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    Fluid-Dynamic Drag, Hoerner

    Uploaded by

    Fabio Pompeu Eleuterio Nogueira

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    FLUID-DYNAMIC DRAG theoretical, experimental and statistical information presented by Dr.-Ing. S. F. HOERNER 1965 FLUID-DYNAMIC DRAG Practical Information on AERODYNAMIC DRAG and HYDRODYNAMIC RESISTANCE by SIGHARD F. HOERNER Dr.-Ing Published by the Author 1965 COPYRIGHT 1992 BY LISELOTTE A. HOERNER COPYRIGHT IN GREAT BRITAIN ‘Text and/or illustrations of this publication may not be reproduced, neither as a whole nor in part, without the specific permission of the copyright holder and publisher. PRODUCED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Library on Congress Catalog Card Number 64-1966 The book is only for sale by mail order, directly from HOERNER FLUID DYNAMICS PO. Box 21992 Bakersfield, CA 93390 Phone/Fax: (661) 665-1065 Should this address expite, the new location may be found in listings such as the Membership Roster of the American Instiure of Aeronautics and Astronautics (ATAA, ia New York City, with offices in Los Angeles and Brussels) or in copies of the book recently purchase. FOREWORD In the second edition of his book, Dr. Hoerner has added two chapters on hydrodynamics; the title has been changed accordingly. It is certain that this expansion of scope will meet with approval from all who are working in the field of “fluid dynamics I see no reason for any material change in the foreword given in the first edition (“Aerodynamic Drag”, May 1951). What is said there, applies to the second edition with obvious minor modifications. I have, therefore, suggested that it be so revised and included as follows. When Dr. Hoerner asked me to read his manuscript and write this foreword, I consented to do so, but with some misgivings regarding the nature of a book carrying the title AERODYNAMIC DRAG. AL though Dr. Hoerner is known as a highly competent aerodynamicist, it did not seem possible within the scope of the title to do much more than prepare another compilation of drag data. My first impression on reading the text was one of great surprise at the magnitude of the author's achievement. He had succeeded in producing an outstanding treatment of the subject; so that we now have aan entire book concerned with but one of the six components of the total aerodynamic force. And it is not just another book. It is an ex- ceptionally well written, systematic treatise showing a splendid balance between the theoretical and the experimental approach. The presen- tations are always made with great clarity, even in those cases where the author has had some obvious difficulties working in a new language. Itis safe to predict that this volume will be well received, not only by aeronautical engineers but also by all who have any concern what- ever with aerodynamic or hydrodynamic drag. The whole field of trans- portation is involved, and many will find here for the first time a readily usable compilation of basic data. I take great pleasure in being the first to congratulate Dr. Hoerner on his contribution to aeronautical progress. Only those who have tried to evaluate, to compile, and to corre- late data in the form as it has been done in this book, can fully appre- ciate Dr. Hoerner’s effort. WASHINGTON, D. C.— August 1957 WALTER S. DIEHL ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. During the years of his work in applied aerodynamic and inydrodynamic research, the author had the opportunity of doing himself, and of directing ‘thers in performing erodynamic investigations of a more general nature, ‘This book is the result of such original work as well as that of the author's analysis and evaluation of material from other sources. The author is paticularly indebted in this respect to the ‘National Advisory Commietee for Aeronautics (now NASA, Washington, D. C.) for the large volume of information made available in theie publications, and to the American Instirate of Aeronautics and. Astronautics (New York City) for their assistance in ‘obtaining information from publications of every type. The author acknowledges also his indebredness co Walter §, Dichl (Captain USN, Ret, formely Chief of Research and Development, Bureau of Aeronautics) auchor of “Engineering Aerodynamics’, for his encouragement whea first publishing this book. AUTHOR'S PREFACE In 1951, the author introduced the first edition of his book, entitled “Aerodynamic Drag”, in part as follows: It is the author's objective in this book, to present information on drag or fluid-dynamic resistance in a comprehensive, generally-valid and in- telligible manner to students, engineers and researchers. The text is not always a “handbook”, however, giving ready results. The reader is expected to work out the desired information himself, considering cause and effect involved in the problem he wants to solve. It is primarily the aeronautical engineer who is interested in aero- dynamic drag problems, so that he can predict and possibly improve the performance of airplanes. The principles of aerodynamic drag, many detailed data, and some special sections in this book should, however, find interested readers in several other fields of engineering as well —in the design of automobiles, in shipbuilding, in the construction of chim- neys (wind loads), in the design of high-speed railroad trains, in ma- chines applying aerodynamic or hydrodynamic forces, and finally in the design of ventilation systems. “Aerodynamic Drag” was originally written in 1945 and 1946, as a re- sult of the author's experience in German research: and industrial or- ganizations (such as Junkers and Messerschmitt). Many additional and more recent data have been added, however, during the translation in the following years. Subsequently, the technical publishing houses in New York City were not found to be confident enough to bring out a book as specialized as this one. The author, therefore, decided to do the publishing himself. ‘The following information is now added on “Fluid-Dynamic Drag” Progress in aerodynamics is rapid in these years. The volume of infor- mation published during the last five years is very large. A second edi- tion of “Aerodynamic Drag” could, therefore, not very well be a reprint. Instead, every section of the text has been worked over and numerous improvements and additions have been made, in an effort to keep the publication up to date. This is particularly true in compressive and su- personic aerodynamics, which are now presented in three chapters. Besides air, the medium of water is most predominant in practical ap- plications of fluid dynamics. The author was happy, therefore, to have the opportunity during the last years in New York City, to participate in research and design of ships and hydrofoil boats — and to acquire in this way personal experience in water flow too. Asa result, two chapters on hydrodynamic resistance have been added to the essentially acrody- namic content of the first edition. The title of the second edition has been adapted accordingly. Another chapter has also been added, presenting wind loads on various types of structures, especially buildings. After acquiring some experience as his own publisher, the author could not resist repeating the procedure in the second edition. Appearance of the text and readability of the illustrations have been improved. The author feels much indebted to the typesetter, the printer and the book- binder — for having produced the book very skilfully. The 1965 edition differs from the preceding one, as follows; A num- ber of misprints and some mistakes have been eliminated. “Drag in cavitating flow”, in Chapter X, has been rewritten. Hypersonic char- acteristics such as in missiles and re-entering vehicles, are presented in an added chapter. The “atmospheric properties” in Chapter XIX, have completely been rewritten. A section has been added, dealing with the aerodynamic drag of satellites. Chapter XX is also new. In- formation on various subjects of drag, ranging from base-vented hydrofoils to characteristics at supersonic speeds, has been collected in this chapter. NEW YORK CITY — AUGUST 1964 SIGHARD F. HOERNER ‘THE AUTHOR studied mechanical engineering at the Institute of Technology in Min- chen (Dipllng.), he earned a degree as Dr-Ing. in aerodynamics at the Institute of ‘Technology in Braunschweig, and he obtained a degree as Dr.-Ing habil. from the TH Berlin, He served at one time as research assistant at the Deutsche Versuchsanstalt fir Luftfahrt (DVL, near Berlin), as aerodynamicist in the Fieseler Corporation (working ‘on the first STOL airplane, the “Stork’") and later for a time as head of design aerody- hnamics in the Junkers A.G, He was then research aerodynamicist at the Messerschmitt (AG. After World War I, the author was invited to come to the United States, where hhe worked in aerodynamics at Wright Field, Ohio. For some years he has been acting as specialist for acrodynamics and hydrodynamics in the field of naval architecture at Gibbs 8 Cox, Inc., New York City. CONTENTS. TABLE OF CONTENTS (pages are numbered by chapters) CHAPTER |— GENERAL INFORMATION 1. NOTATION ~ ABBREVIATIONS bibliographical references, abbreviations 1 1 equations and graphs, angles, subscripts 2, GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND NAMES boundary layer, cavitation, circulation 13 compressibility, induced, laminar 14 pressure rotation, schlieren, separation 15 streamlines, turbulence, vorticity, wind 16 tunnel, personalities in fluid dynamics 16 3. DRAG AND THEORETICAL ANALYSIS action and reaction, momentum transfer 7 statistical methods, approach in this book 18 4, NON-DIMENSIONAL COEFFICIENTS dynamic pressure, drag area 18 force coefficients, pressure coefficient 19 5. PHYSICAL SIMILARITY LAWS Reynolds number, compressibility, rarefied ..... 1-9 gases, cavitation, free water surface 110 6. PROPERTIES OF AIR AND WATER dynamic pressure, viscosity, speed of sound ..... L-1 dynamic pressure and viscosity in water : CHAPTER Il — SKIN-FRICTION DRAG 1. AT VERY SMALL REYNOLDS NUMBERS in two-dimensional flow, past disk, B'layer 21 2. GENERAL BOUNDARY-LAYER DATA. velocity distribution in, total thickness of 22 sub-layer, displacement, momentum thickness, 2-3 3, FRICTION WITH LAMINAR BILAYER laminar skin-friction drag coeficient 24 4. WITH TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER theore 1 functions, practical equations 25 local coefficient, transitional coefficient 26 5. FRICTION OF 3-DIMENSIONAL BODIES pressure gradient, Bilayer displacement 27 cylinder in axial flow, longitudinal edges 28 6. TRANSITION OF B'LAYER FLOW turbulence, stability limit, transition turbulence, surface roughness, protuberances, single elements, forced transition 210 7. LAMINAR-FLOW FOIL SECTIONS possibilities, pressure gradient, transition 241 location of thickness, influence of lift 242 stream turbulence, surface roughness 218 permissible roughness, boundary-layer suction .. 2-14 suction volume, surface-roughness stimulation. 2-15 CHAPTER Ill — PRESSURE DRAG 1, AT VERY SMALL REYNOLDS NUMBERS sphere and disk, pressure due to friction 31 stagnation pressure (Barker), floating dust 31 two-dimensional, intermediate R’numbers 2, MECHANISM OF FLOW SEPARATION boundary-layer theory, pressure distribution... $3 mechanism, separation, drag due to separation 3-4 8. VARIOUS VORTEX SYSTEMS vortex types, sphere, vortex street, frequency ... 3-5 general street characteristics, splitter plate 36 4. CRITICAL REYNOLDS NUMBER spheres, laminar separation, turbulent Bilayer 3-7 surface-roughness, stream turbulence, cylinder. 3-8 5. DRAG OF ROUND BODIES separation, rearside pressure, cylindrical 39 shapes, elliptical sections, cross-flow principle... $-10 Rnumber, ellipsodial bodies, half bodies 341 parallelsided shapes, rounding radius 312 rotating bodies, “how fast a man falls” 313 o-8 6. DRAG OF VARIOUS TYPES OF PLATES at small R’numbers, turbulence, “aspect ratio” $-15 rearside pressure, at an angle, with hole, caps. 3-16 7. DRAG OF WEDGES AND CONES angle of flow, freestreamline, brake, wedges .. 3-18 8. BASE-DRAG CHARACTERISTICS (a) Base Drag of 3-Dimensional Bodies jetpump mechanism, “insulating” Bilayer ..... 3-19 base drag of bodies, effect of boat-tailing (b) Base Drag in 2-Dimensional Shapes sheet-metal joints, blunt trailing edges Jaminar mixing, cut-off trailing edge optimum T'edge thickness, thick sections 9, DRAG OF NON-SOLID BODIES loss coefficient, free-flow principle streamline grids, fine fabrics, compressibility drag in free stream, parachutes, drag of flags 10, REDUCTION OF PRESSURE DRAG (a) Mechanical Devices moving skin, turbulence generators, ring, vanes 9-26 (b) Boundary-Layer Control discharging fluid, suction method, sphere with . 3.26 suction, cylinder suction, thick foil section ....... 3.27 11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES forebody drag, about Leonardo da Vinci 3.28 CHAP IV—WIND FORCES ON STRUCTURES 1, WIND CHARACTERISTICS speed distribution, boundary layer on ground... 4-1 2. VARIOUS BUILDINGS houses, hangars, tall buildings 43 8. CYLINDRICAL STRUCTURES. storage tank, chimneys, oscillations, smoke 44 stacks, pipe line, cables, galloping lines 45 4, STEEL STRUCTURES beams, girders, bridge structure, radio masts... 4-6 5. OTHER STRUCTURES ‘open roofs, spherical shapes, Statue of Liberty. 4.7 FLUID-DYNAMIC DRAG CHAPTER ¥ — SURFACE IRREGULARITIES 1, DRAG DUE TO SURFACE ROUGHNESS (a) Permissible Grain Size, Reynolds number 5-1 critical roughness size, physical grain size 52 (b) Skin-Drag Coefficients; terminal drag sand roughness, concentration, grain shape permissible size, Gyslope, polytropic roughness 2. DRAG OF SURFACE IMPERFECTIONS (a) General; independent drag coefficient 56 (b) Spanwise Protuberances; sheet-metal joints 5-7 (©) Spotlike Protuberances; rivet heads 58 critical Reynolds number, longitudinal elements 5.9 (@) Drag of Holes and Gaps; transverse gaps. 5-10 3. IMPERFECTIONS, STREAMLINE SHAPES (a) Imperfeetions and Protuberances sheet metal wing, dirt and ice formation ...... 5:11 (b) Drag of Control Gaps; gap definition ...... 5-13 edges, flow through gap, B'layer interference ... 5-14 CHAP VI— DRAG OF STREAMLINE SHAPES A. DRAG OF WING- AND STRUT SECTIONS 1 Drag as a Function of Reynolds Number turbulence, Reynolds number phases 2 As a Function of Thickness Ratio ‘wing tips, lateral edges, optimum wire, critical 6-4 Reynolds number, laminar airfoils, roughness... 6-6 3. Applications of streamline Sections airfoilection families, fairings, struts 69 B. SECTION DRAG AS A FUNCTION OF LIFT insects, birds, optimum lift coefficient, camber 6-10 sharp leading edge, wing flap, slats and slots... 6-13, C. DRAG OF STREAMLINE SHAPES various shapes, low Reynolds numbers, thickness 6-16 laminar boundary layer, optimum shape 618 D. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION stimulation, wingtip drag, reversed 0012 620 CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII—DRAG DUE TO LIFT 1. INDUCED DRAG AND ASPECT RATIO lifting line, downwash, induced angle, A’ratio. 7-2 2. INFLUENCE OF SHAPE ON DRAG (2) Plan Form and Tip Shape life distribution, cutouts, tip vortex. flow 74 plan form, sweep, optimum shape, tip tanks... 7-7 (b) Twist and Related Characteristics wing twist, wing flaps, aking.off, climbing ...... 7-8 (©) Form of Lifting Line angle of sweep, negative sweep, dihedral angle 7-9 (@) Characteristics of End Plates height ratio, area ratio, inboard plates 710 single end plates, viscous drag of E’plates ..... 7:10 (6) Rotating Cylinders drag due to lift, Fletiner rotor 7.10 3. IN VARIOUS WING ARRANGEMENTS (a) Biplanes and Similar Configurations biplane, multiplanes, ring foil, ground effect ... 7-12 (b) Wings in Tandem and Similar Arrangements tandem configuration, horizontal tail 74 (© Airplanes Flying in Formation wing gap, flying side by side, stagger 75 4. DRAG IN SMALL ASPECT RATIOS (a) First Drag Component circulation in small aspect ratios 716 first drag term, flat plates 77 (b) Second Drag Component zero aspect ratio, momentum, lateral vortex... 7-18 second component, flat plates, delta wings ...... 7-19 (©) Lift of Streamline Bodies second lift component, due to lift, rotation... 7-20 (@) Parasitic Wing-Tip Drag second lift term, influence of wingstip shape... 7-21 5, SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES characteristics of birds, blade rotors 722 CHAPTER VIII — INTERFERENCE DRAG 1, BETWEEN PAIRS OF BODIES shielding effect, tandem struts, side by side... 8-2 2, DRAG OF HALF BODIES ON WALLS. dynamic pressure, plates, flow pattern 83 half bodies, optimum, fairings, trailing edge... 8-4 3. ON THREE-DIMENSIONAL BODIES added body, Bilayer thickness, buoyancy effect pressure gradient, thickness, turbulence fuselage with canopy, fuel tank of Me-109 gun turret, interference method, long bodies 4, WINGS (STRUTS) AND WALLS in corners, boundary layer, influence of lift... 8-10 inclined struts, strut junctions, tail 841 configurations, fairings, junction angle 312 5, INTERFERENCE DRAG ON WINGS protuberances, induced interference drag... 8-13, horizontal tail drag, glide-path control 8 6. DRAG OF WING-BODY CONFIGURATIONS wing fuselage junctions, engine nacelles 815, tail surfaces, propeller blades, “oO” flow 816 wing-fuselage angle, induced drag due to body 8.17 engine nacelles, interference method 819 CHAPTER IX—INTERNAL-FLOW SYSTEMS A, MECHANICS OF DUCTED SYSTEMS loss coefficient, diffuser, rate of flow on intake flow, internal losses, outlet pressure. 9-2 B. DRAG OF RADIATOR INSTALLATIONS 1. Considerations for the System surface cooling, ducted systems, radiator size... 9-8 2. Internal Radiator Drag radiator cores, diffuser, boundary-layer control 9-4 ‘momentum, outlet pressure, drag due to leaks. 94 3. External Radiator Drag drag near w/V = 0, belly-type radiator 96 tring radiators, wing radiators, lift effect 96 0-10 C. DRAG OF ENGINE INSTALLATIONS 1, Engine Cowlings internal characteristics, conductivity o7 external drag, streamline cowling 98 2 JetEngine Installations nose inlet, internal characteristics, scoop intake 9-9 wing-root inlet, lift due to, flush intake 910 D. HEAT AND COMPRESSIBILITY EFFEC 1, Influence of Cooling Heat radiator core, propulsion, air-cooling out 2, Influence of Compressibility temperature, radiators, air-cooled engines ...... 9-12 FE. DRAG OF IN. AND OUTLET OPENINGS 1. Drag of Air Scoops ‘momentum drag, external drag, internal losses 9-13 2 Drag of Ventilation Systems (a) Inlet Openings scoop intakes, flush inlets, internal flow oud (b) Outlet Openings streamline openings, thrust due to exhaust, vents 9-16 CHAPTER X— HYDRODYNAMIC DRAG A. FULLY SUBMERGED BODIES drag of fish, critical R’number, foils in water ... 10-1 surface roughness, guide vanes, torpedo 102 B, DRAG IN CAVITATING FLOW 1, Fundamentals of Cavitation mechanism of cavitation, cavitation number ... 10-4 critical speed due to cavitation, erosion 105 2. Onset of Cavitation cavitation number, in 3-dimensional shapes... 10-5 vortex cavitation, past disk, round bodies 106 in streamline sections, “delay” of cavitat 107 3. Drag Coefficient in Cavitating Flow sharp-edged bodies, circular cylinder 107 spheres, missile, size of cavity 108 4, Cavitating Hydrofoils inception of cavitation, cavitating flat plate... 10-9 cambered foil sections, finite-span foils 10.11 in small aspect ratios, at zero aspect ratio ......10-12 FLUID-DYNAMIC DRAG C. DRAG OF SURFACE-PIERCING SOLIDS 1, Wave and Spray Drag Froude number effect, wave drag, spray drag ...10-13 2, Drag Due to Ventilation ‘mechanism of ventilation (cavitation), half-body 10-14 depth of pocket, cylinder, surface-piercing .....10-15 ventilated strut, ventilation plate 10-16 inelined shaft characteristics, angle of yaw ......10-16 CHAPTER XI— WATER-BORNE CRAFT ‘A. RESISTANCE OF DISPLACEMENT VESSELS 1. General Principles general notation, “resistance”, wetted surface. 11-1 turbulence stimulation, Froude number IL 2 Drag Caused by Friction ‘extrapolation method, skin-friction law us influence of thickness, roughness, fouling ...... 11-4 8. Model-Full-Seale Correlation drag of barges, appendages, shafting 116 influence of condenser water, wind resistance. 1-7 skinriction belt, surface roughness 119 full-scale correlation, extrapolation method ....11-10 4, Wave Resistance nature of wave-drag, humps + hollows, Froude 11-11 number, volumetric and prismatic coefficient ...11-12 maximum hull section, bulbous bow iz Maier form, in shallow water, drag in seaway — 11-13, 5. Types of Displacement Vessels ship statistics, motorboats, submarine resistance 11-16 submerged submarines, streamlining 17 submerged bodies, sailboat, induced drag .....11-18 B, CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANING CRAFT 1. Theory of Planing two-dimensional theory, buoyancy lift 119 start of planing, small-aspect-ratio planing ....11-20 higher aspect ratios, planing plates, camber 11-22 2. Characteristics of Planing Craft “V" bottoms, motorboats, power and speed .....L1-28 seaplanes, floats, planing skis, racing boats .....11-24 C. HYDROFOIL BOATS basic wave drag, induced drag, end struts .....11-26 drag in finite aspect ratios, tandem foils 11.28 surface piercing hydrofoils, V-shaped foils ....11-29 ventilation, hydrofoil boats, power and speed 11-30 small aspect ratios, ventilated hydrofoils 11-31 CONTENTS: CHAPTER XII —LAND-BORNE VEHICLES A, DRAG OF MOTOR VEHICLES 1, Experimental Methods road tests, wind-tunnel testing, ground plate... 12-1 image method, moving ground, R'aumber .... 12-2 2. Drag of Basic Shapes friction drag, separation, aerodynamic lift... 123 induced drag, wind shield, blunt rear end... 12-4 3. Drag Due to Operational Parts headlights, underside, wheel openings 125 open windows, cooling air, streamlining 126 4. Efficiency of Passenger Cars rolling resistance, power required, optimum 12-7 5. Drag of Other Motor Vehicles trucks, omnibuses, racing cars, motorcycles... 12-9 B. DRAG OF RAILROAD VEHICLES 1. Locomotives and Self Powered Cars rail cars, steam locomotives, power cars 1240 2. Drag of Railroad Trains aerodynamic drag law, drag of railroad cars ....12-12 base drag, protuberances, complete train drag 12-13 3. Efficiency of Railroad Trains twaction, freight train, wheel ventilation SUPPLEMENTARY; interference, sports car INDEX — EIGHT PAGES OF SUBJECT INDEX see at the end of the book — o-n CHAPTER XiIIl— AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS: 1, DRAG OF FUSELAGES fineness ratio, open cockpits, canopy drag 13.41 due to windshields, roughness, armament, tail _ 13-2 turrets, guns, radiators, engines, leakage 134 2. DRAG OF ENGINE NACELLES (a) Drag of Solid Nacelle Bodies induced drag, length ratio, high-wing nacelle ... 13-5, (b) Ducted Nacelles cowlings, wing interference, inlet and outlet. 13-7 jetengine nacelles, influence of lift 138 3. DRAG OF FLOATS AND BOAT HULLS: chines, fineness ratio, steps, step fairing 139 4, DRAG OF LIFTING SURFACES interference drag, dive brake flaps 13:10 pervious flaps, due to spoiler control 13.12 tail surfaces, due to asymmetric engine power ..13-13, 5. DRAG OF LANDING GEARS wheels, fixed and retractable, tail wheels, skis .18-14 6. DRAG OF EXTERNAL LOADS belly tanks, wing-tip tanks, range, bombs ...... 13-16 bomb racks, neck suspension, interference 18-18 7. DRAG OF MISCELLANEOUS PARTS (a) Drag of Cylindrical Parts fairings, cables, towing, refuelling hose 13.20 (b) Drag of Stopped Propellers blade angle, induced, tilted, windmilling ......18-21 (©) Ejection Seats; drag and trajectory 13.22 8, CHARACTERISTICS OF PARACHUTES basic shapes, flow pattern, gliding parachutes ... 13-28 permeability, oscillations, Reynolds number 1-24 fabric elasticity, size, rigging, ribbon type ...... 18-25 “shaped” parachutes, guidesurface type... 13-26 9. DRAG OF TOW TARGETS wind socks, “flag” type, streamlining 13.38 o-12 CHAPTER XIV— COMPLETE AIRCRAFT 1. DRAG OF AIRSHIPS bull, fins, car, engine nacelles, full scale 41 2, DRAG ANALYSIS OF FIGHTER AIRPLANE (a) full-Scale Performance dimensions, exhaust thrust, induced drag (b) Drag of the Wing skin friction, imperfections, additional drag .. 14-4 143 (6) Drag of the Fuselage due to appendages, interference, slip stream... 145 (a) Drag of Appendages of engine installation, due to tail surfaces ...... 145 (©) Results of Me-109 Anal compressibility, imperfections, efficiency 146 3. PERFORMANCE OF OTHER AIRPLANES (a) Maximum Speed Performance cleanness, Reynolds number, Ju-88 and Me-262. 14-8 wetted-area drag coefficient, maximum speed ...14-10 (b) Drag as a function of Lift “e" method, Me-109, effective aspect ratio... 1412 sailplane, optimum lift, sinking speed 1413 (6 Influence of Thrust lift due to thrust, climbing, slipstream drag ....14-14 jet thrust, pusher propeller, climb performance 14-15 (@) The First Powered Aircraft airships, the Wright Brothers 1116 — INFLUENCE OF COMPRESSIBILITY 1, ELEMENTS OF COMPRESSIBILITY sonic speed, Mach number, stagnation pressure 15-1 the Prandtl rule, stagnation temperature 152 2, CHARACTERISTICS OF BLUFF BODIES plates, cylinders, wedges, 0012 reversed 1 struts, drag divergence, cylinder, sphere 16 R'number, critical Mach number, up-dlown-up 1 half-streamline shapes, canopies, antenna rods ... 15-7 3. SKIN FRICTION IN COMPRESSIVE FLOW 15.9 15-10 fon plane wall, boundary-layer stability BL transition, laminarization, roughness FLUID-DYNAMIC DRAG. 4. DRAG OF FOIL AND STRUT SECTIONS friction, pressure drag, roughness, struts 15:10 optimum section thickness ratio, laminar flow .15-12 5. CRITICAL MACH NUMBER OF WINGS Prandtl factor, airfoil sections 15415 thickness location, blunt trailing edge 15.16 finite wings, function of lift, recompression ...15-17 rag dip, pressure peaks, nose shape, foil camber 15-18 6. CHARACTERISTICS OF SWEPT WINGS cosine component of speed, sweep definition ...15-20 drag of inclined struts, critical M’number ..... 15-21 ‘wing center part, sheared and “delta” wings 15-23, 7. STREAMLINE BODY CHARACTERISTICS, friction, supervelocities, compressibility rule 15-24 pressure drag, streamline bodies 15-25 surface roughness, critical Mach number .....15-27 8. DRAG OF AIRCRAFT COMPONENTS wing-fuselage configurations, wall interference 15-28, drag of crossed wings, plotting against (‘P')*....15-29 engine nacelles, slipstream, canopies, stores ...15-81 bombs, cowlings, radiators, dive brakes 15-82 9. DRAG OF AIRPLANE CONFIGURATIONS, (a) Induced Drag of Wings drag due to wing twist, induced interference ..15-33 (b) Parasitic Drag of Airplanes drag of "Meteor", twin-engine configurations 15-34 (©) Statistical Compressibility Method. interference, airplane configurations importance of interference, on wetted area (@) Swept Wing Configurations fuselage interference, contouring, "F-86" fighter 15-38 10. DRAG ABOVE DRAG DIVERGENCE critical M’number, separation, growth of drag 15-89 influence of aspect ratio, angle of sweep 15-40 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVI— AT TRANSONIC SPEEDS 1, ELEMENTS OF TRANSONIC FLOW cross section, Laval nozzle, free-air testing 16-1 transonic wind tunnel, normal shock, stagna- ... 16-2 tion pressure, static and minimum pressure... 16-3 ‘TRANSONIC SPEEDS function of M, flow pattern, “subsonic” phase. 16-4 transonic phase, forebody drag, terminating ... 16-5 ‘M’number, “supersonic” phase, forebody shape 16-6 length ratio, wetted area, sting effect 168 rocket nozzle, boat tail, fin interference 16-10 blunt trailing edge, maximum base drag... 16-11 ‘ransonic” base-drag phase, forebody drag ....16-12 3. BLUFF BODIES AT TRANSONIC SPEEDS (a) Drag of Blunt Bodies eylinder, bluff heads, rotating cubes, plates... 16-14 (b) Drag of Rounded Shapes spheres, spheroidal heads, circular cylinder .....16-16 fairing shapes, elliptical cylinders 16:17 4. TRANSONIG DRAG OF SLENDER BODIES conical flow, at M = 1, supersonic cone flow ...16-18 similarity, cone-cylinders, fineness ratio 16:20 ogival noses, projectiles, surface roughness .....16-21 boat tail, boattail angle, parabolic bodies... 16-22 double cones, drag of streamline bodies 16-24 ‘critical” Mach number, thickness location ....16-25 transonic drag of fin-stabilized missiles 16-25 drag of RM-10 missile, bombs, rounded noses 16.26 5. DRAG OF SWEPT AND POINTED WINGS. (A) Characteristics of Swept Wings transonic drag rise, M (max), “supersonic” drag 16-28 transonic hump, drag due to lift, “lift angle” ...16-29 (B) Pointed and/or Triangular Wings “critical” Mach numbers, thickness line 16-30 no peaks, reversal theorem, trailing edge 1631 maximum drag coefficient, drag due to lift... 16-32 6. DRAG OF AIRCRAFT CONFIGURATIONS (A) Transonic Area Rule drag rise, indentation, wing similarity 16-34 (B) Interaction at Supersonic Speeds supersonic biplane, shrouded body principle .. 16-35 (C) Drag of Component Parts canopy, external stores, wing-tip tanks 16-36 (D) Internal Flow at Transonic Speeds open-nose inlets, additive drag, oblique 16-38 shock, controlled inlets, optimum shape 1639 internal momentum, protruding spike 16-40 o-13 CHAPTER XVII— AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS 1. ELEMENTS OF SUPERSONIC FLOW Mach angle, compression, “silen ‘expansion, stagnation pressure, 2. FRICTION DRAG IN COMPRESSIVE FLOW Bilayer temperature, turbulent, BL stability... 17-4 cone flow, pressure gradient, surface roughness 17-5 size and drag due to roughness, lap joints ...... 17-6 3. TRANSONIC DRAG OF STRAIGHT WINGS basic flow pattern, transonic similarity rule... 17-7 wedge sections, theory, fairing at M 1 10% double wedge, biconvex, round-nosed ......17- foil sections, finitespan wings, aspect ratio ...17-11 4. STRAIGHT WINGS IN SUPERSONIC FLOW flow pattern, thin airfoil linear theory 1s second-order theory, afterbody, biconvex and ..17-14 round:nosed sections, optimum fairing 114 blunt trailing edge, influence of aspect ratio 17-16 5. DRAG OF WINGS DUE TO LIFT (A) Drag at “Supersonic” Speeds induced drag, 2dimensional drag, total drag 17-17 life spect ratio), slender wings, ring wing ..17-18 (B) Drag Due to Lift at Transonie Speeds leading edge flow, at M= 1, flow pattern ......17-19 drag and lift, influence of aspect ratio 17.19 section camber, practical approach 1720 6. DRAG OF ROCKET VEHICLE the Atlas launch vehicle 1720 XVIII —DRAG AT HYPERSONIC SPEEDS (A) DRAG OF AIRFOIL SECTIONS similarity parameter, drag due to thickness...... 18+1 double wedges, afterbody drag, single wedge..... 18-1 narrow wedge, doubleare, friction, “H” — 00. 18-2 (B) CONES AND SIMILAR BODIES ‘cones, optimum shapes (theory) 18-4 ogives, blunted cones 185, (©) FREE-FLYING CONFIGURATIONS skin friction, drag at M = 10 186 ballistic missile, missile models 18-7 o-14 (D) VISCOUS EFFECTS IN SLENDER SHAPES (a) Characteristics of Two-Dimensional Shapes BL displacement, B'layer-induced pressure... 18-7 Bilayer viscosity, heat transfer, blunt 188 leading edges, wedge pressure, drag of wing... 188 wedge section, flauplate lift,wing drag 189 (b) Characteristics of “Conical” Bodies conical probes, spiked conical body, drag... 18-10 brakes, blunt cylinders, skin friction 1811 delta wings, total drag of cones,boundary— 18-12 layer transition, turbulent friction 1813 (E) BLUFF BODIES AT HYPERSONIG SPEEDS. (1) Two-Dimensional Shapes blunt shapes, Newtonian flow, circular 18418 cylinder, shoulder pressure, centrifugal 1814 effect, leading edges, double arc, leading: ...... 18-15 edge sweep, inclined cylinder, spoiler 18:16 (2) Three-Dimensional Bodies bluff cones, blunted cone, rounded cone, .......1817 parabolic nose, Newtonian analysis, at angle. 18-18 of attack, towed cones, inflated shapes, 1819 spheres, flat disk, blunt cylinder, face 18-20 pressure, conical skirt, function of 18-21 Mach number, satellite capsule 18-22 pressure distribution, short nose shape 18-23 (F) TEMPERATURE AND HEAT TRANSFER high temperatures, radiation, hypersonic ......18-24 tests, heat transfer, molecular changes 18-24 dissociation, stagnation pressure, hypersonic.....18-25 vehicle, Stanton number, blunt bodies 18-25 reentry, meteorites, drag of a meteorite 18-26 CHAPTER XIX _— DRAG AT HIGH SPEEDS AFFECTED BY VISCOSITY & RAREFACTION (A) REALMS OF FLUID DYNAMICS mean free path, Knudsen number, rarefaction BL thickness, fluid-dynamic phases, interaction (B) VISCOUS EFFECTS AT HIGH SPEEDS (1) Bluff Bodies at Supersonic Speeds Stagnation pressure, spheres as a function of ... 19-4 R'number, at low R'numbers, cylinders 195 base pressure, zero B'pressure, at low R’numbers 19.6 (2) Viscous Effects in Slender Shapes skin friction, turbulent Bayer, cone drag 197 (©) CONDITIONS IN UPPER ATMOSPHERE dimensions of the earth, atmospheric layers 19-10 thermosphere, number density, upper layers... 19-9 radiation belt, interplanetary space 19.9 stratosphere temperature, atmospheric 19.10 density, molecular speed, mean-free path... 19-11 FLUID-DYNAMIC DRAG (D) DRAG IN FREE MOLECULE FLOW (1) Principles of Free Molecule Flow molecular speed ratio, Newton's theory, 19-16 reflection, impinging momentum, re-emission 19 (2) Drag of Various Body Shapes bluff cone, sphere, cylinder, slip flow 19-18 shear force, slender cones, optimum nose ...... 19-19 ‘magnitude of lift, drag due to lift 19:17 decay of satelite, energy, reduction of period 19-18 CHAP XX — VARIOUS PRACTICAL RESULTS A. EXAMPLES OF PRESSURE DRAG flat plates, lattice beams, afterbody 204 boat-tailing, radar antennas, trailer truck... 202 ‘gun openings, cooling duct, engine nacelle... 20-8 B. HYDRODYNAMIC INFORMATION base-vented hydrofoils, cavitation number .... 204 parabolic sections, optimum strut 205 parabolic bodies, approximation, short bodies... 20.6, C. RESULTS AT TRANSONIC SPEEDS single wedge, ejection seat, parachutes 207 windshield, blunt canopy 208 ‘on fuselage, location on airplane 209 D. NOSE DRAG AT SUPERSONIC SPEEDS nose shape, spikes, projectile with 2010 blunt “probe”, retro-rocket 20-10 E, NACELLES, LOADS, EXTERNAL STORES jet engines, fuel tank, pylon,chordwise 20-11 position, buoyancy, transonic drag 2041 F, SURFACE IMPERFECTIONS body with rings, surface steps 20.18 lap joints, rivet heads, projectile 20-14 G. CHARACTERISTICS OF BASE DRAG length of body, tail surfaces, rocket, 20-15 nozzles, trailing edge, step pressure 20-16 flared base, boattail, pointed tail 20-18 INDEX — EIGHT PAGES OF SUBJECT INDEX ————> see at the end of the book | — GENERAL INFORMATION CHAPTER | - GENERAL INFORMATION This first chapter is intended to be a general intro. duction to FLUID-DYNAMIC DRAG, pointing out approach and philosophy in treating the subject. The chapter also presents necessary and/or useful infor mation of a general nature, such as a notation and the physical properties of the fluids concerned. 1, NOTATION ~ ABBREVIATIONS Most of the abbreviations and symbols used through- ‘out the book are listed as follows. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES indicating the sources of theoretical methods or experimental results used or quoted throughout the text and in the illustrations, are presented in the form of “foot- notes”, placed at the bottom, usually of the odd-num- bered pages. Within the text, the references are usually referred to in parentheses. Documents. Technical reports (or memorandums) have been quoted extensively in the text, particularly those issued by NACA and NASA. Although the documents used are not classified, they may not readily be available to the public in general. The referenced German documents may be accessible through the Armed Services Information Agency in Dayton, Ohio. A source for more recent technical information is the Defense Documentation Center, Cameron Station, Alexandria, Virginia 22314. ‘There are two methods available in order to find in formation on a particular subject in this book. The first is by the Table of CONTENTS, beginning on page 0-7. The other way is through the use of the INDEX at the end of the book Abbreviations, listed as follows, are employed within the footnotes quoting bibliographical references: NASA _ Nat'l Aeronautics Space Administration NAGA Nat'l Advisory Committe for Aeronautics T.Rpt Technical Report of the NACA T.Note Technical Note of the NACA W.Rpt Wartime Report of the NACA T.Memo Technical Memorandum = Translation Transl Translation (into English) RM Declassified Document by the NACA ARC __ British Acronautical Research Council RM Reports and Memorandums of the ARC CPaper Current Paper of the ARC. AVA Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt Géttingen DVL Deutsche Versuchsanstalt fir Luftfahrt ZWB — Zentrale Tech-Wi'schaftl, Berichtswesen FB Forschungs Bericht of the ZWB UM Untersuchungen- Mitteilungen of the ZWB D.Lufo Deutsche Luftfahrtforschung (Yearbook) Lufo Luftfahrtforschung (German periodical) Ing.Arch. Igenieur Archiv (German) ZAMM — Zeitschr. Angewandte Math. Mechanik J-ASci. Journal of the Acronautical Sciences TAS Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences ALAA Am Inst of Acronautics and Astronautics ASME Am. Society of Mechanical Engineers CAHI Central Acro-Hydrodynamic Inst. (Moscow) Ref Reference = Footnote Rpt) __ Report and Reports, respectively Trans Transactions of a Society Proc. Proceedings of a Society Soe. Society (Engineering) TMB David Taylor Model Basin NAME Naval Architectsand Marine Engineers Inst Institute (or Institution) INA stitution of Naval Architects (England) STG Schiffbauteschnische Gesellschaft AGARD NATO Adv. Group Aeron'l Res, Devel. WGL — Wisseenschaftl. Gesellschaft £.Luftfahrt SYMBOLS IN EQUATIONS AND GRAPHS. With some exceptions, the symbols employed throughout this book are those accepted or recommended by the NACA and the American Standards Association (1). “Fluid-Dynamic” Dimensions ‘wing span (or width of a body) chord of airfoil section diameter of a body of revolution total boundary-layer thickness height of a body; also TE thickness diameter of sand grain (also other meanings) length of a body (in x-directio area (“wing” area if without subscript) maximum foil-eetion thickness momentum thickness of boundary layer length of forebody (to max. thickness) dimension in direction of flow dimension transverse to flow direction altitude above sea level Ne KRDO RE ORO “Fluid-Dynamic” Ratios and Factors = vF/S = aspect ratio of wings = V/A = length ratio = "e"/b indicating effective aspect ratio camber ratio of foil sections specific heat ratio in gasdynamics constant or factor (used in many definitions) constant or factor (used in many definitions) fineness ratio of body of revolution indicating solidity ratio thickness ratio of sections Agnrrsoee ‘Terms Associated With Speed flow- or ight speed (between body and fluid) local velocity at specified point of a body downwash velocity (behind wings) internal velocity (in ducts) =V/2'= Mach number, with 'a'= sonic speed Reynolds number (always with subscript) = ¥/e = mass density of the fluid dynamic pressure (see Chapter 1) impact pressure (see Chapters XV and XV1) “P" Prandtl factor (see chapter XV) P_ engine power (usually in HP) T absolute temperature (in degrees “Kelvin") T thrust of propeller or jet engine P f OP messed absolute static pressure in Ib/f@ vortex frequency (per second) “S" Strouhal number f w FLUID-DYNAMIC DRAG Fluid-Dynamic Coefficients D_ drag (or resistance), in “x” direction “= D/qin fe = drag area cq oneffective dynamic pressure (Chap. V) Eq, for induced drag. (of wings) Coq for profile or section drag (of wings) Gy. based on frontal area of body Gon citcumscribed area Cora on wetted surface area of a solid Cy skin friction drag (on wetted area) Life (in “y" or “2” direction) Gy lift coefficient = L/q § Cy. for drag associated with life Cp = Sp/q = pressure coefficient 0.5 GV c = circulation about foil section pressure toss coefficient Geometrical and Other Angles angle of attack, especially of wings angle of yaw or sideslip angle of dihedral (of wings) angle of sweep (of wings) angle of deflection of flaps half vertex angle of cone or wedge shay Mach angle (see chapter on “supersonics") OOS IDR In Shipbuilding and Vehicles waterline length of a ship 1 1 average wetted length of planing surface b beam of the hull hh draft or submergence D_ resistance = drag W weight (in 1b) A displacement in long tons (2240 Ib each) Gyyig prismatic coefficient F”" Froude number (in the “hydrodynamics” S cavitation number (see “hydrodyt V_ displacement (volume) in fe? General Subscripts and Exponents amb indicating ambient condition av indicating mean “average” ‘crit critical (Reynolds or Mach number) eff or “e” = “effective” indicating “minimum’ na general exponent © original condition opt = optimum, as defined in text x or “max” for “maximum” x for distance from L'edge or nose | — GENERAL INFORMATION Specific Subscripts a indicating “added” or “attached” b indicating reference area bP B for “base” (also propeller blade) © indicating reference area c® comp = compressible or compressive AF indicating dpplacement £ I for “frictional” (also for “fuselage”) for horizontal tail i indicating “induced” (also “effective”) ine indicating “incompressible” lam = laminar (boundary layer) at for “lateral” forces m indicating main body (also as exponent) M_ for momentum (internal flow) N indicating “normal” force © on “developed” parachute area p for pressure, also indicated by “P” {indicating reference area t2 turb = turbulent (boundary layer) w pertaining to speed “w W indicating “weight” or “wave” ted area (in contact with fluid) x or “ext” for external © indicating frontal area of body @ on circumscribed area The Reynolds number “R” and the Froude number usually carry a subscript, indicating the dimen- sion upon which they are based. Angles are usually presented in degrees, and marked correspondingly. ‘Without such notation, they are usually meant to in: dicate a ratio. Some other symbols and subscripts are used and defined within the text, or they are un- derstandable without explanation. Abbreviations. The author has taken the liberty of ‘using some abbreviations throughout the text and/or in the illustrations, respectively: BL = boundary layer LE = leading edge TE = trailing edge Ref = reference (footnote) Equ = equation ‘Also “Reynolds number” is sometimes abbreviated to “Rinumber", Mach number to “M’number”, ‘boundary layer” to “Bilayer” and “aspect ratio” to ““A'ratio". Instead of the laborious phrase “approx: imately equal to”, the author has very often substi- tuted the symbol “ 2, GLOSSARY OF TERMS AND NAMES ‘There are many specific terms partly developed dur. ing the last 50 or more years, used and understood by every specialist in the field of fluid dynamics. For the benefit of readers from other fields of science or engineering, the more important ones of these terms are brielly explained as follows. “Airfoil” is a lifting surface, either a wing or one of the tail surfaces of an airplane or any other, usually profiled surface producing lift or a force in any other direction normal to the direction of flow. In water, the same type of surface is called a hydrofoil; and the common short word is “foil”. In contradistinction, “wing” is that airfoil which essentially carries the weight of an airplane, Boundary Layer is a comparatively thin sheet of de- celerated fluid originating through friction along the surface of solids. The “B'layer” can have either a laminar flow pattern (at small Reynolds numbers); or it may be turbulent (at higher R'numbers). Pres- ence of the boundary layer can cause flow separation (see under that heading). Proper consideration of the boundary layer (4) has opened the way to theoretical treatment of certain flow patterns. Cavitation. Voids or cavities are formed in water (or in other liquids) when and where the static pressure is reduced below the vapor pressure. The water then vaporizes thus forming bubbles as in boiling water. Cavities comparable to those in water are also formed in air; namely at hypersonic speeds where a vacuum can be obtained behind blulf obstacles. It seems that lightning is an example of this sort; the thunder being the result of the collapsing cavity. — Cavitation must not be confused with “separation” (see later). A phe- nomenon similar to cavitation is “ventilation” (see in the “hydrodynamic” chapter). Circulation (7) is the motion of a fluid “circulating” around a certain axis; it is the motion representing a vortex in non-viscous flow; its dimension is (&t2/sec). Every fluid particle moves about the vortex center basically in the same manner as the cars of a Ferris Wheel. Each of these cars remains in horizontal po- sition, while circling around the wheel's axis. In other words, the non-viscous motion within a vortex is “ir- rotational”; see under “rotation” 1-4 Compressibilty is the quality of a fluid, and of gases in particular, of reducing in volume when the static pressure is increased. In place of “compressible”, the word “compressive” has recently been proposed to indicate the active property of velocity or pressure in distinction from the passive quality of the fluid as such, Both of these terms are applied in this book (inaking the distinction as defined above, as far as possible). — Water does not have compressibility worthwhile to speak of. Downwash is (strictly speaking) the permanent down- ward component of the velocity behind lifting wings. This type of downwash is the resultant of the veloc: ities “induced” by the trailing vortex system of such wings. There are other downward and upward com: ponents around a wing which are also called “down wash” or “upwash”, respectively. A downwash of this type (caused by the “bound vortex”) is found at the trailing edge of a wing; and a corresponding upwash exists ahead of the leading edge. Fluid Dynamics, also called “uid mechanics’ is the allencompassing term denoting the field of fuid motion. Subheadings are as follows: Hydrodynamics (meaning not only the subject of water flow but also fluid-dynamics of incompressible flow). Aerodynamics, describing characteristics in air (and in other gaseous fluids) from incompressible through hypersonic co ditions. Gas dynamics, dealing with compressible ‘gases from subsonic to supersonic speeds. With respect to compressibility, we have the field of subsonic flow, of transonic Mach numbers (roughly between M 0.9 and 1.8), supersonic conditions and finally hyper sonic flow, meaning comparatively high Mach num- bers in connection with slender body shapes. The field of acrodynamics in rarefied gases is encountered in very high altitudes (by rockets and satellites). The extreme of this type of fluid dynamics is the free-mol- cular flow, in which the gas molecules strike an obstacle individually, without interfering with each other. “Induced” is a word taken from the field of electricity. Magnetic forces are “induced” around a conductor ‘carrying an electric current (8). In fluid dynamics, the velocity at any point within the field of a vortex is called the induced velocity due to its circulation. The word “induced” also is applied, however, to indicate velocity components and pressures caused by displace- ment. Lift is not directly a subject of this book. Drag is a function of lift, however, in several respects; so that lift must be considered too. One of the important characteristics of a lifting wing is the so-called lift- curve slope (dC, /dex), indicating the rate at which life increases as a function of the angle of attack "cx". However, a parameter sometimes more convenient than (AC, /dcx), is the reversed value “do 0, without having lost mo- mentum). The dynamic pressure is then the differ- ential between the “total” pressure as tested in the open end of a so-called Pitot tube and the ambient static pressure, ‘There are instruments. (the Pitot- static tube or the “Prandtl Rohr”) directly indicating the dynamic pressure differential. In many or most practical applications, fluid-dynamic forces are (at least approximately) proportional to the dynamic pressure. | — GENERAL INFORMATION Pressure — Total. The most important principle gov cerning non-compressive fluid flow, is the fact that un der undisturbed and non-viscous conditions, the sum of static and dynamic pressure is always constant. This so-called Bernoulli law (13) can be utilized to explain basically the generation of drag (other than frictional), Speed and dynamic pressure of the fluid particles re-

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