene i Let us call an trance any change inthe enviconmen agg alied 1 change inthe which ie (ea, a ight or abl of beng iter on oro) Sb ie ne alle ad mone code, for eam, ee Cee WH ep met wna os cts inthe ere sce Se esnetereicce EPL Frm. A ngage sinc DAN eae ha ne sy to ee — themselves complete forms of uternce and which cn be com- ‘aed ia vations ways to make an unlmied number offers of terance, We ean ell hese ingustic ford" Words ae, othe ‘peaker of an analytic language such a English the cbvion can. didates; but even in Eoglsh there ae lso movies of words (sizes and inflection) and syetactial cements such ot Wosd corde allo which make an independent conaibuton tthe mean. dng of sentences in which they cccurs We can now soggeat that the meaning ofa word (cc) to be found by dscovedag whats ‘ommon co the rodieatons ft ntoduces othe normal content of forms of uterancewhea fe epacesalteratve words. The ig. cance ofthis is ta enable sto ee rote precy how its Potsible fora speaker to use sentence whch does not have 8 Boal content in order t0 convey somthing to his hee although the sentence dos not have 4 normal content, the words (ete) comprising it do tave a meaning which ie given by tie Contribution to sans which do hate toa Cones 4G. Lingitc Cont ond Scie! Contet. What 1 now wish to suggest tat its weal for some purposes todenw a dinton ‘between tha prt of te normal coment of an uteraace which due tothe meanings of words and that pare which sot Taal all the former che igi ot and the later the seal ment though thee are misleading if thelr defisitions ate degered, A non-contoversial example ay help to caf the distinction hich Tam puting forward, The meaning of urge’ is Cougiy) “legs than the average mero the cas in question’ whete he clas in question depends of couse onthe soun which Tage’ ‘modies (See Xz.) Someone who knew that Tare” mean is andalso knew ch meanings ofthe other words ina certain werd woe a ded guerra hu sll not know is compete nornal content and ii to cove this conigeney atone to ios he er as Content, For example, suppose tha someone knows that “ange” meno ‘larger than average for the cas” aad ako knows the ‘meaning of theres ofthe words in Pic a age spoon” He may sul go wrong by having a core notion ofthe range of spoon GL1. Blooeld Lng Sew Yor. 93). tp 48 2 caa ft Stn Lepesant of os aly be oveeid See Maton Word; Peng Fie Arian Sa EN 95990 PPT 3 axounce, si. an ge ae aerating sSpectenes ats teh eee oe et icles mates tapi crevice ana pew eione ep tered reman near Eek amie coe perc senescent te pe ror epitope diet i ee ea iieiney otra So me mmene chs wale ca ange te Tem one Sie ‘content in a contest where ‘pps mention of the context of an utterance leads me to the inal point wish to makes stesaninvidal wordy have diferent 8 which meaning is relevant by seeing ofthe sentence, soa tentence nay have is relevantby examin- 3D. et Caro The normal content of utterances be ‘hielo hich speaker uke tolnenog np eernab ole ee eopnen Seals ten, For cramp tnd ep ae engiton Jno wena neal wo eh todo dts eka — = alssonss Tis chen wages sodlnetogtve nds few eda, ingeauee : lind of stn though ae Fe conmlace eran athough there isby ao means elation | usieaion just mendones seasing ist tat wish to aor ts mote at propby- ee masre. That sy, wae bing i forwtrdeoo conpasiae that although cry ae sts sould ote ken "opeeroaly. Tis, ofcoune, cero acknowledge tives Las of meaning than one thi at eat prevents questions fom bag ‘eluced to ateents that One watt to know sands ore fopatives to sexements tht one wants sand so done. Bet hte isto «pri seat fo sppoing tat tres eaepoi are cng ‘Scorer he phenomens ota thereneedbea sale dcbaee tnswerto th question How nny categories shold cnc eaploy? Inany eat, surly the righ proclare sto develop the cxeges 10 it wha on fis ater tan force everthing willy te Fedetrminl pigeon hols. A good looscingup exec io thnk ofsome of he ways in white can chansaesoe ences focexanple, he wae, he pie eco, he gle Re seit cbjee: Th noms’ of xsi isha ving ior Ssaton hough infomation relevant 1 adgeent) ree an ating ton dey 7 {illo orto bits and then put the results ofthese evaluse tions together wit others ss to forma judgement of his ovetall 5 a politician. I shall shelve this complication util the net section, however, and tar my attention to the ex ofdo cevanting words, . na 4B. Es officio Exlating Words, Some words ate used in sentences tere in onde ate an erdrng which hasbeen artived at bp ‘Gpittig (est, ‘seoand bet’ .); others state the grading hich ha ben atrved at by appming (At, A 3005, {xceleat, good fs poor, rt class, secon class»). Yecotbets | Satetheasnud or sponse considered appropriate view ofthe ‘waits ofthe hing. This may be dane ( in general terms (comm Fe ait. Sebl prsewonty admirable, ort may be pel of ‘won (worth a pound’, ‘wort an 0ing to see if you're in the neighbour. J Spceions suchas elie, “eecdne ade, (ee) td ‘asf. Notice that something hich is fein fect good (x) ba that something may be Er oe beng aa eer ech Oe ee Bete espe gS ope al nd cand wa tethers of rang om ea Wiad ete po of iw Es Cindy, Sal Wot fo person wines oad Sees ear apn oc) aT and et frei OOM) fod se ‘man. Otber examples aro Sonat ENE 108 cee ie — (fe. Thee a 8 welfare’, ‘good for him’, " to ‘Any enquiry into the ‘meaning’ ofthese groups of words takes sino contentious tenitory, bur think the dsincton between linguist and soci meaning throws + good dal of light on te smater. Suppore we consider the stack example Of “good? an fiji, aden, with xr litle application in trl aod Poliical discussion. ‘The standard “presepavst point i that {Foot eannot nave ss part of ts meatng any sefeenc fo‘? cr ‘descrip’ properties because the ete fora ood cabbage ada good Lng (a are so ferent that they surely have nothing in common, yet we donot want to have to uy tat ‘good has ‘many meanings as there ate nouns for to go ith ets ake the fest pont fest. 1 think there euch o be sald forthe view, pt forward by Paul Zi in Somat lad, tothe fet that eaty ll arbutons of 'goodess to an object invelve the soggeton tat the object miners eo some oman interest (perhaps ‘icterest of some seniene ereut’ woul be preferable). Tean se nothing implasibl in supposing tat ‘This objet mins: ters to a human interest but fs it good? might be interpreted simply as meaning Ts there some couotervalinghaman terest 0 ‘which ie nimieal? a ooweves, the prescrip’ might reply that even if this 4, is simply a recedion of the fc that to sy someting i ‘good? {0 putit na high though atthe top grade; sod th see 20 ‘oe accepableIndend 1 woul appl enact the same argument 0 the"preerpivis’ angi of god? in ems of choosing Just 8 fone Ean suggest reasonably that i something is sghly given igh grade theres probably some human or otesiteeat which itsases, soit is probably senile her things beg eual—r0 coos tin preference to something ofthe sme hod graded lower The second ‘prescriptive’ point that I aoted was tothe eet that we do not want to say Ut ‘goo has as any meanings as there ae nouns for itt go with Now, this point could eealy ‘well be put forward by someone who supported the view tht ‘what all ses of good’ have la common ie the asetion Gat the thing in quenion safes a nee. For che dsineivefextore either case would be the identification of the mening ofthe word ‘ith the common contebution which makes othe meaning of Alloeranees in which overs ‘Bother should like wo eel my dicusion of large’. eis pat 9 Seeger ofthe oil content of are pce’ gten an Bagh culiary cre) rs toa apo sca, ln eae soy tis par of thes one good epg ths ees oe S3Esin pen an Engh lines omen’ Pherae soil cone of fp pon depen upon the sas fn hee spins sul come and hat of Good ay" pens pow so fegp which inact mae peop east non fo con on wie ret ‘meaning? when atti ro ate Seo i ie ae Secreta Sire ad ero cy nah a Ercirit sctetics things re ee aye abet ad ae ood. This logout Stop ed 30 ing “Tat cane ne end te or ES hat where ge He PABEE yma E88 th ppt shy, yon eae sepa Fhe wea egos Ye Weiner rgae ae per restate ote crlaog eget fer ein 80 fothowing aronenege 0 an explicit discaimer (which would be almost equivalent to: ‘when [say eggs I mean apples’ the grocer can propery object the complaint is mo that they had gone afl patiula the procet oes not need to know anything about the personal tastes of standards of the speaker in order to undetstand (not goes) what Ihe means by "bad exes [Notice that in order to defend himself against deliberate decep- ‘oni is not enough for the speaker to say that his criteria for bad- ness in eggs are peculia, for you commit yourself to che normal standards unless you dissociate yourself from them explicitly. Not willie do for him to say that he didn't know the noemal standards, for then he should not have used “bad but should have spelt out his complain. The only defences permissible ae chat he dida’t know what ‘bad? meant (in the ‘constant coatibution” sense) and ought it meant, say, Brown; or (2) that he knew what “bad? ‘meant ad tugir he knew the normal eritecia, bat was in act mis- taken about them, 4:C. Final Note. In this work I shall inevitably be dealing mostly ‘with words which are ex offie consiteents of evaluative uter- ances, because the most important and pervasive political evalua tions tend to be expressed by using them. But 1 hope that my analysis will have indicated cha the ference between ex efo ‘evaluating words and othess is not of much importane, since {valuations can be exprested perfectly well without them. Indeed, whether a word ise afte evaluative or not makes only one di ference, namely thatifitis, then any utterance employing it an be to be connected with evaluating without one’s needing t0 {examine the lguistc contest in which the word occurs or the ftalinguistic context ia which the uterance occurs. But this Saggeses (whats, Tthink, tue) that the idea of dividing words into hose which are’ ew afiio connected with evaluating and those which are not is a great oversimplfcation once we leave the Brading and ordering words, Instead, we should think of some ‘words as requiring vr contextual information before we can know that they occas in-an evaluative utterance, and others a3 equiring mere. The words put forward in categories wo and theee above (Gficieney, etc, and justice, ete) a8 ex afiio connected with {valuation would simply be those clstered athe les end of the > ” 5: PRA Pain AND CONCLUSIVE ARGUMENTS saudi perpen serree ecto ese 2 at te miele eotricpeclenmnetenttam te ees eect gee Seana ta ates eerie mr wits ae tnd son. Now, cal, no oe sae SMH be pt foray al a ance EERiarinternoe oa ate oh tag ayo 40, then when explaining why ‘Sek Ways ay, emailed ete Raritan > ‘it, Sus, “equitable, for Se cw ae = mea vee sat ee fBae cae an Tighe toa 7 the common good” and to on) tend to be used as if they were 2 ‘melive aggument wherein fact they ae the mean argument." To say that some policy isin the public interest, on the present saalysis, isto say that i is satisfactory on balance but the thing ‘hat s really nits favouris that itis in the public interest. et were too unsatisfactory on some count (eg. unfir to a degeee which ‘more than counterbalanced its being in the public interes) this ‘ew count would be put forward n the guise of conclusive coa- sideration agin it (eg. T's not fi), For example, ‘the public’ often means ‘the consumers’. Now, ia this sense of ‘public’ it would clay be “in the public iaterert to Ihave working conditions st poot as is compatible with eficiency. ‘Why is this ot (openly) recommended as being “in the public interes’? Surely, because obviously unacceptable proposils are weeded ourat a prior stage, thus enabling the ones thatare lle to be put forward as being “ia che public interest” wheee this now functions inefet as a conclusive argument. Thus, fa regulatory ‘commission is told to regulate an industry ‘ia che public interest" this dies mean that i should regulate ii the intezests ofthe eus- tomers; but cher is an implied. qualification that the industry should gee ‘fair pros and pay ‘fai’ wages. Te isnot that these are additional criteria of the public interes; its simpy that ‘the Public interes’ can only be uted asa cnrlaie argument whee itis ‘acily understood that other requirements of @ good policy are ‘atisied toa sufiient degree. ‘Consider in this connection, Rexford G. Tugwell’ discussion in The Economic Bass of Pei Insts Ia tis he writes that ‘the doctrine ofthe public interest... is quite plainly a rule forthe piet absence of ives and inducement te parts tobe dpe ec out om intial incompatible postons-othersise we have “fpontncous coincidence of wil’) to reachan agreement on What inthe monly sigh visio, what poly isin the ines of allot them or will promote tie tort waneatsacion, and ot ‘iv inated ne angtents aboot the ere interpretation of fone al ose of rls which the pars acep a prowaig the fewer to their pate ‘Negotiation’ wil be eed fo cover both tuning and dacusion on ett ‘However fiat the ine say be to dr in pate exes lctweendscustion on ments and trgsning ney 0 satin Principle I agicement is seahed by means of dsasson of {tent the partes to the dare bave changed ther minds aboot ‘nt they wants even if one party ba he power ets Way Completely it weld pot want o change the sltion, Agreement ‘tached by mean of gaming onthe other hand eel = oles econ on hep ach ide tat teataot hope co [st more of what it wants han i reptetented bythe setdenent Bo each sd resin with forth flution it xg este fied and fit had the power to achieve that tolaton it would seit to that eo, OF couse, many (perape nex al) segoie tion avove both bargaining ard Geuson on mei, bot his ocr at disolve the derencs bese) thee ae tl eat caves an (eve inthe combined eases on ancien ding the respeatine contributions to the agreement of bargaining 20 ‘fscostion on mer or example in ails wage negotiation one might beable to say that the initial gap between the onions demand and the employers ofr was falved when cach heeame geninly co0- ‘ince tat aim as cues a i of to low Fee Frys bot he oes ofthe gap ws only mediated by the fir exch stood toon y stk Or gun ler scone a jaey deeraing, Pat of their inal. Gageemeat may be seis ein te ve tat he sinha ec 7 ned by on conning ance (in “Twelve Angry Mes) bavi may be Rael by hose ing you oy ‘ark Tay be nocetso wll edit manages ote Ss elderly to empze tat brining gue srt rhein tse They eaves comin what unge- tsa tats man ough bein ot cena toy the ans hs bugga “eis prpons (tris oon or syone cle’ Inde, he saybeeasy going wep oemed manent bot = eget ne momen sv he (0) Fag Werther tre mote han two pate cogitinaeesaviamns pees Seotemy arent ph erences ‘aon Alo defen ininton i ma be puede ot rayne. Voting maybe open on eons, Ass pronnioa Infra be et for «don These toe ponte pevaal aut ew ea don Sense ie os adc of voting «pein ty eve see tu deed on th prose for hey, cae ee SE eng ton mae Known bf os 9) Cae guint" of sein apes int SENET te cate mechan ony Seat ger ENT, SE Pethpe the mom porate ae of Sate SO how tenething thal Be ecee ee rect cet he pcre a PriBienl (Ge, braiag stein clacions) batik gies ane toon Somat Seems runes gm sete oh te ome cnvinad fae oe ge Sato ae ewer aceaaee Soler hatter Semana ermnasterrnee Sopa clatmensnrare Salva 9 we pm oe UN Si £m roto mnt egesintions. A body seh ey Coit amin ec a ty ema es Spot idea of fairness as arbitrariness which as we shall see below has ‘umifcations beyond srcly chance procedures. (6) Cont. Discussion on merits will sometimes take the form ‘of a dispute as to which of the various parties is “beter ae’ some- thing, and this may be inconclusive because each can bring for- ‘ward certain evidence of past achievements to support his eve. ‘One way of setting the question i to set up a contest, This does not actually setle the original question, but it replaces it by ‘nother which is at leat eases to sete; you may however claim ‘that though you lost the contest this was because you were o- Tacky or had an oftday—-yow are sl in general, better. Subject 0 this qualigcaton, though, it may be said thatthe easiest way t0 find out who ean tun a hundred yards fastest is to havea eae; the ceusiest way to find out who is the best angler is t0 see who catches the most Sth in an afternoon. Those faced with question, ‘Who is best at 2°, may thus sete for the rough but objective ince of comes athe thn sk all pst performace a By 8 contest then I mean such things as arae, a boxing match, 4 competitive examination oa fshing contest. In general a con~ test isa way of allocating something which makes the allocation Aepend on comparative achievement, chose who are eligible for the allocation knowing in advance what the criterion of achieve- ment is (aumber of fish, weight of largest fish, weight of total catch) and during what petiods of time their efforts will count towacds the result, (If the chaizman of the fishing cub announces atthe end ofthe day's fishing that he will pive £3 to the angler with the heaviest catch, that does not tum the aftenoon’s sing retroactively into a contest.) A restriction on ‘contest in ordinary "usage is that che amount to be allocated should remain somewhat Jnvasant with respect tothe quality ofthe field of contestants! Butin my use ofthe word, [wish to ignore this limitation, beens everything I shall have to say about fxedallocation contests will ‘also apply to fxed-standard tials ay samen inva Beas we do orl sy tht hee 00. testeyen sen he nue of pie (9) edd because of ow gel ‘Bort nomber wee th nese want mabe once eure tat eveyone who seched cetain ander got «pri. {eon this woud owl eke out the rel oF cotest and into at fy, qulying ea % () uli denise. Tis, eal expo, conta ihe peos sin eat thm the pte as seed Wat set at all by ll he prs topees? “Autonaire

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