32 Contel Chor 3.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The problem identification and analysis tools described in Chapter 2 provide a means to prioritize and analyze in- dividual problems. The result of this analysis will suggest specific problems or processes that require further work using the next step in our SPC model: Lise SPC to bring the key variables into control. These selected variables or processes may include items such as: * Outer diameter of a bushing * Fill weight of asoda bottle + Torque ofa headbolt on an engine ‘+ Hardness ofa transmission gear *+ Solder defects ona printed circuit board In each of these cases, the next objective isto reduce the variation in the characteristic in question, without making significant changes to the production pracess. The discus- sion about variation in Chapter 1 identified two causes for variation — common causes and assignable causes. Com- mon cause variation is inherent to any process that shows stability overtime. Assignable cause variation results irom significant and identifiable changes in the process, such as a new lot of raw material entering the process, a new oper- ator at the process, or a change in tooling. It is easy to see that reducing variation through eliminating assignable ‘causes is more practical than reducing variation through eliminating common causes. Process control charts are the best tool available for identifying and eliminating assigna- ble cause variation. Control charts provide a graphic comparison of a mea~ sured characteristic against computed control limits. They pilot variation over time, and help us distinguish between the two causes of variation through the use of control lim- its. These limits are vital guidelines for determining when action should be taken in a process. Figure 3.1.1 shows a portion of atypical x & R chart. is, importantto note the following elements:Fig. 21.1 Aportion ofa ypicalzand R chat 1) Each of the points on the x portion of the chart repre sents an average of one subgroup’s readings. Because each pointis an average value, all of the points taken to- gether will tend to be normally distributed if they are from a process showing stability (refer to the Central Limit Theorem in Section 1.3), 2) The dashed-line control limits are drawn at approxi- mately +3 and —3 standard deviations from the central line on the X portion of the chart. Because points on the chart from a process showing stability tend to be nor- mally distributed, we now expect 99.73% of all the points to fall between the two control limits (refer to the discussion on standard deviation in Section 1.3) 3) Point #3 on Figure 3.1.1 is beyond the upper control limit for &. There are four possible explanations for this occurrence: a measuring error, a plotting error, an as- signable cause, or the possible exception to the proba- bility that 99.73% of all common causes will fall within control limits. 4) Fach & value on the chart represents an average of indi- vidual readings in the subgroup; therefore, we must also examine the range chart to determine the variability of 33 the individual readings in that subgroup. Contl Chen‘Type Chart Parameters Plotted Primary Usages % &R chart ‘Averages and ranges of subgroups of variable data. | Process control &sigma chart Averages and standard deviations of subgroups of | Process control variable data, Median chart ‘Median of subgroups of variable data. Process control Chartfor individuals CuSum chart Moving range, Moving average chart chart np-chart echart uchart Individual measurements, (Cumulative sum of each X minus the nominal. Range or average recalculated for preceeding 3 days Ratio of defective itoms to tetal number inspected, Actual number of defective items compared to to- tal inspected Number of defects on anitem for a constant sample Percent nonconformities on item for varying sam- ple size. Table 3.1.1 Principal kindsofconivolchars. a4 Corl Chars Principal Kinds of Control Charis Process control Process control Process control Inspection sampling, Final inspection Inspection sampling Final inspection Inspection sampling, Final inspection Inspection sampling Final inspection as There are essentially two kinds of control charts — con- trol charts for variables data (quantitative data or measure- ments), and control charts for attribute data (qualitative data or counts). See Table 3.1.1. Variables control charts are more sensitive to changes in measured values, and, therefore, are better for process control. Control charts for attribute data are useful for other reasons; data is easily ob- tained, and often does not require a specialized means of data collection, and attribute data charts are the least costly touse.¥ & RChart—The & R chattis the most common form of a control chart for variables data, and one of the most pow- erful for tracking and identifying causes of variation. The X chart is a continuous plot of subgroup averages. The R char is @ continuous plot of subgroup ranges. A subgroup typically ranges in size from 2 to 20 samples. When using subgroup sizes greater than 10 samples, itis recommended. that you use a sigma control chartrather than ranget ¥ & s Chart— Known as and sigma chat, the parts of this chart, like the & R chart, are always used as a pair. The sigma chart is a somewhat more accurate indicator of process variability than an R chart, especially with a larger- sized subgroup. However, using the sigma chart, itis more difficult to calculate sigma and users ofien have amore dit- ficult time understanding and interpreting the sigma val- ves. ‘Median Chart— This chart combines both the x & R infor- mation into one graph. The median is the middle value ‘when data is arranged according to size. A median chart yields similar conclusions to the X & R chart, and is easy to Use. Typically, median charts are used with subgroup sam- ple sizes of 10 or less. Contro! Chart for Individuals — A control chart for individ- ual samples is used when process control must bebased on individual readings rather than subgroups: i.e., such as, ‘When measurements are expensive or destructive, or the result ofa single daily lab test. Control limits for a chart of individuals should be based on the moving range. Chapter 4 describes control charts for individuals in greater detail. Cumulative Sum (CuSum) Chart — A CuSum chart looks at subgroup averages in a different way than the x & R chart. On a CuSum chart, each point represents the cumu- lative sum of each X value minus the nominal value. Figure 3.1.2 shows 2 CuSum chart. In this example, the nominal value is 8. The first X value is also 8. Since 8 ~ 8 = 0, the first ‘CuSum value is 0. The second & value is 6. To determine the second CuSum value, the nominal value (8) is sub- tracted from the X value (6) and added to the previous CuSum value (0): 6 - 8 = -2; -2 + 0 =-2. The third x value is 9. The third pointon the chant isdetermined by: 9-8 = 1; 14-2=-1 a ace eee Keres 6 9 10 2 8 XvarNoniale 0-2 1 2 4 0 ColumnValues 0204018 S Fig. 3.1.2 AnpicalCuSum chart 35 Conte Chats36 Conte Chore Basically, the CuSum chart exaggerates the shift from nominal. f successive x-bars fall on both sides of the nomi- “nal, the chart remains fairly flat. But iftwo or more succes- sive x-bars all on the same side of the nominal, the curve begins to rise and fall quite rapidly. The chart, therefore, is much more sensitive to a sustained shift away from the nominal. Moving Average Moving Range Chart — This charts used primarily in industries where the output of a process is very stable from piece to piece, but may vary from day to day or week to week: e.g., a metal stamping application where the dies wear slowiy, or 2 plating application where the same chemical bath is used each day. In this example, three-day moving average chart would plot 2 point for Fri- day by averaging Friday's reading with readings from Thursday and Wednesday. Similarly, a moving range chart would plot the range over a three-day period each day. These charts tend to dampen what would be a single out- of-control reading on the x & R chart, and distribute effects ‘over a longer period of time. Moving average and moving range charts are described in greater detail in Chapter 4. p-Chart— The p-chart (percent defective chart) is an at- tribute chart for the percentage of defective items in a sub- group, when the subgroup is not necessarily of a constant size ftom inspection to inspection. Fraction defective is he ratio of defective items to the total number of items in- spected, which is another way of expressing the percent- age. ‘np-Chart — The concept of the np-chart is the same as the p-chart, except that he np-chart represents the actual num- ber of defective items in the subgroup, rather than the frac- tion. The np-chart requires a constant subgroup size. It would be better to use the np-chart if the actual number of defectives is more meaningful or simpler to report than the proportion value presented by the p-chart. Chart — The c-char isa special type of attribute control chart that uses the number of defects instead of the number of defectives. In cases where a unit can contain many de- fects, the c-chart is a practical alternative. Each point on the chart represents the number of defects in the subgroup. The-chart should be used only when the sample size making, up the subgroup remains constant from inspection to in- spection. The c-chart is particularly useful where a unit is likely to contain many defects. u-Chart — The u-chant is similar to the c-chart in that it tracks individual defects. Unlike the np-chart, the u-chart may use subgroups of varying sizes. A single point on a u-chart represents the average number of defects on each part in a subgroup. For example, if the subgroup size ‘equals 10, and there are 5 defecis in that subgroup, the u value would be 0.5. This signifies an average of 0.5 defects ‘on each part in that subgroup. 3.2. X&RCHART This section describes how to make and analyze X & R charts, also known as Shewhart Control Charts. The X & R chart is the most versatile of control charts for variables. There may be specific situations where sigma charts, me- dian charts, and charts of individuals have some advan- tages over % & R charts; but in most applications, an & R chart will do as well or better. Since all are similar in meth ods of usage and analysis, only X & R charts will be treated indepth. Rationale for x & R Charts, control chart is used to establish the operating level and variation of a process. Since the parts coming off a process may be infinite in number, we need a way to estab- lish and monitor this operating level and variation without measuring every part. The X & R chart is extremely efficient at this. It also provides a way to avoid the two types of er- rors that occur when attempting to control a process: + Type I error— saying a process is unstable when itis stable. * Type i error — saying a process is stable when itis un- stable. Both of these errors oceur when we don’t have a method of identifying assignable causes — when we aren’t thinking 37 Contd ChereCental Charts statistically about the data. An example of a Type | error is ‘an operator who adjusts the stops on aturret lathe ater tak- ing one hourly measurement. The data might look like Fig- ure 3.2.1. He starts out at 8:00 a.m. making a batch of 30 parts. The sideways histogram represents the distribution of those 30 parts measurements, as compared to the nominal and upper and lower limits of the specification. The first batch shows evidence of stable variation (a normal distrib- ution). The mean is very close to the nominal and nearly ‘every piece falls within the limits. Is there a need to adjust the stops? Certainly not. But at 8:00 a.m., he picks up one part and measures it. It happens to be right at the lower limit, so he moves the stops outward. This shits the operat- ing level of his process. Alter his next baich, he takes a sec- ‘ond sample and finds he is way above the upper limit. So he moves the stops inward enough to compensate for the shifts. Between 10:00 am. and 11:00 a.m., every part he makes is out of specification. In fact, for the whole day, about half of what he produces is out of specification and tnusable. Even though the process is stable and capable of making a high proportion of good parts, a large proportion of bad parts are being produced because the operator is taking only one sample and basing his decisions on it. Heis making a Type | error. An x & R chart could have told him When to adjust the operating level and by how much. Just as importantly, it could have told him when to leave it alone. A Type Il error is also easy to illustrate, as shown in Figure 3.2.2. In this case, the operating level, or mean, is always specification, but the distribution of data shows evi- dence of a lack of stability. Imagine an operator taking a measurement that happens to fal within specification and, therefore, not making any adjustments. An X and R chart may possibly have alerted the operator to an out-of-control process after the first hour, and steps could have been taken tocorrect it The difference between the chart shown in Figure 3.2.1 and an & & R chart is that an x & R chart is easier to make. Instead of calculating and graphing small histograms of data subgroups, we graph the averages and ranges on sepa- rate charts. ‘An & R chart can be made manually or by computer. Some of the graphs shown on the following pages wereLower tat c= [fa we ee aw produced by an IBM PC computer. Since the main calcula- tions are finding the average and range of a set of 5 or so ‘numbers, the charts could also be done manually. The ace vantages af a computer lie in minimizing errors, improving the readability of the graph, and freeing the auditor to per- form the more human tasks of analysis: judgment and action, Creatinganx &R Chart To explain the elements of an x & R chart ithelps to cre- ate one from scratch as if we were to do it manually. Figure 3.2.3 is a computer illustration of a chart, but itcan also be done manually. Vertical Scale — The vertical scale of an x chart should have the grand average of the data at the midpoint (Figure 3.2.3). This could also be thought of as the expected oper- ating level of the process. Extending above and below the midpoint should be evenly-spaced scale divisions, The scale increments should be sufficiently wide to graph sig- nificant changes in the average. The scale should extend farenough from the midpoint to take in any expected varie~ tion. As a rule of thumb, the scale should extend at least, 20% beyond any element that would be put on the graph, such as control limits. The R chart should be scaled simi- Fig. 3.2.1. Mustration of Type error — ‘making adjustrents oa process wien they are notnecded. The cures representthe operating level nd dlspersion of the process ai various hours curing the day. 39 Comal ChoreFig. 32.2 Iatration ofa Type error — not ‘making adjustments when they are needed. The curves show thet many ofthe parts being ‘made ae out of specification. 3410 Cental Chars larly, with the expected range at the midpoint, and the scale extending at least 40% beyond any clement. Horizontal Scale — The horizontal scale should be the same on both charts. The scale divisions correspond to the frequency of sampling, and should be labeled by the hour cr date when the data was collected, starting at the leit. Data should be collected frequently when starting out, per- haps every hour or even more frequently on a high-volume process. Once the chart is established and the process has evidence of stability, data can be collected less fre- quently —every other hour or by shift. Data Collection — An xis the symbol for a single measure- ment. To start a control chart, at least 100 measurements must be taken for the data to be statistically significagt. We can begin plotting averages and ranges right away, but we need at least 100 measurements to add the essential ele- ments of the chart — the grand average and the control limits. Several considerations must be made to ensure that the 100 measurements are representative of the process: * Measurement devices must be accurate enough to record the differences between samples. The devices ‘must have high repeatability. See Chapter 6 for a discus- sion of measurement systems, * Measurements must be made in small groupings at se- lected intervals, Determining the groupings and inter- vals is called rational subgrouping and is explained in more detail later. Normally, subgroup size, symbolized by n, can be from 2 to 20 consecutive samples, with being the most common.VERTICAL ~~ SCALE HORIZONTAL SCALE Plotting the Averages — x, pronounced x-bar, is the symbol of the average of a subgroup. The data should be arranged in columns of 5 samples each, whether on a sheet or in a data collector (Figure 3.2.4). Each subgroup is then aver- aged. The averages are plotted on the chart in the sequence in which they were collected (Figure 3.2.5). Twenty points on the chart will represent 100 measurements in 5 sample subgroups. Plotting the Ranges — Ris the symbol for subgroup range. The range of each subgroup in Figure 3.2.4 is plotted against the intervals when they were collected. Centerlines — 5, pronounced x-double bar, is the average Of the subgroup averages (grand average). See Figure 3. Rebar is the average of the subgroup ranges. They get plot ted as horizontal dotied lines (Figure 3.2.6). They are your first estimate of the operating level of the process. Control Limits — The control limits on the chart are the es- timated #3 sigma limits for the process. Since sigma must be estimated from samples taken from a continuous Process, tabsles of constants have been developed to make these calculations simple and to reduce error (see Appen- dix Table A-1 — Factors for Computing Control Chart Lines), Fig, 3.2.3 Scalesused on ank & chart an Conte ChasFig. 3.24 Sample data used to pit an 5 &R chan. a2 ‘Contol Chats stellate! || woe X Upper Control Limit (UCL) AR X LowerControl Limit (LCL) = § — Az R 621) Range Upper Control Limit (UCLa) = Dy R DsR In the formulas above, A., D., and D, are the constants used for calculating control limits, taken from Table A-1 They vary according to subgroup size (n). For A, = 0.577, D; = 0.0, and D, = 2.114. The chart in 3.2.6 has an Xd of 4.7 and an ¥ of 1.9, so the control limits forthe chart would be: Range Lower Control Limit (LCL) UCL, = 4.7 + (0.577\1.9) =5.8 L. UCL, = 4.7 - (0.577)(1.9) =3.6 8.2.2) UCLe = (2.114)(1.9) = 4.0 Horizontal dashed lines mark the control limits on the graphs (Figure 3.2.7). By chance alone, the subgroup aver- ages and ranges should fall within these control limits 99.73% of the time. For the most part, the variability that ‘occurs berween the control limits can be attributed to com-Fit hgh OM Ge mon causes, There are certain patterns that occur between the limits that one should learn to recognize, but the most important characteristic to look for is one or more points falling outside the limits. They indicate the influences of as- signable causes of variation, Some Questions about x & R Charts ‘How many points are needed before control limits can be calculated? — The general rule is at least 20 points, repre- senting 100 measurements. For control limits to be mean- ingful, they must be based on a representative sample of the population. There must be a high level of confidence that the sample is representative, and thatis what 100 mea- surements or more provide. Fewer than 100 measurements Fig, 3.2.5. Ploting50 points on the chas. ang contol Chorsef aSesee: Fcyntertne POS a ae Range Rcenttne ie ig ae ee X-Bar Fig. 3.2.6 The centerline represents the ‘average of the subgroups, and is potted as. ‘dotied tne a4 Corto Chars quickly decreases the confidence level. Since we seek to improve quality by detecting assignable causes, we should always aim to make the control limits as statistically signifi- cant as possible. Should engineering limits be put on an x chart? — Engi- neering limits are an arbitrary demand on a process. The points on the chart are averages, so a point at or near an ‘engineering limit can mean many things, including the possibility that one or several data measurements are out of limits. In a purely statistical sense, engineering limits, or process objectives, do not belong on x & R charts. How- ‘ever, many industries have to live with these specifications as the criteria for a good process; including them on the chart may serve this goal.X-Bar pret ont tn SeopenpeRpEanppncpnee Boyusygsugegsesescees Beg ae ose oa ‘pre Con! ini an oie Bs Should the points be connected on the chart? — This is Purely a matter of taste. A line connecting the points em- Phasizes the sequencing of poinis from leit to right. The in- {erpretation ofa chart does not depend on this emphasis, 30 sometimes the sequencing can lead one to the wrong con- clusions, like seeing short-term trends that aren’ really there. Lines between points are ornamentation. If they ‘make the chart more appealing to look at and use, then they may be beneficial. Fig. 3.2.7 Conv imis aro calculated based! (on the centeriines and subgroup size. See Formulas 3.2.1 and 3.2.2. They getploted as dashed Inoscnthechar. as Contel ChonFig 3.29. Assngle por outside the control Tints an indication oF lack of sabiliy ts time of currence and possible causes should bermestigied. Fig. 32.10 Thachaithasaranofeightpoins above the conterling, which calls foran Investigation acer Fig. 32.11 An upward trend sometimes ‘precedes, and orewarns of the process going ut of cantrol. In this case, the trend bot precedes and follows points outof contol, and Fshe resulto® overacjusoment by the machine operon 318 Conta Chats+ There is a trend, downward or upward, of 7 or more suc- 's Figure 3.2.11). + There isa cycle, a pattern that repeats itself (Figure 3.2.12). Note: The number 7 is commonly used for trends and runs, butthisiis not a hard rule. Since the control limits are at 43 sigma from the center line, either side of the centerline can be divided up into three zones at #1 and #2 sigma (Western Electric, 1956). These zones (labeled C, B, and A going away from the cen- terline), although not plotted on the chart, also are used in eading a control chart, See Figure 3.2.13. Fig. 32.12 A cycle sa peter that repeats Inthis case preceded points that ae out of control and provided an enrly indication of incl Fig. 52.18 Zones used when inwypreting a cosmo chat. 219 Cente ChatFig. 32.14 Mixtuwos usualy indicate two Fig. 3.2.15. Stratification may indicate systomatic sampling. where the samples Consisterlyoftet each other or ‘improperly exlculated contol scales, as inthiscase lite nc chat Fig. 3.2.16 Clustrsareanincenionof short duration, assignable causes, sch as ‘measurement problems, or accidental Sampling tora bs group of part 3:20 sa sam sam sas 47% use cose st ismIn addition, there are several patterns that may appear which are unnatural and should be investigated (Western Flectric, 1956): © a mixture, an absence of points near the centerline (Fig ure 3.2.14) + statfication, 15 or more points consistently hugging the centerline (Figure 3.2.15) + clusters, the grouping of points in one area of the chart (Figure 3.2.16) How to Identify Assignable Causes ‘The first technique to use when looking at an x & R chart is to read the R chart first (Western Electric, 1956). The R cchart is more sensitive to changes in uniformity and consis- tency. If bad paris start appearing in a process, they will af- fect the R chart. The variation will increase, so some points will be higher than normal. Generally, the lover the points inthe char, the more uniform the process. Two machines ‘uring out the same parts can be compated for uniformity With their 8 charts. Parts mixed together from different processes will aso show up in the R chart. Intermittent vari- ation, caused by a switch or relay that strikes occasionally, will cause the R chart to go out of control. ‘Anything that introduces a new system of causes into the process will show up in the R chart. Any change to the process, such as an inexperienced operator, poor materi- als, tool wear, oralack of maintenance, will shift points up- ‘ward. The biggest clues to an assignable cause on an R chart are the time the characteristic occurs, and the fact that some parts are affected more than others. Since the R chart is more sensitive to change, efforts at improving the process will show up first in the R chart. A steady shift downward in points on the R chart is the best evidence of having successfully eliminated assignable causes of variation. ‘Once the R chart is stable, we can focus on the X chart When the R chart is unstable, the x chart can be very mi leading. When both charts are stable, the process is said to be in control, and the X chart indicates the process operat- ing level at various times. Changes in the operating level can he classed by two types: true x causes and false X Causes (Western Electric, 1956). 3a Contel Chantso22 Contel Chars ‘+ True x causes change all pieces from a process at a gen- erally uniform rate. This can include a change in materi- als (thicker or thinner stock, a termperature change, machine calibration or setup, or gradual tooling wear. “These things cause a change in level over time that usu- ally canbe traced to the momentthey occur. * False X causes show up because the X chart reflects changes in the R chart, and those causes are better inter- preted on the R char. They include all the causes men- tioned above that create dispersion within a subgroup. Interpreting the x and the R Chart Together The x chart and the R chart must be interpreted together, as well as separately (Wester Electric, 1956). As stated, a stable process will have points randomly distributed between the control limits on the charts. With a stable process, the x & R points should not follow each other. A lack of stability will sometimes cause them to move together. For example, a process whose population is skewed in a positive direction (Figure 3.2.17) with a long tail to the high side, will cause a positive correlation be- tween the & chart and the R chart. In other words, high & points will tend to follow high R points. A process with a negatively skewed population will cause a negative corre- lation between the charts, as shown in Figure 3.2.18. The x points will tend to follow the R points, but in the opposite direction. ‘Changes in Level sustained change in the level of either chart may call fora recalculation of the centerline and control limits. Con- trol limits must reflect the long-term operating characteris- tics of the process. For that reason, control limits are recalculated only when the sustained change in level ap- ppears to be a permanent change. Recalculating limits at that time renews the ability of the control limits to be used to detect assignable causes. It also recognizes a change to the process which, for better or worse, is more or less per- manent. A chart can be thought of as a moving window. It should accurately reflect present conditions, since that when action based on the chart must take place. Keeping the centerline and control limits constant causes them toeventually become as arbitrary as engineering limits. We ‘must remember, however, that the control limits should be based on at least 20 points. Any sustained change in level should exist for atleast 20 points. Beyond thex & R Chart, An ¥ & R chart is probably the most effective tool for re- ducing variability. Throughout this section, the emphasis has been on detecting and working to eliminate assignable Causes of variation. One might ask, “But what about the Common causes?” Common causes are much more diffi Cult to address on an everyday level. Often, they are part of the whole manufacturing environment, and addressing, them often means addressing decisions on materials and equipment purchasing, material handling, shop organiza- tion, product and process design, employee education, and company orientation. Obviously, eliminating com- rosmve fh _allln Fig. 32.17 The posiively skewed distcib- ution shown above can cause postive core- lation on the charts, where points tend 10 fallow each ober uno: down. 323 Coated Chars