Processing of Metals: Casting Objectives This chapter will enable yout 1. Eaplain the use of patiems for sand casting. 2, Describe the geen sand molding proces. 3, Deseribe the shell molding and investment casing processes. 4, Deseribe centrifugal casting, permanent meld, ard die casting processes 5. Deseribe several common types of melting furnaces. 6, Show how good casting design can prevent many cast- ing problems. investment casting sprue pattern lost wax. sgreen sand mold core print shrink allowance core (piste ote ite side monde of smacticunng metals. Prehistoric humans made tools by pouring, molten metal into open molds made of stone or baked clay, Cast objects over 4000 yours old have been found dating from ancient Assyrian, Egyptian, and Chinese cultures, ‘The process of casting metals is avcomplished by pouring or forcing molten metal inio a mold cavity having a desired shape, When the metal has solidified the cast is removed fiom the mold, Vietally any shape ean be pro- duced by this method, in some cases with such precision that subsequent machining is aot required. After a general discussion of the casting process and why itis so frequently used, this chapter sequentially exam- ines the process. Because sand molding is so frequently used, hat discussion is very thorough, but eight other cast- ing processes are also covered. The melting of metal and some of the hazards represented by molten metal are dis- cussed, including measures to ensure the safety of such, ‘operations. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the importance of casting design in avoiding process and prod- uct problems, THE CASTING PROCESS When designing a metal part to be manufactured an engi nneer must choose @ method of production, The part can be rade by one or more processes, including machining from solid metal, welding fabrication, powder metallurgy, press- ing and cold forming, hot forging, or casting. The main advantage of casting over other manufacturing processes is that pants with intricate internal cavites/passages (eg, faucets, exaust manifolds) can be made, This geometric Feature would be difficult or even impossible to produce with any other manufacturing process. Besides, the casting peocess results in parts with smooth, flowing designs, either for practical or decorative purposes. Also, the metal can be placed only where it is required. Thus, the economy of using less metal for @ part (especially when a very expen- sive metal is used). the eye-pleasing appearance (such as in ‘machinery housings), and the possibility of producing intr- ceate shapes are the factors that set casting apart from other manufacturing processes. Sand casting is typically not a rapid method af pro duction, whereas die casting is a relatively rapid process (Other casting processes lend themselves to production, but none should be considered to have high production rates as compared with punch press work or powder metallurgy. Casting processes involve a large segment of the met- als industry. These range fiom the tiniest precision parts (0 huge castings for machinery sections weighing many tons (Figure 8.1), Some metals that are too difficult io machine, such as those used for aircraft turbine impeller blades, can be 145146 FIGURE 8.1 Contrfugal casting, 131,000 i, 5- fR.dameter, 35% ftlong, to be used fora suction rol shell in a paper ‘machina, Here it's being machined tosize (Copyright 1978, 1978, 1984, Sandusky Foundry & Machine Co., Sandusky, OH) east {0 a precision shape not requiring any subsequent machining. Other softer metals, such as aluminum, are used to form atticles such as transmission cases and valve covers for automobiles. It would take many hours of machining to make a complicated carburetor part from solid metal in a machine shop, but it takes only seconds in a die casting machine Several general conditions rust be met for the pro- duction of good castings, rezardless of the method used: ‘A method of melting the metal to the coerect tempera: ture must be available ‘oF the desired shape mustbe formed, with sufficient strength t contain dhe metal without disto ing cc having too much restraint on the molten metal as it solidifies. Also, the mold must be designed to avoid porosity and cracking of the casting, 3. Molds must be arranged so that when molten metal is introduced into the mold, air and gases can escape so the casting will be free from gas-related defects. 4, As we will see, molds usually are split to facilitate the removal of the patiern and/or the casting. Depending fon the cross-sectional area of the mold cavity, just the gravitational force of the liquid metal can be enough to separate the mold halves. Some casting methods apply additional pressure to the metal. In either ease, aforve adequate to hold the mold halves together must be provided 5. Any mold material (or cores) in intemal eavities aust have a provision for its removal. Finishing operations are often required to remove any excess material from the casting. 2. Amold cavit Chapter 8 FIGURE 8.2 Metal match-plate patterns (Eugene Aluminum & Brass Foundry). PATTERNS: ‘The frst requirement in making a casting is to design and make a pater (Figure 8.2), Patterns are usually made of wood when only a few castings are needed. For larger quan. lities and when wear (due to an abrasion by the molding material) becomes a problem, pattems are made of metal, such as aluminum or bronze. Hard, tough plastics are also used for patterns. Patterns include several types—sing! piece, split-piece, leose-pieve, maich-plate, and cope and drag. The type of pattern used in the mold depends on the required production. For example, small production is eco. nomical witha single-piece pattem; however, large produc-Processing of Metals: Casting FIGURE 8.3. All sand patterns must have draft so they oan be removed from the mold tion requires use of mechanized molding with application of ‘match plate patiem A previously made casting can also be used as a pattern if additional shrinkage is not a factor, Shrinkage Aowance When metal solidifies from the Tiquid state, it shrinks. Thus, in order to reproduce cast- ing of desired cimension, » shrinkage allowance rust be added to the patiern. Each metal has a different shrinkage, The following are shrinkages in inJft for some metals Casivon 18 Steel us Brass 36 Aluminum — 5/32 Magnesium — 5/32 Draft Paves must have draft or taper to permit removal from the mold (Figure 8.3), Draftis usually about 2°t03°, Without draft on the pattern, parts ofthe send mold ‘would be broken as the pattera is pulled out. Other Allowances If there are areas on the casting that will have machined surfaces, the pattem reeds to provide machining allowance that will leave additional metal for removal, The amount of machining allowence depends on the roughness and securacy of the finished cesting, Enough material must be left for subsequent machining in order to ccut under sand inclusions on the surface of the casting. SAND CASTING In sand casting, specially prepared sand that is mixed with ilferent binders and additives is used as & mold material. ‘The appropriately conditioned sand is then compacted around apattern that has the shaye of adesired casting. Sand das the advantage of being highly refractory (can resisthigit temperatures without melting), o metals like east iron and steel can be cast easily ia sand molds, Although there are many different molding materials, sand casting the greatest ionnage of all castings produced. Molding Sands The basic characteristics of sand are that itis (1) easily molded and capable of holding accurate detail, (2) reusable, and (3) inexpensive, Sand melding processes can be classi- fedinto the following groups: green sand molding, heet-cured resin binder processes, cold-box resin binder processes, no- bake resin binder processes, and silicate and phosphate bonds, The most common type of sand molding process is green sand molding, Green rofers to the fact thatthe mold- ing sand contains moisture. Other sand molding processes. because oftheir higher strength, are often used for cores tat form holes and hollow spaces in green sand molds. ‘The most common molding sand is 2 natural silica sand (Si03} however, othersand types suchas zireon (Z1SiO,)and olivineare alsousedin specialapplications. The sands can be classified into two groups: natural and synthetic. Natural ‘send isthe sannd in its natural form. The synthetic sans are naturalsendsthathavebeen washed, sereened, classified, and blended to meet the requirements of aparticular application. ‘The synthetic sands are most commonly used in foundries, General Characteristics of Molding Sands ‘Molding sand must have several characteristics: 1. Cohesiveness The zblity tobe packed (rammed) in a smold and retain its shape. This property is achieved by adding various sand additives (@.., clay, water, resins) 2. Refeactoriness The ability to withstand high tempera tures. 3. Permeability Porosity thot allows gases through the mold, 4, Collapsiblity The ability to allow freedom for the solidifying, shsinking metalto move without factoring, anal to sllow the cast pat tobe removed easily trom the mold, This property is also achieved by adding eppr0- priate sand additives (e.2., com flour, dextrin) to escape Preparation of Green Sand Mix The green sand mixture (sand, clay, and water) is placed in a muller (Figure 84), where the ingredients are thoroughly ‘mixed in order to obtain the proper consistency. A typical snaller consists of a Jarge tub in which sm arm with rollers swings around, foreing the rollers over the sand. To achicve required molding propestics, the sand grains mast be of the right size, and clay and water must be added in the right proportion. Io obtain consistently148 Seng entarce — Hopper Pow bade (of 2 / Fe < $ I Sind exit Mule whee (a) Cortinuous mur aaa FIGURE 8.4 Mole wheel (of &) Chapter 8 Rabberted mule whee! Gre) TT Mertens “Thiee iypes of mulling machines used forthe conditioning of molding sand. (Metals Handbook, Vol.5, 6th ed, ASM International, 1970, p. 183, With permission.) FIGURE 8.5 Casting sand is being pushed around on a jot-squeeze machine (Eugene Aluminum & Brass Foundry), good castings, the mold must be of appropriate hardness, strength, and permeability, Some standard tests are com- monly applied in the foundries to control process vari ables (e.g., grain size and grain distribution, moisture content, green strength, hardness). These tests are per- formed both during send preperation as well as during mold making in order to assure high-quality molds and castings. FIGURE 8.8 rag (bottom haif) of sand mold after it has been formed around the match-plate pattem (Eugene Alurrinum & Brass Foundry). Molding A series of stops in manually producing castings can be seen in Figure 8.5 throngh 8.10, Although many kinds of pattems are used, such as split-piece, single-pieve, and Joose piece types, patlems for green send molding are us ally made in two halves and are called match: plate patterns, or in the case of larger castings cope-and-trag pattemsProcessing of Metals: FIGURE 8.7 Core being placed in meld (Eugene Alurrinum & Brass Foundry), FIGURE 8.8 Cope (top hal) being placed on drag flask (Eugene ‘Aluminum & Brass Foundry), ‘Cope refers ta the top half Figure 8.11) al drag refers to the boicom hall Figure 8.12). Thecope-and-crag pattem isplaced ina lak tt is made intwo halves (cone and drag) (Figure 8.13) Fist.the drag half ofthe feskis filled with sand. The sand is then rammed into place and afferward struck off (leveled off) ever with the top ‘of the flask witha straightedge (Figure 8,14), The drag half ot the flask and pattem is also rammed in the same manner (Figure 3.15). The pattem also has an extension called core print if a core is used. This space in the sarc motd pro- vides @ support for the ends of the sand core, One oF more vertical holes are provided for pouring the metal. This hole, called a sprue, has a pcuring cup on the top. The role of the pouring cup is to make pouring casy and to keep the sprue constantly filed with metal At its bottom the sprue is on: FIGURE 8.9 Molten aluminum being poured into the mold (Eugene ‘Aluminum & Braoe Foundry). FIQURE 8.10 Solidified casting broken out of molds (Eugene Aluminum 8 Brass Foundry) nected tothe runner, which is connected to the mold cavity thrcugh the gate. Whea the molten metal is pouredtfills the ‘mold cavity and other holesin the top of the mold, called rs- ers. The risers are used as reservoirs to feed liquid metal to the mold cavity as it shrinks while solidifying, They also provide for escaping gases and allow imparts to fost to the top of theriser and outo the casting. The cope-and-drag pattem is mage in segments that can be separated, such as the riser and downsprie, which are removed from the pouring side of the cope half of the flask, and the pattern is removed from the parting line side after itis tamed over. Finally, the patterns are removed from the mold sec- sions. Cores are installed, the two halves of the flask are assembled, and the mold is ready for casting. The result- ing casting is similar to the pattern (Figure 8.16)Chapter & 150 pce aie | Se a cure ers Sectoral view of cope and cag wih cre in place on he rte Hoard At is ltt sea ake tre casting (Nocly ond Serone Paci Mottuy a terials of vcovenstom ten Industry rd 04 © 1o69 Prentse Hal Pe) soweenm | cri cnt hey ll FIGURE 8.14 yap Sato! ve of opo patom in ask with the sand rammedtin placa ara Suck ot FiGuae att Top View and sice view of cope matcr-plate pattern. The down apruo and riser pattome aro removed from one sido, and the cope pattern is removed trom the otrer side (Necly and Bertono, Practical Metallurgy and Materials of Industry, 611 ed., © 2008 Prentice Hal, Inc). Wea nase ‘Sansone ci FIGURE 8.12 Drag match-plate pattern (Neoly and Bertone, Practical Metallurgy and Materials of Industry, 6h ed, © 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc.) poorer aa ‘he sand mold and pattem, as well as the two halves of «a sand mold are prevented from sticking together by dusting them with a commercially prepared parting powder. The Inside of a sand mold is often coated with mold wash (e.. graphite solution) co prevent the sand from sticking to the casting. I also results in a smooth surface ofthe casting. Molten metal is poured into the mold, where it s fies, After a specified cooling time the casting is removed from the mald, There are several ways to remove a casting, ‘The most common method is vibration, in which the mold is broken by placing it in a shakeout, that is, a vibrating machine, that bresks the sand sticking to the casing, as FIGURE 6.15 ‘Soctianal view of drag pattern ina flaske with tha sand, rammed in place and struck off (Neely and Bertone, Practical Motallurgy and Materials of Indusiry, {td ed. © 1983 Prentice Hall, Inc.) ‘well as the cores. The sand from the broken-up mold and from the shakeout is transferred to another machine that reconcitions it and prepares it for reuse. ‘The sand condli- Goning consists of etushing, screening, magnetically sepa~ rating, and impinging of sand grains against a wear plate at high velocity. The fines (dust) are vacuumed away and the ‘clean sand is wansorted to hoppers to be used again. Cores Cowes are parts used to produce a desired cavity in a cast- ing. To reduce the manufacturing cost, the cotes should be made as a part of the mold whenever possible; however, due to the complexity of desired hollow sections, the cores ‘ace most commonly made separately. Cores ere made byProcessing of Metals: Casting FIQURE 6.16 Compieted casting (Neely and Bertone, Pract Metallurgy ard Materials of industry, 6th od, (© 2008 Prentice Hall, Ine.) FIGURE 6.17 ‘Sectional view of core box with the core (Neely and Bertone, Practical Metallurgy and Materials of Indust, 6th ed,, ©2000 Prentico Hall, Inc) FIGURE 8.18 “Two halves of core fastened together after being removed from core box and baked in oven (Neely and Bertone, Practical Metallurgy and Materials of Indusry, th ed, © 2008 Prentice Hall, Inc) paction caa be done manually ot mechanically by using « core blowing machine, Today, most cores are made with one of many organic binder processes. The: he classified as no-bake hinder procesces, heat-cured binder processes, and cold-box binder processes. In the no- Dake and cold-box processes the binder is cured at room temperature, whereas in the heat-cured binder process the binder is cured at elevated temperatures. Some cores are s sand and are also lighterto ‘made hollow; thus, they use le handle The core is placed in the sand mold and in the core print, and the mold is then ready for pouring (Figure 8.19). The Advantages and Disadvantages of Sand Casting The greatest advantages of sand casting are that almost any ‘metal can be poured in the sand mold, and there is almost 0 limit on size, shape, of weight of the part. Sand casting pro vides the most direct route from pattem to casting, Tooling costs are low and the gravity-casting process is economical Among the limitations involved in sand casting is the need for machining in ocerto finish the castings, especially large ones having rough surfaces. Ocherdisadvantagesare thatitis ‘ot practical inthe green sand process to castparts with I and thin sections, and @ new noldis required for every pour. ‘Sand castings are extensively used for machine tool hh also extensively used in the automotive industry for mak- ing cugine blocks. Castings must be defect free, and their quality must be ‘consistent fom casting to casting. Statistical process control 19s, bases, slideways, and other parts, and they are FIGURE 8.19 Large sand mold being ravity cast with molten cast iron (1988.© Pottstown Machine Company, Pottstown, Pay152 (SPC) techniques are used often to improve quality and reduce rejection of pans. EVAPORATIVE CASTING PROCESS In the evaporative process, the pattera, sprue, and riser are made of foamed polystyrene. They can be made as asinglepiece, orthey can be mail separately and then glued. together. The completed polystyrene pattem is then costed with a thin layer of refractory material, Thecosted pattem is Placed in the mold and dry sand is compacted/vibrated around the pattern, When the metal is poured, the heat vaporizes the polystyrene pattern almost instantaneously. ed with leaving the mold shape intact as itis be " (Figure 8.20). This process can be used for casting parts of any size and shape, since the pattems do not need to be removed prior tocasting, thus eliminating the need fordran, fon the pattem (Figures 8.21 and related to mold shift are eliminsted, since the entire pat= ‘Also, problems FIGURE 8.20 Evaporative casting proces. This photo dapicte the way the intense heat of molten aluminum vaporizes a fam pattern, leaving behind a high-quality casting (Photo Courtesy of Ford Motor Company), FIGURE 6.21 Polystyrene (Styrofoam™) pattern for a bronze casting. The pattem is made in sections (Eugene Aluminum & Brass Foundry). tern is assembled before being covered with sand, allow: for corrections prior to pouring. Another advantage of the process is the low cost of sand preparation, since a0 additives or binders are used for sand conditioning. The process is economical only for prototyping or larg duction, thats, only ifthe polystyrene paterns themsel ve ccan be mass produced in a die, SHELL PROCESS The shell molding process is a type of sand casting process that provides 2 finer detsil and smoother fnishProcessing of Metals Casting FIGURE 0.22 Bronze casting called Coast Spirit, permanently located in front of the library at the University of Victoria, British Columbia (Eugene Aluminum & Brass Foundry). because the sand is fines and it is combined with plastic resin (0 make a simgoth mold surface. The process can be automated for mass production. This method requires the Use of metal patterns that are heated to temperatures of up to 450° F (232° C) and coated witha silicon release agent ‘The pattern is then placed on the dump tox, which contains sand coated with phenolic resin (Figure 8.23). The assem- by is then turned upside down, causing the sand 0 fall and ceover the heated pattem. Some of the sand adheres to the patern and hardens, forming a shell around it, The thick- ress of the shell depends on the length of time the pattern is in contact with the sand. After the prescribed curing time, the dump box is inverted (0 remove the loose sand. ‘The pattern and edhering sand are placed in an oven and rested to 2 temperature of 600? F (316° C) for Lor 2 min- tutes. The hall'shell is then removed from the pattern and the two shells are glued or clamped together to form a complete mold. This thin mold is strong enough for cast- ing small or thin parts, but heavier castings require the use 153 of a backup material such as shot or sand in a pouring Jjucket The advantage of the shell process is the high qual- ity of the surface finish of the casting. In addition, thi mold is very strong, ellowing casting of parts with fine details. Also, molds have long shelf life, thus allowing production flexibility. A disadvantage of the process is the relatively high cost of the core boxes; however, shell molding is an economical process for high-quantity pro duction due to savings in the machining time of castings, low labor costs associated with the process, and high pio ductivity. Many shapes cin be made by this process. Tn the case of the complex shapes, individual segments are ‘manufactured separately and assembled together into the mold. Shell mold casting has good repeatability, and most ferrous atid nonferrous meals can be cast by this method. PERMANENT MOLD CASTING ‘The greatest disadvantage of sand casting is that a new mold must be made for each casting. In addition, some inherent dimensional inaccuracies are present in the sand casting. These disadvantages gave rise to the development of a permanent mold. Despite the name, permanent molds ccan be reused at most for several thousand pours, after Which they lose their que shape and must be scrapped. Most permanent molds are made of gray cast ion or steel Graphite molds are often used for casting higher-tempera- ture metals. The molds are made by machining processes and are hand finished or polished, A refractory wash is applied to the mold prior to casting in order to prolong its life. When cores are needed, they can be macle from: snctal, in which case they are reused, or they can be made from sand, in which case they cannot be reased. The mold halves may be hinged (Figure 8.24) or mounted on a casting machine (Figure 8.25) so they can be opened and clesed quickly aad accurately In permanent mold casting, the metal is poured from a ladle, using gravity to fill the mold, Cast iron and non- ferrous metals are cast in this manner. The molds are heated prios to cun, and the temperature is maintained by. the molten metal. This is necessary to avoid chilling the metal too quickly, wisich can produce laps or cold-stuts in the casting (cracks where two adjacert portions of metal do not solidify together). Usually, only simple shapes are cast by this process because of the rigidity of the mold and shrinking of the metal when it solidifies. Because these molds are not permeable, they must be vented at the plane where the two mold halves come together. In addition 10 gravity pour, low-pressure and vacunm-pouring techniques are used in conjunction with the permanent mold process,FIGURE 8.23 Shel molds. (2) Heated meta pattern in dump box wih sand. (b) Durrp box is turned, leaving some sand achering fo the pattern. (6) Pattern is placed in an oven for + oF 2 minutos to harden it (a) Half-shell mold is stripped irom pattern. (e) Mold halves aro clamped together with core, The top helt-shell is shown as a sectional view (Neely and Bertone, Practical Metalurgy and Materials of Industry 6th ed, © 2003 Prentice Hall, Ine.) Eccentric mod clare, ola ha FIGURE 8.24 Booketype manually operated permanent molg-easting machina, used principaly with molds having ehellow cavities (Motals Handbcok, Vol 5, 8th ec., ASM International 1970, p. 266. With permission). 154Processing of Metals: Costing Alanment pin (onaf we) Goatbex for sald rover FIGURE 8.25 155 Gating \ (one af fur) \ oid hat core Manually operated pernanent-male-casting machine with straight-ine retraction, required for deap-cavity molds (Metals Haretbook, Vol.5, 8th ed, ASM International, 1970, p.200. With permission). Good surface finish, good dimensional accuracy, and Jow porosity can he obgained with permanent molds, Repeated use of molds and a rapid production rate with low serap loss make this easting process ideal for moder- ate production runs ofa few thousand pieces. Some disad- vantages are high mold cost, Limited intricacy of casting shape, and unsuitability for high temperatare metals such as steel, SLUSH CASTING Slush casting is used with permanent molds to make a shell of metal in the mold, The molten metal is poured into the mold and allowed to solidify to a certain wall thickness ‘against the mold, and the remaiacer of the molten metal is dumped oat, thus producing a shell. Toys, lamp bases, and ornamental objects re made with this process, CENTRIFUGAL CASTING Centrifugal casting is a process in which molten metal is Poured into a rapidly revolving mold, The liquid metal is forced to conform to the shope of the mold by centrifugal forcet many times the force of gravity. In this process the ‘mold rotates about either a horizontal ora vertical axis. No ccore is needed to make an inner surface, since this process naturally produces a hollow shape such as pipe (Figures 8.26 and8.27), The thicknessoF the mold contiols tne cooling rate aand therefore the grain staucture of the east part. Also, if @ hard outer wear surface is needed with an inner machinable soft mesa, wo dissimilar metals ean be used—the outer one to harden whea solidified and the inner one to remain rela tively soft. For example, a thin wall of stainless steel can be poured first and then Tess expensive low-carbon stee! can be poured, giving the pipe a comosion-resistant jacket at low feos, Lighter elements, impurities, and slag collect an the Inner wall of a ceneifugal casting and can be removed later bby machining. Vertical centrifugsl and semicentrfugal processes involve the rotation of a mokd about its vertical axis. The metal is poured into a central reservoir that allows the lig- tid metal to flow outward into the spinning mold by cen- trifugal force. This provess provides a denser structure in tho motal than ordinary gravity casting does. Its ideal for steel wheels, brake drums, and eylinder barrels, similar process, called centrifuging, rotates 2 group of molds oran stain distance from the center of ‘ontire mold located a rotation, A pouring basin allows the metal to flow outward into the molds, This method produces superior-quality castings.156 Chapter 8 (Water jocket = es 1 \coatingaoree “PEMA er i ae BSS ( at es a Machine curing costing Puller block / Cost pine stripping FIGURE 8.26 Machine for centrifugal casting of ron pip in a rotating wator-jacketed meld (Metals Haredbook, Vol. 5, 8th ec., ASM International, 1970, p. 267. With permission). Se INVESTMENT CASTING One oftheoldestinetods ofcasiing mesalsisthe investment casting (ic, lost wax) process, The pattern is made of wax coated (invested) with a thick layer of cefractory material (Figure 6.28) After the refractory material hes hardened, the wax is melted and poured out of the mold and roused for ‘another pattern, The mold is thea preheated close to pouring remperature, and molten metal is chen poured. This method is used for dentistry, arts and crafts, and for any type of very accurate near-ret-shape casting. When itis used for indus- FIGURE 8.27 wil purposes, significant production rates are possible Large centritugelly cast tube (Copyright 1976, 1978, 1984, Plaster of paris can be used for the mold material in the Sandusky Foundry & Machine Co., Sandusky, OH). lost wax process. The mold must be broken and destroyedProcessing of Metls: Casting —— = FIGURE 8.28 mowently 197 (6) faa exer in hea ter wit oie ‘Steps in the production of a casting by the solid Investment molding process, using a wax pattern. (a) Wax sprue pattern. (©) Pattern esoembly (wex patiemne attached te wax sprue). (2) Pattorn ascombly in flask after mold slurty has besn poured. (Precoating of paitern assembly with slurry is required for meiais with pouring temperatures above 2000" F:) (a) Mild efter pouring. (e) Soldfied casting aftr mold has bean aroken away. (3) One of four eastings ator removal from sprue (Metale Hendbook, Yal. 5, th ed., ASM international, 1970, 9.288. With permission). to remove the cast pert. Plaster of paris molds can be used only for the lower-iempersture metals suc as alurninuun, zine, tn, and some bronzes. ‘Metals having higher pouring temperatures, sich as cast {ron and steel, can also be mass precision cast, Fora produc- tion casting process, a method af mass producing the wax patterns is needed. The patterns are mass prosiuced by inject- ing the molten wax into a split mold inthe sane way plastic objects are rapidly made in injection molding machines (Figure 8.29). The wax pattems are assembled in groups on a sprue in clusters (Figure 8.30). The wax assembly is dipped into an investnent, tat is, slurry of refiactory material. [Lis dipped several times to develop a fairly thick shell. The shell is then heated in an oven to melt out the wax, whieh is later158 FIGURE 829 Automatic wax pattern molder. Large quantities of duplicate wax patterns can be produced on this machine (Courtesy of Muoller-Phipps international, Inc. Poughtespsie, NY), reused. Priorto casting, the mold is heated in a furnace close to pouring tempernture und then may be placed in a flask ‘where a heavy mold material is poured around it for addi tional support. The molten metal can be poured into the mold by gravity, pressure, of vacuum, ‘This method can be automated to some extent and is widely used inthe automotive and aerospace industries. The Following are some of the advantages of investment casting 4, Unusual and nonsymunetrical shapes that would notallow withdrawal ofan ordinary pattern are easily produce, 2. Smooth surfaces and high accuracy caa be obtained. Machining can be reiluced or eliminated, 3. Nonmachinable alloys can be cast with high precision, Most parts made by this process are limited 10 a 2 are other limitations, such as in the Chapter & tuse of holes end cavities. The process is moze involved than some other casting processes, such as permanent molding and die casting, and is therefore more expensive per casting, SHAW PROCESS In this process, a rubbery jelling agent and a slurry of cefractoty aggregate is poured over the pattern, This cub bery mold hardens sufficiently to be easily stripped off the pattern and will return to the exact shape of the pat- tern. The mold is ignited to burn off the volatile ele- ‘ments, and itis then placed in a furnace and brought to 2 high temperature. The mold is then ready for pouring. The advantage of this process is good permeability and good collapsibility, which allow for production of deli cate and intricate shapes with fine detail and higher- quality castings. DIE CASTING Die casting is similar to permanent molding in that a metal mold made in two halves is used. The difference is that the metal is aot gravity poured into the mold (die), but instead the metal is injected under high pressures ranging from 1000 to 100,000 PSI. This requires massive machines that are generally operated hydraulically to exert the hundreds of tons of force necessary to hold the two halves of the die together whea the molten metal is being injected at such high pressures (Figure 8.31). The dies are usually made of alloy oF tool steel and are quite expensive to make, Some have one or wo identical mold cavities for larger perts, and others may have several different cavities (Figure 8.32). Some dies are more com- plicated and have sections that move in several directions. Grooves or overflows around the cavity om the parting face permit gases to escape, The overflows of excess metal must be trimmed off by a secondary operation after the casting is removed from the mold, This trimming is done with trimming dies that also remove the sprues and ran- ners. The mold must also have provisions for water cool ing so that a constant operating temperature can be maintained. Knock-out pins provide for ejection of the part when the dic is opened (Figure 8.33). When cores are used they are made of metal and are usually drawn out before the die is opened. Cores are retracted either in a straight line or in a circular motion, Ttiseasy tosee that these complex dies are quite expen- sive. Their costs can range from a few thousand dollars to ‘$100,000 depending on the size of the die, its cormplexity, and the size of the casting machine used. Obviously, this159 emi sury ie Pouring basin Sury tak spue— Wax pate ota) @ Dipped patern assembly - \ \ Fide bed | C Mote f wopiece Cate sub Fj cera) (oe i casting roto) 0 a @ FIGURE 8.30 Steps in the production of a casting by the investment shell molding provess, using a wax pattorn. (2) Wax sprue pattern (b) Paltern assembly (wax patterns attached to wax sprue) {6} Pattern assembly dipped in cerarric slurry. (d) Pattem assembly stuccced in fluidized bea, Digping (c) and stuceaing (d) are repeated untl aquired wall thickness of mold is produced. (@} Compieted mold after wax pattern has been matied out (mold shown in pouring position) (Noid aiter pouring. (9) Solidtied casting aiter rok has been broken away. (h) One of four castings after removal from sprue. (Meiais Hanabook, Vol. §, ath ed., ASM International, 1970, 9.239, With permission }.160 FIGURE 2.31 Die casting machine (TVT Die Casting & Mfg. inc). e e (J > | je OU « Sree cat de f STC | 5 Poe ‘* (Cembinaton ce Tink ie FIGURE 8.32 Die casting molds showing four diferent typas of cio cavities (Courtesy of American Dia Casting Institut). Chapters tity produesion or for process is not suitable for small-qu: investment for dies and making very large parts. The lang machines will pay off only when very large quantities (20,000 (o millions of parts per year) are required, Dic casting is a means of producing castings of lower temperature alloys at a relatively high rate, These castings ‘ae usually thin walled, smooth, and highly ac (Figures 8.34 and 8.35). The process is highly adaptable to the manufacture of small parts, such as automobile door handles, wiper motors, kitchen appliance parts, and thou sands of small items we use every day. The quality of die castings is high because of a rapid cooling rate that produces rine grains in the metal. The su faces tend to be harder than the interior as a result of the chilling actions of the metal die. Porosity is sometimes a problem as a result of entrapped air, but with proper vent ing this can be overcome. Zine-based alloys are the most commonly used in die casting. Other metals used in die eastn copper, aluminum, and magnesium. Zine alloys have the Jowest melting point, about 700° F (71° C),andso have a less destructive effect on dics. Aluminum and magnesivt alllays melt at about 1100° F (593° C), and copper alleys melt atabout 170° I (927° C). Therefore, dies using these alloys have a shorter life because of thermal shock, which uses crazing (microcracking) on the die surfaces, Ca ‘The two basic systems and machines used for die castin 1g Machines the cold-chamber machines (FiProcessing of Metals: Casting 161 FIGURE 8.33 Typical dia (Courtesy of American Die Casting Institute), FIGURE 8.34 Part of a die showing mold cavity at center, caw material con the left, and procuct atthe right (TYT Dis IMfg., Inc). casting cycle, the motten metal is fed i ber and then is forced into the die by higher temperaure because th tively cool and there is less tendency for spalling o: erack- : chamber machine. Although the cycle miber 100 ynewhat slower than that of the Hoe the productivity is still high, as much as per hour. FIGURE 8.35 ‘Some ai the great varlely of paris made by de casting (TYT Die Casting & My, Ine.) A typical hot-chember machine with a submerged ‘gooseneck injector and pl This type h iron pot for cylinder ar a ubmerged inthe matten metal then Station (noes) sien reac Plage od 1 outs thor stony tor Setar FIGURE 8.36 Cold-chamber machine. Diagram illustrates die, cold ‘chamber, and horizonial ram or plunger in charging postion (Cowtesy of American Dia Casting Insitute). through the gooseneck and nozzle into the dic at eacheycle. ‘This type of die casting machine can be used only for the low-melting-point zine-based and tin-based alloys. This ‘machine is much faster ia operation thaa the cold-chamber machine. Several problems and difficulties have plagued the dic casting process, especially when attempts were made FIGURE 8.37 Hot-chamber machine, Diagram illustratoe plunger that is submerged in motten metal, gooseneck, nozzle, and dies. Modern machines are hydraulically operated and are Chapter 8 to speed up or fully automate die casting systems, The ‘major problems are flash (Figure 8.38), sticking, and col dering (melten metal adhering to the die). Many kinds of automatic unloading and loading devices have been developed, and die sprayers have been used to control these problems with mixed results. Other problems such as surface defects, dimensional inaccuracies, and internal the inje: porosity have been addressed also. Increasing tion plunger velocity and reducing the toval filling time reduced these problems. FURNACES AND METAL HANDLING The cupola furnace (Figure §.39) has been of primary importance in the melting of cast iron for foundry work. Coke (produced from coal) is used for producing heat in the cupola furnace. A typical cupola furnace is a circular stecl shell lined with a refreciory material such as fi brick. It is equipped with a blower, air duet, and wind box with tuyetes for admitting air into the cupola. A sand bottom keeps the molten metal from burning through and is sloped so that the iron may flow out when the tsp. hole is opened. The process begins by starting a wood. fixe oa the sand botiom and placing coke on top. When a 2- to-d-ftthick bed of coke is thoroughly ignited, iron scrap of pigs are charged into the furnace, alternating with coke plus small amounts of limestone for a flux. A equipped with automatic yoling controls and safety devices (Courtesy of American Die Casting Institute). Lp) Po ect de cover de FurnaceProcessing of Metls: Casting BC FIGURE 8.38 Die cast parts (clutch arm) showing tlash on the Jaft and ‘lash removed on the right (Consolidated Metco, inc.). 163 blower forces air up through the change, and the iron begins to melt atthe top ofthe coke bed. The molten iron is drawn off into a ladle, and suitable metallurgical tests are performed. The metallurgy of the cast iron is con- tolled at the furnace before the ladle is moved to the casting floor. These tests reveal the amount of carbon and other elements. Certain alloy-rich materials or sili- ‘con to control graphitization are acded to the ladle, Also, if nodular iron is desired, elements such as magnesium Or cerium are aelded to the ladle to cause the graphite to Tom in the shape of nodules (spheres) instead of flakes, (Nodular iron is much tougher and stronger than gray cast iron, which contains graphite in the form of flakes.) Whea the tests are completed and the additions are made in the ladle, the molten metal is ready to be poured into the prepared molds, FIGURE 8.39 The cupoia furnace (Nesly and Bertone, Practical Metallurgy and Matorials of Industry, 6th ed, (© 2003 Prentice Hall, Inc. [Jomo oer pescaFIGURE 0.40 Molten metal being poured irom an induction furnace into a lade, The furnace is tited to make the pour (Incuctotherm Corp When fossil fuels such as coke are burned, consider: able smoke and fumes are relessed into the atmosphere. In ‘areas where air pollution is a cuitical problem, these fur- aauces ave fitted with dust colleetors and other air pollution equipment: where cheap electricity is available, the cupola fumaces are replaced with electric furnaces. Electric fur rnaces for melting east iron can be either electric are, electric induction, or electri resistance types (Figures 8.40, 8.41). Another advantage ofthe electric furnace over the cupola is that the former can be used to melt many other metals, for example, aluminum, copper, brass. Gas-fired crucible or ait frmaces are often used to melt nonferrous metals. This furnace consists of a heating cham- ber containing a crvcible into which the metal charge is placed. The furnace may be small enough that the erucible of ‘molten metal is lifted outof the furnace for pouring, or it may be so large that the whole fumace and the erucible tilt for pouring, In another adaptation the heating is done in a large Drick-lined ladle by placing a gas-fired lid ovor it Larger, reverberatory-type gas-fired furnaces are also used, especially in melting nonferrous. metals Figure 8.12 shows such a furnace being charged with alu- minum scrap. MOLTEN METAL SAFETY ‘The hazardsinhorentinthehandling of molten metal require thoughtful planning and engineering to ensure they are avoided. Molten metal isa threat to the safety of people and equipment if it is mishandled; therefore, the hands Cuper FIGURE 8.41 Gross section of a 60-cycle coreless furnace with a rammed lining (Courtesy of Ajax Magnethecmie Corp, Watren, Ohio) process, forexample, cranes, ladles, fork trucks, and lifting devices, must be reliable andoperate with a minimum of dif ficult. The floor space oraislewaysin whichsuch equipment {used mustbe designed 50 they are free of obstructions and Gf possible) people, Auxiliary equipment such as troughs, molds, and stirring and skimming equipment must be engi neered to avoid spilling or splashing of metal Personal protective equipment vaties with the metal involved but usually includes safety ghises, face shields, hhard hat, molder’s bocts (or spaisto cover shoelaces and shoe ‘openings heat-resistant leggings and aprons, and heai-resis- tant gloves; some plants requize employees to wear flame retardant cotton clothing and strictly forbid synthetic Clothing. Some of these precautions are related to the heat involved in working around furnaces and with molten metals, batthey all will also help protect the individual from coming in contact with molten metal in case there is an explosion, ‘A dangerous aspect of molten metal is the possible consequences ofits coming in coniact with water. The tem peratures at which many metals are molten are many vn the boiling point of water; if molten ‘or cover moisture or water, the water will rapidly transform to Steam and explode as it expands. This explosioa can hurl molten metal many feet, endangering people and equip wetal manages to trapProcessing of Metals: Casting ment. The soutce of the moisture could be a cold east iron mold on which moisture has condensed from the air, or it could be water spilled or leaked on the floor, or it could be moisture trapped inside scrapp metal or the shrinkage crack of a pig tha is then charged into a furnace, The correction ‘of some of these hazards is obvious; others may not be. Scrap and pigs to be charged should be stored out of the weather. If that is aot possible, they should be preheated before charging to drive off water, Cold molds should be preheated, or coated with a fuel such as kerosene. Oudly enough, if molten mera! is spilled into enough ‘water there is no problem; the watcr does its job of cooling, and the metal solidifies hefore it ean cause a problem, but a Lisle water... and boon! Molten metal can also explode with devastating force and consequences if it comes in contact with an oxide of another micial under just the right (or wrong) circum stances. This type of explosion is almost of an atomic nature and depends on the fact that energy is required to free metals from their oxides, therefore if the reverse hap- pens; that is, if a molten metal suddenly converts back tits oxide, there is a tremendous release of energy. This can happen with all metals, but aluminum is possibly the worst it is estimated that the conversion of 1 Tb of aluminum to aluminum oxide releases three times the enersy of a pound of nitroglycerine! Some of these types of explosions have been known to level whole plants ‘The normal method of preventing these occurrences is to isolate the molten metal from the oxides of other metals. For example, if casting equipment is made of steel, it should be painted or covered with a material that will prevent it from rusting (tuming into an oxide) tnd prevent the molten metal from coming in contact 165 FIGURE 8.42 ‘Aluminum scrap being charged into a gassired matting furnace (Courtesy of Alcoa Ine.) with it The hazards will vary with the metals involved; just because one metal is safely cast does not mean that another will behave in the same manner, Industry stan dards can be very helpful in assessing the hazards involved with a particular metal POURING PRACTICE Ladles are usually constructed of stos! and lined with fre brick or other refractory material (Figure 8.43). The inte- rior of the ladle is teated or kept hot while in use so as not 'o cool the molten metal, In small foundries, « handhold, FIGURE 8.43, ‘Teepot lade.165 FIGURE 8.44 Shenketype ladle. shank-type ladle is often used to pour small quantities (Figure 8.44). This type requires two personsto wse it. The teapot ladle can contain more metal ands supported on an ‘ovechead monorail ce crane. The hendwheolis turned tilt the lzdle and make the pour. This and the bottom-poar {ypes keep the slag and oxidized metal from going into the ‘mold. In some operations the molds are placed on a pour ing floor, whereas in other, automatic or semiautomatic, operations the molds are carried slong a conveyor 10 the ladles where a measured amount of molten meta is poured into the mold CASTING CLEANUP ‘Aer the solidified castings are removed from the mold, they are cleaned ina shakeout, and small parsare often put in a tumbler. The risers and gates must be knocked otf (often this can be done on cast iron because of its brittle- ness) or cut off by means of sawing or use of an abrasive cutoff wheel. FIGURE 8.45 Casting problem: thin to thick section, The spokes, bing smaller, cool more rapidyy than the thick i, causing them to break. Chapters CASTING DESIGN AND PROBLEMS Because many factors influence the quality and perfor- mance ofa casting, careful attention must be given to several design requirements if the best results are to be obsained. ‘The more complex castings require more considerations than the simple ones. The draftsman or engineer should understand the problems invelyed or confer with 1 foundrymen for suggested alterations. Sufficient allowance ‘of metal should alsvays be provided when machining oper- ations are to be performed. Size of the casting, and surface roughness, are involved in this decision, The location of the parting plane is also very important, since the pattern must Ire extracted at this plane without disrupting the sand mold The following are other Tuctors 10 be considered. 1. Weight of the casting and mold strength 2. Effective gating and sufficient riser 3. Number of coves and their placement 4, Required dimensional accuracy 5. Radi, thickness of sections, and amount of shrinkage Cracking can occur at sharp corners and where thick sections join with thin sections (Figure 8.45). Proper radii ‘can reduce this problem. Also, the cooling rates are greater for the thin section than for the thick one; this also esuves cracking atthe juncture. Cooling rates may be increased in a thick section by using “chills,” metal sections embedded in the mold to absorb heat (Figure 8.46). The shape of a casting sould be designed fo have as uniform thickness as possible, but ia many products cis is not possible, Pars that have ribs or spokes are subject to this kind of cracking, but often the ribs can be staggered (Figure 8.47). When parts interseot, suchas in «90° turn, interior corners (fillets) should be provided, but if they are too generous, hot spots may develop and cause shrinkage defects (Figure 8.48). Holes provided by cores can be used to eliminate these weak poiats costing GeneProcessing of Metals: Casting FIGURE 8.46 Chil ina mold around the rim of a wheel. This equalizes the cooling rate between the thick rim and the thin spoke. ‘Odd numbers of epokos ara often used to reduce cracking. rot FIGURE 8.47 Staggored ribs. Stvinkage Poor FIGURE 8.48, Shrinkage areas, hot spots cause voids. 167 Shrinkage cat i FIGURE 8.49 Shrinkage cavities, Jn acastng, If risers are inadequate to supply molten metal when the casting is shrinking during solidification, shrinkage cavities can result (Figure 8.49). Review Questions 1. When precision surfaces arerequired on acasting, which one ofthe several types of castings is most ikely to need ‘a machining operation subsequent to casting? Which twotypes areleast likely to need subsequent machining? 2. What are patterns for sand casting male of What mate rial is used fo make pattems for shell molds? Which kind of pattern volatilizes when the metal is poured? 3. What characteristic of sand casting patterns is most necessary for removal of patterns? A. What is sheink rate and what does it have to do with pattern making? 5, Whatare cores and of what materials are they made? 6. IFyou hau to choose between a steel casting and a gray ing for a crane hook, witich would you cast icon ca choose? Why? 7. A gear housing for a tractor is to be sand cast. Which ‘metal would you choose for this casting, gray cast iran br sieel? Why? 8, Youarerequired to manufacture 1000 simple, smaltpars thatarorobecastinaluminum, Weuldusinga permanent mold beless expensive perparithan preparing LD00sand molds? There is no ime limit, Explain your reason, 9. What is slush casting and what is it used for? 10. Name a relatively rapid method of casting pipe and wwbing.168 1, In which type of casting is the pattera removed by heat ing and melting it? List three advantages in using this, casting process, 12, Name the most rapid method of producing small cast parts. Is this system practical to use for only 20 parts? For 100? Explain the reasons for your answer 13. Which fuel does the cupola furnace use? What metal is, usually melted in if? Name one ather type of furnace used for the same purpose. 14, What yypeor types of furnaces are usually used to melt rnoxferrous metals? 18, How dos the mold? 16, What happens to the send castings after they have solidified in the mold and cooled sufiicienty to handle? 17, Why is it important to wear personal protective equip- iment e.g.,safety glasses, heut resistant clothing) when ‘working around molten metal? 18, A cast iron casting has failed in use by breaking at a ‘T joint where one leg meets the other atthe joint. On inspection, a large shrinkage cavity is found in the joint, which obviously caused the failure. How could this have been prevented? 19, In a sand casting, the top edge near the riser is full of| impurities and porosity; also, a large shrinkage cavity is present. What coal be the cause and how can it be corrected? 20, What is the major difference between a hot-chamber and acold-chamber die castiag machine? Which one is, used mostly for low-temperature-melting alloys? the molten metal get from the furnace to Case Problems Case 1: Hydraulic Cylinder Head Problem A design for a metal cylinder calls for a metal cylinder head (Figure §.50) that must withstand consid. erable forces. Zine-besed alloys, aluminum, and magne- sium cannot be used because they are not strong enough, for the size imitations of the design. Cast iton, bronze, or steel may be used, since they all have sufficiently high tensile strengths, These metals vary somewhat in cost and in eaie of casting. The least expensive mater- {al and process to be used to manufacture about 100 of these cylinder heads per & hours, For a total run of 1000 heads, must be selected. Only 20 days are given to pro- duce them. The options are: 1, Machine all holes, cavities, and surfaces from solid bars of steel. These come in 20-f-long bars that are sawa off in suitable lengths for machining. Chapters FIGURE 8.50 Netal cylinder head. See Case 1 2, Make sand castings of steel and finish by machining, 3. Make sand castings of east itoa andl finish some sur faces by machining, 4. Cast the parts in cast ison by investment casting, 5. Use permanent molds and cast them in bronze. 6. Use the process of die casting with bronze snd eli ‘ale machining altogether, Which method would produce the least costly parts and get the job done on time? Case 2: Manufacturing a Small Bronze Gear A mall bronze gear must be made ata high production rate, Machining isruled out as being (00 slow, and although extrusion (Forcing metal through a die) of these gears could be & competitive option, it is also ruled out because no extusion machine is available to the manufacturer. The order requires 10,000 gears to be delivered within 30 days, It will take about 18 to 20 days to make either sand casting pattems, permanent molds, or die casting dies. This leaves 10 to 12 days for production ‘This means that about 1000 parts per day must be manufactured, allowing two days for packaging and shipping. The manufacturer will receive payment of {$200,000 for the complete order, Which casting method should be used?