John B. Conway Functions of One Complex Variable Second Edition Springer-Verlag New York Heidelberg BerlinJohn B. Conway Deparnent of Matberatis Blom 1 47401 oral Board Y ll PR. Halos F.W. Gehring ©.€ Moore Berm ate Orth GaheonyeCaena | Am [MS Suh Cations 2-0 Liar of Cong Casing Pon Dat at) Fecta of ompec vaste 1 Tike Guilds wm sissy mite the nd So ptf hi Dak may ead repr eral pms fon Sponge 1 77 Speen New Yr Ie «hy Speer, New You ‘SRN NSM W0I2R-1 Speier Ve 4PREFACE This book i intended as a textbook for ft course in the theory of functions of one complex variable for students who are mathetaticaly ‘mature enough to understand and exeeute «arguments. Theseus pre quite for reading this took ae quite minimal: not much more than & sl course in basic ealeuus ana fe fact abou util decvaives The “opis from advanced clei that are wed (e, Leb’ role fr ifer- Entiating unde the itera sig) ae proved in det Comes Variables suet whihhas something forall mathemati. 1nadkition to having applieaons to other pars of analysis, can sgl aim to he an ancestor of say aress of matherstis(e,horoton thor, ‘manifold, This view of Comples Analysis a: "An Introduction fo Mathe ais” hsialuenced the wrtingandslstion of subject mater for his book The eter aufing prineple alowed y tha ll denon, theorems te, should be clearly and preel sated. Proofs ae given with the ude mid Most are presented in detail and when thi sat the case the ear i told precisely what ming and asked to fil inthe gap as an ere The ‘teres ave varied in thei depres of dificlty. Somne are meant tof the ideas of the setion in the reader’ rind and sine eaten the theory or te applications other parts of mathemati. (Oseastonaly termiglogy ed ‘nan exeee which not detned~e., group, integral dora) ‘Chaplets through V and Sections VT and V2 are basi. His posible to cove this material in single semester only i umber af proae are ‘mite. Except for the material atthe Binning of Section V1.3 on eonex neon the rest ofthe books independeat of VIS and Vi ‘Chapter VIL initiates the sudest inthe consideration of feetions as points na metric space. Theres af the fist tre setons ofthis chapter reused repeatedly inthe remainder ofthe Book, Sesion four and fe esd no defense: moreover, the Weierstrass Fictoriation Theor is necesary for Chapter XI Setion sx is an appition of the fitoriaton theorem The lst Wo sections of Chapter VI ate tt sled in the rest ofthe book although they are a part of cltsial mathematics which no one shoul compli disregard The reining chaplers are independent opcs and may be covered in any onder dese Runge’s Thorom isthe inspiration for mich ofthe theory of Funston ‘gcbis. The prot presntl in sction VHLL i ower the elastealone invoting “pate posing” Schon to spies Runge’ Theorem to on nore ger fren of Cauchy's Phere The a reals etions thee An four shoul fe Fea By eerie. enon the pro are ‘Chapt IN studies analyte continuation ad ines the eA 0 analyte minfolls ard coven sfues Sets ethos hice it be omar ay a ait and wll oe te veal & hte of atcContinuation without necesitating bis going through all of Chater 1X. ‘Chapter X sts harmonic funtion eluding sation of he Dice Problem aod the introduction of Green’ Funetion. I this cane called ppd mathomnin i pet of applied mathematics that everyone sould ow: *Rthoug they ate independent, the last to chapers cowl Have Bee combined into one eed "Entire Function” However iis that Hadaman’s Factoiation Theorem and the Great Theorem of Pant are olen diferent that each mers its owe chapler AIO, other result Aependsupon the ober. With aud to Prad’s Tore i should be mentioned that another proofs available The poof presented here ues only elementary arguments ‘ile th poo found inmost ther Books uses the modula Function, "There ae oer topic ha could have heen covered. Some conieration ‘vas en fo ineluding shapes on some oF allo the Following: conforma Tnanpin,funcions on the disk, lip faneons, applications of Hilbert {hace methods to comple functions, Bu the ine ad tebe drawn omer hd the topics were the isn. For thse readers whe would ike fo explore this materia otto furterfvenigte the topics covered in this book the ‘ibliopranty contains a nanber of appropriate ens. Most ofthe notation used ie stanard. The word “iti se in place of| the pase “irand only and the snbal Ms use fo india the nd of 2 pron When a fonetion ter than a path) 5 being discussed, Lain eters [ic forthe domain and Goek eters are sed for he rage ‘This bok evlved fom clases aught a Indiana University I would Ike to than te Department of Mathematics for makings resources avalible {ome ding its preparation, I would especialy tke to thank the stents nm elses: tes actual teiresetion omy course Complex Variables that nade ne decide to take the pangs sad write «book. Parte thanks ‘ould go to Marsha Meret Tor pointing ot several mistakes in an eat tat, o Stephon Berman foe string the materi for several extees on “ath anto Larry Curt or asisting me with he al correction ofthe nance. Emus als thank Cel Sheba fr typing the ial daft of the hans under unusual dreumstanee. Finally, Ist thank my wife to whom this book is decnted, Her encouragement was the mast valuable asistane I receive John B, Conway PREFACE FOR THE SECOND EDITION [have been very plese with the success of my Book. When it was apparent thatthe aedond printing was nearly sid out, Springer Verlag tiked me 0 prepare a st of corrections fora hie printing. When ‘mentioned that T had some ideas for more substantial revisions, they ‘eacted with characteristic enthusiasm, "There are four major ferences benween the present edison and is predecesior. First Joh Disa’ teatment of Cauchy's Theorem has been Incladed This has the advanage of providing & quick proof ofthe theorems {nit fll generis. Nevers, T have a stong attachment to the Fomotopic version that appeared ithe Fst eiion dave proved this form of Cauchy's Theorem sit was done there. This version is very sometic and quite easy to apply. Moreover, the notion of homotopy heeded forthe lterWestment ofthe monodromy theorem: Nence, ilu Sion of this version yields Denes Tar in exces of the time needed to acon it ‘Second, the prot of Runge’ Theorem is new. The present proot it due to Sandy Grabinerand docs not use “pole pushing”. Ina sense the “pole Dshing” i buried in the concept of usiform approximation and some "less ftom Banach algebras, Neverthles, shoud be emphasized that the ‘too! eniely elementary in tht i relies only onthe material presented this tex [Next aa Appendix B has been added, This append contains some biographical material and a guide for further reading Tilly, several adional exercises have been aed, There re slso minor changes that have Been made. Several colleagues in the mathematical community have Belped me greatly by proving Constraive erties snd pointing out (Spographial eos. I wish to {hank publly Earl Berkson, Louis Brickman, James Deddens, Gerard Keough, G. K. Keistancen, Andrew Lenard, Join Maichubee, Donald C. ‘Meyers, Jeitey Nunemacher, Robert Olin, Donald Perlis, John Paster, Hans Sagan, Glenn Schober David Stegengn, Richard Varga, James P. Willams, and Max Zar, Filly 1 wish to thank the staff at Springer-Verlag New York not only for thi tstmeat of my. book, But also forthe publication of s0 many fine books on mathematics In the preent time of shrinking graduate cnvllments an the consequent reluctance of so many publishes to print “iUvanced texte and monographs, Springer-Vevlag is making a contibution {ivr dite by inreasing sts efforts to casemate the recent devlop- tment in mathematics Jobe Conway‘TABLE OF CONTENTS Prelace “The Complex Number System 1 The eal numbers {2 The et of comple numbers 1B: The compte plane |B Poke represnatio and rot of ciples munis 55. Lies ang ha pses nb complex pane 6 Thrextendod plead is perc epeseation Metre Spaces and the Topology of © | Denton ad eae of mt Sse © Comazetne| FS Sequence and completes H. Compacines| $5 Comin 4. Union conerene emenary Properties and Examples of Antic Functions Power seis 2 Anabie fanctons |B: Ame incon ae mappings, Matis warsormations CConples tegration $1 Riemann Steer nears [2 oversees reprecntion of ani Facons 3 Zeros ofa arate uncon He Theindes ofa dost carve 15. Cauchy Theorem and neg Forma 6. The homotopic vernon of Cauchy's Theorem at Simple connec $7, Counting rr: he Open Mapping Theorem 1 Gour There Singatritis Slat seMI vu. xt ‘The Maximum Modulus Theovem The Maximum Peni i Schean's Lena 5: Comer fncne and Hadar Three Cis Theorem 1. Phmgmen Lindl Tear Cmpactness and Convergence the Space of Analyte Funions Fi The race of contuna anton C1G) 52. Spe ofan intone 1 Space of meomare functions Fe The Ramana Mapoing Team IS. Wokteas Factrzaton Theorem ff: Fastonzation of he ne encton 7 The gems fc The Riemann st fncon ung's Theorem G1 Ranges Tare Sine conrectaoess BF Mitap eters Tce Annyic Continuation and Riemann Surfaces ir Stare Reece Prine [2 Amale Comination Along A ath [5 Mosdromy Theres [Topol Spicer and Neighborhood Stems {5 The She of Gee of Annyic Fusions on an Open Set 46 Amaiye Manos Covering spaces Harmonie Functions i: Ble Properer of hamenic functions [2. Hurmoni fotos on «dik 4 Sutharmons ana spetharmoni eto The Diener Pater 55 Gre’ Funcione Entire Functions AI denen Forma 88. Hadamard Factorvation Theorem My ry 1 ret re 22 XIl, The Range ofan Ansytc Function 41 Bets Tear The Lite ard Theorem 55 Schorny’s There [HO The Geet Peed Toor ‘pent: Calas or Complex Vast Functions om “Appendix B: Suggestions for Further Study and ‘Bitiographical Notes, References Indes List of Symbols Bag8 a aChapter 1 ‘The Complex Number System 1. The real numbers We denote the set ofall el numbers by BI is assumed that each reader sequnnted withthe eal number sytem and alls properties. Iv parscular we srume a knowledge of the ordering af the definitions and Properties ofthe supremum and infimum (sp ad if). and the complete rest of (overy st im R which bounded above has a supremum) tis tlso assed that every render is fait with sequential convergence in end with infinite snes. Finally, no one shovld undertake a study of ‘Compler Varabls unles be has «thorough grounding i functions of one real variable. Although st hasbeen raditona to study functions of several ‘eal variables before studying analytic Function theory. this is not an {seal prerequisite for ths book. These will ot be any ozcasion when ‘he deep result of this area are needed. 2. The fl of complex mambers We define ©, the complen numbers, to be the set of all ordered pais (,8) vbste and haze real numbers and where adiion and molllicsion ate defied by: (0. Hed) ~ (are, bed) (Bod) = edd, Bead) Isis coy checked that with thes definitions C steal the axioms for 4 feld Phat ty € sais the associative, commutative and disnbative laws fe adiiton and’ multipicaon: (0.0) and (1.0) are identities for sdiion and multiplication especively, and dere ae additive and mult pleats sere for each nonzero element in © We will rite forthe complex number (0). Ths mapning a>, 0) etines fl somorphis of ita 30 we my consider Basa subse of {©-Itwe put = (01) then a) ~ abi. From this point om we abndon the ordered pair notation for complex numbers. Note ta = 30 that he equation 2-41 = O has a r00t in C. In fact, for ech =n G, 2 4a) ef Moe geen 02 and w are mile numbers we waa bet era inBy len = acd be eal mubers aad B we can obtain (wih both «and ” wo (ets) 50 that we hive a form forthe reciprocal of a complex, number: ‘When e nite: ~ ath (a, beR) we all aand there! and imaginary ‘port of and denote this by @™~ Reb = Ins We cone this seton by inoducing two operations on © which are rot eld operations ts = x,y © R) then we deine |=) — (4) 10 be the abelize cue of: and? = ip the conigte of, Note that are” 2 bP = In parca, if © #0 then ‘The fllowing are basic properties of absolute values and conusutes whose verifeations are let othe reader. 2 Rez e42) and tm 23 a 2s 26 ‘he reader should try to avoid expanding z and w into thei el and imaginary parte when be tres to peove these last tre, Rather, se 2.1), (22),and 3), 1. Find the real and imaginary parts of each of the following Stam 25 32, (“EB Dn (MEF ow 2ene 2. Find the absolute vale and conjugate of exch of the following are erndem 4s cane ‘The con ne 3 23. Show tat: cea number ifand only f= 4 IFS and are comple sumbes, prove the flowing equations Re 26 enw}? = [22 -2Re om Iw P= 2a + be), 5. ncn wove tt fr == 4 EG et inal aioe of Stow ta soa a 8) a a eta +h ial the {84.The comple plane rom the definition of complex numbers is cea hat egeh in C can ‘beidented withthe unique plat (Re 2, m2) athe plane R*. The adion of complex sumbers is eracly the addon lw af the vector space sand w are nC then daw the sept ines rom = an 10 0(=(0,0) Those form to sides ofa purlelogram with 0, >and w as thre verces The fort yen tars out fo Be 2 "Note ao that [wi exacty the distance heteen# and w. With this in mind the last equation of Execs 4 in the procsling section ste the ‘araleogran ow: The sum ofthe squares of the fengths of the sides of prllelossm equils the sum ofthe squares ofthe lengths ofits diagonal. A lundamanial propery of @ diane function is that i sates the teange megan (ee the net eae In this nets inequality Becomes =I for complex numbers 2, 22 BY using 2)—29 = (2)~ cay tose that we need aly show )ees-ahitis et] = f+ [nl weoy, ‘To show ti fist observe that for any z in C, 32 nll Rez sb es] gimz = bel Hence, Re (ci) [c= [Iw Thus, [rt = fF + 2Re (om)? fll fe eb Som whic (1) flows (Thi ale the lanl nequaiy Boe, i we represent = in the pla, (1) says tha the Sotho one side ofthe {etange 1] kotha the sm oth gt oft the tn sd est dotance Bets fv pssst bine.) On cower‘ne an inequality one shold always atk for necessary ascent conitons that eainlity obtains, From looking at a tangle and considering the wo- incre sgnieatce of (1) we ate fed to consider the condition == by for some ff, f= 0. (or w = af w =O) Teas clear that equality wil ceca en the two pons ae cline withthe eign. In fat, if we ook tthe proof of G1) we see that a necessary and sulkient condiin for sl ni that this 8 = Oe, 2 fa eal tuber ands non septic). Molipbing ths by wwe We Bet [Pte 2 Outw 4 0.17 then = Oand = By induction we abo ge a one Alo ofl he nity M a-i| & =md [Now tat we have given a gsometic interpretation of the absolute valve tet uy sce what taking «complex conjugate does (0 @ point inthe plane. “Tiss aso cays in fat, Hs the point oblaned by reeting = across the sau (i the Fel a). Exerciet 1. Prove @) and give icessry and sfiet conditions for equity, 2 Show that equality occurs a@3) i and only => O or any bers Band r= kel 2m fornhich =) 20 Jb Cate Rand ¢ > Obe fixed. Describe tbe et of points = satisying I-[e+a) = 20 for every possible ehoive of and c, Now lta be any complex number find, ting rotation ofthe plang, dseibe he locas of point satisfying the hove equation 4 Polar representation and rot of complex ambers Consider the point 2-4 im the complex plane ©. This point has pat coordinates (9) x = eon y= rin 8. Clearly = le) and i The angle tewcen the poste eo axis and the line segment ffom 0 to 3 ‘Notice hit play any mile of 2 ean be suttated for 8 in the above uations he angle Mele the angument of sani denoted hy 8 as ecane of the ambity "arg eno ation. We into the a repetion dons of ope amor, : Let sy yo Oy ry =r i fy, Then 2.2) ~ rs cs Bt — rr [cos @, cos #,—sia', sn 8) 1 (in , cos Byesin 8 cos BY the Formuls Yor the sine snd coe of the sum of two anges we gst a Bey rcs 46) Ateratly, arg) = sep, +are zy (What fancon of a real vatiable takes prot ino sms?) By induction we gt for = nc =k =m a 4 Sri nest) 1n patel “a Fares, for every integer 0. Moteover if # # 0, £°* cls (—0] = 1: so that, (44) ao olds for al integets positive nga Special ese of (44) we pet de Moire’ forma: sand 210,12 20. AS a {cos 0+ sin = cos nin We are now in a poston to eons the flloming problem: For given complex number @ 20 and an integer n = 2, can you find a number = stfying =" a? How many such # can you find? In light of (8) the Suton easy. Lea jew by (4), 2 [a cis (nfl the bl However thie not the only sluion Bsstuse x” = a! cis (22) ao satisfies 277 = a. In fet each ofthe numbers “ wieleraay0 shen jm an th root of. By means af (4) we sive atthe following: for each nonzero number in © there ae m dint mi oot fa they are ven by formula 5. — Ses 1 Laan dwn exeches2. Calelate the folowing: (a) the square roots of (0) the cube 10018 of (6) the square roots of 3-430 3.8 primuice nth root of iy is a. complex umber 0 sich that Tana are distinct th roots of unity. Show that and B are Pre hand mh oot of unity, respectively. then abi a Kt rot of Unt for some integer k, Whats the smallest vale of k? What ean be sid {Fa and b are nonprinive roots of unity? 11 Use the binomial equation Gover = ke () =m and amr he el and ia) of ch ie of de Moines ‘ma tne ora wont = cor -(6) so where >to) ort = sinnt = (7) cos' asin d—(3) cos" 8sint 0. 5. Let == cs foram integer m= 2 Show that 14-42. 42°" = 0 6 Show that x)= cis 8 8 group homomorpiim of the ave group By onto the mulipticative group T= (2 = 1) Tits ©€ and Re(2")20 for every postive imteger , show tha =i 2 Poste rel number. 5. Lines and al planes nthe complex ple Let L denote stright line €. From elementary analytic geometry Lis desmined bya pont in Landa direction vector Thus if 2s any pon in and bis direction vector hen La nat: -w 0}, b= ch 8 I> = cis then 2b = ris (88). Thus, 16m My ifand only ifn (0—P) > O: that when 2 <0 ap. Hence Hy is te half pane lying tothe lt of the line oi ‘we are “walking along in the cretion of." I we put {en it is sy 0 Se that Hy = a Hy = fartn: we Hy) that, H, the teanslaion of My by a. Hence, 1 8th bal plane ying tothe ll of Similar, Js the tall plane om the ht off 1 Let Ce the ice 25 5 Ostet be gs and putnbom()-4 were 6 = otf Pind necessary and sulientcontons in terms of B that Trp be tanget to C ato 6 The extended plane and its spherical epresetton Cones in complex anys we wil be concered wih functions that te come inte ay the Variable approaches given point To discus this iar ‘lone intrduee the extendal plane whichis CU [co] = Car We abo ‘eth Yoouce a dines function on C. inorder to dscsé ontimity wen ies of functions asiuming the vale ify. To accomplish this indo ge a concrete piture of C, me repesent Cy as the wait sphere $= Guan edeBedhdts = Let W = (0,1; hats Wis the north ple on. Als, Heat with (eon oysne ts ¢ Ry so that € cute § along the equator. Now foreach AG Fin € eater the tagline i RP through = and, This intersects the ph in xy one it 2 # NEL > he Zi i he note reigns aad I |e then Z is in te southern hemisphere; also for Ereiez =z What happens to Z 38 [> 207 Clay Z approaches Face ‘ac identify Nand the pot o> in Ca. Thus Cf epreted fhe ante 5, Telus eaplote this represetaion, Patz = rip and It Z = (x #2.23) be tc coeponding pant om S. We willl equations exPesing XX Tere, temme of wand The fine in B® through = and. i gen by Gwiiensi as er ahorby oa Wl-ma tenn on ere ene, we ca find the enlinates of ZF we ci Gin the sale at ‘The etonde pln abit pe rotation ° which this ine itersets SE this val then La d-oted-airee = doer ee From which we ee no Gy He fri BRET“ EL ca aa] 63 oe ee peer "rer Ae he pin 2 i gen (@ 4) and we witht fad # then by se és and using (6.1), we arrive at 7 “ aa fetes Im Now kt us define # distance function between poins in the extended plan inthe following manner for >i C, define he dsance from #102, 1G, tobe the distance between te corresponding pints Z and Z” ia WZ = Gey ty 33) 308 Z = (eh Mh 8D) the 6s 2.2) = [esp HAD HA Using the fst that Z and 2” ae 08; (6) ses 66 be, 297 = 2-200 baad By using equation (6.2) we st = Be? ar Ina simiar manner we gt for zn © 67 ra) Gro os as.) “This comespondencebetmeen pins of Sand ©, i ala the strogranle projeton» “The Comps Numb ten Exerc 1. Give the details inthe dation of (6.2) and (68). 2, For cachet the following pints in C, give the corresponding point of S:0.14, 3421, 3, Wich sists of S correspond tothe real and imaginary axes in: 4, Lat bea ciceIying im S-Then there isa usique plane P in RY such that PAS = A. Real fom asiyue gomety that, = ste 89) bP =D where (Bs Ps #3) isa sestoronhogoeal to P and 1s some ral number Tien br astumed that 8-+22+85 = 1. Use this information to show tht it Acoma the point W the ts pesistion on Cisa straight line. Otherwise, A procs onto a ile in C. §.Ket.Z and 2 be points on $coresponding to = and 2 respectively. Let 1 be the point on coresponding Co ++" Find the coordinates of Win terms ofthe coordinates of Zand 2" Chapter I ‘Metric Spaces and the Topology of © St, Definition and examples of mete spaces [Armeric space sx pir (4) where Xi set and ds a fonction fom xe Vint ealed dance mcton or mets which sass the following ‘eondiions for), and 2 in! ae) 20 (As, ») = Oi and only ix = » x3) = ly.) Gommetey) es, 2) © ae») +d, 2) (ingle noua) x and > Ot Bxed then define Bei) = (eX deen) Borin) ~ eX: day =n) tx; 1) and x1) recall the operand closed alls, respecively, with eter and ats Examples LA Let X = Ror € and deioe a, ) = [2—wl This makes both (Bd) ‘and (Gd) metic spaces, In fet, (Ca) ll be the example of rica interest fos, the reader has never encoustered the concept of metic Sacetfore thi, he shoud continually Keep (Cd in mind during the ay this chapter. 12 Ler (hed) be a metre space and et Y ©; thn (a) also metic 13 Let X= C and define det a8) = xma-+ly—b. Then (Cy di 2 eti spce La Let X= C and deine e+, a 48) ~ ax {ix [y~B)) US Let ¥ be any sat and define 9) = O3€ x = y and dey) = Lif A ‘To show thatthe function J sates the tragle Inequality one merely omer all posites of equality among x,y and =. Notie here that ‘ta: eonst only ofthe point xe = T and Blas) — Nite > 1. This hee spas doesnot appest inthe study f analyte fonetion theory Me tet R= rand ort (siecee ah = Oyeoe snd) im BP die wor [Soon2 Mec pean th Topol of 1L7 Let Sb any set and denote by B(S) the set of ll functions f+ © sock that la = sp (fs 8©8} < hat is, IS) consis ofall complex valved functions whose rae is con {sind ise some disk of inte ras. For fand gin BS) dene 2) = Iifeg}e, We wll show that sates the rangle equality I fet [Eat aren BUS) aos fay pont ia then J) =H) = AOD Fh at 1)" Me) +a] = hl hme Tha, when the Supremam is taken overall sin, (f=Ela © [Blan whieh the rangle equality ford 18 Delniton, For a metic space (Xd) a st G-& Xi open i foreach sin G there isan > O uch that BG) ©. “Thus ast in © is open ic has mo “edge” For example, G = (2° © ‘aces dy is open; bat fe: Rez = 0} (0) snot Beatse BIO; is not ontined inthis set no mater how small we choose « "We denote the empty othe st eonstng of no elements, by. 1.9 Proposition, Let (Xd) be a mere space; then (a) The sets X and [reopen ; (yrs Gy are open sets X then 101) Gs (0. Gy: Jed) iva collection of open sets in X, J any Indexing se, then G =O (Gyci64} 1 also open. Proof Ue root of (ais a trviity. To prove (6) et G = (Gx then 1x6, fork = hyse- sm Ths bythe defsition, foreach thee an o> 0 Shek that xs) © Gy Butife= min (eye epe--ve) then for 1s KS Div: 9) © Bless) © Gy, Ts Bix) © 6 and @ open, “The proof ofc) i eft as an exercise forthe ener ‘These sanother i ofsubuts of «mtv pace which are dstingished “Thee ae theses which otiain all their “edge alternately, the es whose complements fave no ede 140 Detton, A set F © Xs sland ts complement, X= Fs open ‘he fallowing proposition Is the complement of Proposition 13. The proof whose execution i kf othe reader, is accomplished by apie Ee Morgue tothe preceding proposition. LA Proposition. Let (X, 0) Be @ metre space. The: (a) The sete X and are close: 7 (Ress Freed ei X the 010) is (0) FA: fo am election of ease stein XD ay nding el then Pe 3F 34. Shin se the meat evn eto de sp een ope aM le et intosimeroet the inn of hn bean at et AS Defi and examples of et es a lose This ofcourse, i fase mean be sees by looking at {2¢C: Rez > 0) U's either open nor closed 1LA2 Definition. Let A be subst of X. Then the iteror of Aint A. the fet U (Gi @ is open and G ©) The clone of 4,4. the set (| (FF [eval and F 4). Note that at A may be empty and A may te X, I= far: a and bare ational umber} then smaltancouly A” = C fad iat A 5, By Propotions 1.9 and 1.11 we have that is closed and int Ais open The oundary of ls denoted by £4 an defied by 24 = A near 1.13 Proposilon. Let A ond Be subsets of mete space (X, dy. Ther: (a) Aopen if and ony fA ~ iat As (0) Ais clsed f and only fA = A: (©) int = X=(m a); A> = XInt =A); 64 @ Um 4 Ow: (e) xpcint A ifand ony if there & an « > Och that Bx; 6) © A; (© xyed™ and only If for ecery «> 0, Bagi JOA ® O. Proof The poets of (2}40) ae left to the readee. To prove (0) assume eed” = Xeiat (KA); this, xy 6100 (=A), By pet (Oy for every [S0"aies os not contained in XA. Thats here point ye sys) Weigh ip ot ia X= As Hees, © Bz: 0) 0-4. NOW’ suRPOSE Noe rine (Y=). Then so int (—) and, by (0), thre an ¢ > 0 such that Bhi, ) © NWA, That iy, BGSps «) A =o] 30 that xg does not sathly th condition Finally, one list deison ofa dininguished ype of se. 1.14 Defiton. A subset A ofa metic space X's dene if A~ = 2 "he set of rational numbers Qs dense io Rand (rly: x ye) dense in. Exerses 1, Show tht each ofthe examples of metric spaces sven ia (.2)-(16) is indeed mie space, Example (1,6) i the only one hikely Io give any fica. Abo, deseribe Br) fe each ofthese examples 3 Which of the following subsets of are open and which are losed: (a) Teilst= 1: 0) the real ani: (@) or some integer 921): (d) [2eCe2 rel and 05 2c): (@)(2eCoe ween and 0251)? 5 fk d) any meee space show that eery ope bal Fact am open ‘et Abo, show that even closed tll a else se 14 Ginette deals of the proo! of 1.90. 5. Prone Propenition [IL {6 Prove hata set 5 open and only YG is lose 4 Shwe tha (aD whore epen by, fsP abd 4A a mete oe, A artieaf Bes mein spac aml Fo A Sappine GX open ow“ Mec pace ad the Topo of that G9 ¥is open in (% d}. Conversely, show tht if Gy < Ys open ia (adh thre isan open set @ = X such that G, = GY. 5. Do Execs 8 with "ose in pace of “open 10, Prove Proposition 113. TH Show that (eisk :k3=0) is dense ig T=(2€C:|e|=1). For which ‘als of #6 (esd) A220) dense in 7? $2. Comectedacee Let us srt this tion by svng an example: Let X= {22s 5 1b U feiss} Hand give X the matric i iaberis fom C, (Heneeonvar, ‘ehevever we consider subulsX of or Cas mati spaces we wll sume {ries state othe conta, that X asthe inerted mete 9) ~ == Wh) “Then the set 4 = (= 2] = 1) nsimultaneousy open and closed slowed trease iy complement in X, B= XA = (2-3) <1) 8 opens Ai ‘pen bese if ae A then Bla; 1) A. (Nie that it may aot happen fat (2c: al < 1} conned in for example, fe = 1. But the tion of Be! 1) is (ee: fe-aj <1) and ths 1 contained in A.) Simiay 2s alo oth ope and closed in X: "This isan example of a omconnected Spice 21 Defiin, Artec space (X,d) is comected if the only subsets of X tehich ae hath open aad cloned a) and X.1F 4 & A then isa comected [et of Wal the met space (i connected, "Av caualent formulation of connectedness is fo Say tht X is not connected there are dist open sets and Bin X, neither of whichis fey sch chat X= -A'U Btn fat shi condition holds then A = XB [ia clo, 122 Propoitlon, A set X © R i connected Uf Xi an nea. Proof Suppose X ~ [aba abd b elements of @ Let A © X bean open Sone of such that a= 4, and A #¥. We wll show tat ean lo be ‘osed—and hence, ma be eosected. See Ap open and as there is fave > O such tat (a, 44) © 4. Let sup (ef 040) ©} Coin la.ar) © A.tnfoshifa = x < asrthen puting = ar—x > 0, fhe defniton of supeemim implies there i an « with rhc e O sich that (2tr—A G41 Becontadicing the above lin. “The ro that eat gps itrsals ate cnet sina ai be Ie a am exetehe tld yopprmopel eee ace wand z are nC then we denote the srg line segment fom #1 by Lvwl= (w4(l-o 0< 11) A polnonfrom 010.6 isa set P= (J 4, ml where wy = b and mes bel sk sm 08 Pe Te 25.2 Dh 23 Tacrem, An open set GE C i connected if for any to pins a, 8 there ta polygon from a ob big entirely nid Proof. Soppose that Gsatsies this condo and et us assume that Gis tot conned. We will obtain a contradiction. From the defiaiton, G AUB whore and B are both open and closed, A 0.2 = (and neither ‘4 or Bis empty. Let a's A and be B; by hypothesis thee isa polygon P ftom ato b such that P © G, Now a moment thought wil show tat one fof the seients making up wil ave one pont in 4 and another ia So we can assume that P= [a 2}. Deine, S = (£610: +3124) T= (eet: pee) ‘Then SAT = SUT = [0,1 0¢ Sand 167: However it can be shown tt both Sand Fare open (Exerise 2), contacting the connectedness of [0. Uh Thos, G must be consected Now suppose that Gis cece and fix a pois ain G. To show how to ‘onsruct» polygon (ying G) fom a o' pot bia G would be il, But we doa have to perform ssh meostustion; we merely show tat one exit Fora Sod in G dee A= (heG: there ins polygon P = Grom 210} The plan to show that A is simultaneously open and closed in 6. Since aed and Gi conneced this wll ive that A ~ G andthe theorem will be Prove. "To show that A is open It be and kt P= [6 ti. -s+3q 6] bea polygon tom ato b with P = Since Gis open hi was nat heed ia the Fst hal) theres «> Ouch that (bi 6) =. Bat «Bhs «) them [h.2] © B:4) © G. Hence the polygon Q ~ PU [bis inside G and goes from at 2. This shows that BU; «) = A, and 80 A is open To show tat Ais closed suppose thee isa point zn GA and let « > 0 ‘be such that B{z«) © 0 here sa pint Bin A Bt: 6) then as above, ‘re ean contract a polygon fom ato. Thus we mist ave that tei) 4 wor Bis) © GA. Tha GA open so hat is closed. 224 Carry If G © € is open and connevted anda and ore pots in ‘hen there i pon i fem ta whic mae 4p of fit sezments pve sith the rue imaginary aei yaad he Topo Tygon G from to b and hen mod each ofits ine ements otha ra abide ested proper Howser, hi ot ew el core sng compacts (oe Exe 57), Ante prot me Spael y modying he poof f Theorem 23. Def he et 4 5 cart chai Sy bute th nets Ca the gg een’ ae ao eae the acs The reainet the poo wl be vali ith cara cs BOs) hen be many nt be ral (an ax Bet i Peay sine csv b= pe he paygon B 24S ps sp and bas ements paral oan Pe vill now be shown that any set S in a metric space can be expressed, in acon way, a te nin of connected EGS 125 Definition, A subset D ofa meitic space Xs. component of Xf iin 2 2s cred st of HTHat i, is connected and there is no Conngwed subst of X that propery contains D rth render examines fhe example at the begining of this scion Be wil note tat both A and are components and, frtermore, thse ae Te 2a oponents of. For another example let X= (0 1 4 4s. aoe tery component of Xia poi and each pot componet Tesi sv scone espa cone 2.6 Lemma Let te ¢X and et (Dj: JJ} Bea colton of connected ses Fee hn te Dy foreach 3. Then D =U) (Dye J} 6 comes ‘Prov, Let A bea subse ofthe metic space (Dd) which i both open and Freeh Maa duppose that 4-2 Thea A %, is open i (Dy fo exch J set bao dove (exercises 18 and 1.9). Since Dis coaneted we tht Mier APD, = Chor dD; = Dy Since Am C there is at less one & rane Ar dA Dy (Dy ence, A.D, = Dy In particular xo = 30 that See CAD, for every Thus A'% Dj Dy. ot D, © Ay fo Gach inde “Ths gs that D = A, so that D is connected. 227 Theorem. Lat (XA) be amet space. Ther: (@) Bach ng in Xi contained ina component of X (0) Dine! components of Kare dijon. ‘Ree tha ae (a say hat the Union a ts component ‘roo (a) Let be the clleton of connected subsets of X which contain Fee int xe, Notice that (sq) © 2 30 that 7 (ABO note that Me Bree fee of he preceding lemma apply to the collection . Henee CE RPios be 1m conaced and ty C- But C mt be a componen Cal Pte connect and € © D then sys D so that Ds 7; bat then Dee, wothat C= D.Thas Cas sanimal and par (a) is proved {ih Seppe and Crave compoens. Cy 7 Cin abd ups tEE eee se npn the mma ways that C7 Cy connected Sequences a comes » Since both Cy and Cy ate components, this gies C= CU C= Cia contradiction. ROS EV ESE 28 Proposon (a) A © Xitcomecedond A= B= A~ then Bis consected () Clea componant of then Ci lane. The proof is eft as an exes 2.9 Theorem, Let G be ope in thn the compen of are open and ‘there are only a countable number of them, . ' ‘roof Lt Che component of Gand et 9. Sine Gs open there an PD ih ese) 26 By Lemna 28, sys UC comes abd 50 nat be 2 Tht Bago) © Cand Cb, thereto, ope. “To se thal the numberof componens i come It $= (e+ aan eral nde Ten coated cc oe foment of G conte 8 point of S30 tha the mabe of componente ‘countable, i . Eeracs 1 The aps sce to show hat comms suit of Rian (2 Show that ast A © Risa neal for ay two points 9 and in A with a < b, the interval (a, B) © 4. 7 Ue te A&R hen a B"Show hat he sts and i te poo f Therm 23 ae ope. 3 Wiehe faving Wot areconms ot coma hat aria componense(@) t= ti = No geal eT) thou fishies | x=e-Us noha 4= Bho Bo wreatir 4028s a)t prow ie folosng tation f Lema 26. 1 (Ds Jed) ea San of conor subcw of and if freehand i eave Binds in b= (ip Jos) m cme 5 'Sh ttt Fe Stan coc efor yp of ots bia uneath > Oth ae png spose fo foe ‘and dz. 24) < «for 1 = & = m Is the hypothesis that ised Cred? IT AS tlic nies i rope en Fr ot esa Sone nH Fen Ge an camp o ae he 2, Sequence and completeners (neo he ont get enneets in metric puke is that of convergent seadense, Ti centa ol in eels I epics in the study of metric Space nd complex asl (MI Defaom. 16 (435-003 4 64 nse tm wate spa (Nf to8 etic Sac nthe Topo of (4) conerges 9 in symbols = lim yo 4, > «if for every « > © there an integer such that de, x) whenever > “Alternately, = bin x, £0 = lim ts, x) IX =C then: = lim z means that foreach « > O thre an W such that ea] ce when n= A Many concepts it the theory of mete spaces can be phrased in terms of sequences. The following san example. 32 Propoion, A st F< X i closed Uf foreach sequence (sy) in F with elim, we have oF ‘Proof Suppose Fisclond and x ~ lim x, whee each is nF, So for every 120, thee isa pint sn BCC: that les) 9 PC So that ve Fe ‘= 'Fby Proposition 28 "Now suppose isnot closed; 40 there 3 point xy in F whichis not in F. By Proposion LIM, for every «> 0 We have Bly: OF YC Tato ney inept A!) 0 Ts Asan) < aih np ht -e SH £448 hy ecm cn 33 Defnion If 4 © X then a point x in i 8 lint pin of A if there Ba sequence {s,} of distinet points i A sich that x = lim “The reason for the word “dintint” inthis definition canbe lusrated| bythe following example Let X= C and let A= (0, I} {/} 30h pot 0,1] sa lit pont of Abt 4 not, We do aot with fo cl a point such 3643 limit point; but i istine” ete dropped from the definition we oul taken Ay = Hor each (and have = Ui 3 Proposition (2) Ast closed UF contains al sli pos (VIAN thon A ~ AU (x: x teal pn of A “Te profi ef as an crs. rom real analyss we ow that tase property of is that any sequence whose terms get clos together as ps lp, must be convergent. Such ‘ssuenees ae called Cauchy sequences One their attbus that You Know th init wl ext eventhough you ant produce i [35 Defaltion. A soueace {5} i called s Cauchy seguance i for every ‘> O there isan integer N such tht diy) = «forall mm = F(X, d) has the property that each Cauchy sequence has lini in X then (Yd) compte 6 Proposition i comple Prof I 4) fa Caueby sequence in © ten (4) andy) are Cauchy Sequences in R Since Rik complet, ty aml ys 29 for poo x9 Be Tefotlows that «tip ln (ogi and 90 © comp, (Consider, with sme (1167 a 1,6), Lt 2 Desi € it canbe shown that diy 2)-»0sf and omy if |x~2| 0 I spite ofthis, any sequence (3) wi im [5 ~ cis Cavey IC, but of course, isnot (Cauchy in, TEA © X we define the dameter of A by diam A = sup (as, 9): aed y aren} 7 Cantr's Theorem. A ore space (X,d) is complete if for any sepunce 1) of oven ese se wih F, 2 F, 2a dam Fo fF ito al pt f Proof. Suppose (X, ds compte and let (F} bea sequence of closed sts having the propetin (@) Fr Fy >. and G)lim diam = 0, For each ‘eles, be am arbitrary pot nfm me = 9 then sg ae in Fy 30 hay ‘by definition, x4) = iam Fy. By the hypothesis N can be chosen ficient Inge tha lam Fy «this shows that sy) ra Cauchy sequence Since complete, xy = lim x, ext Also, m5 ia Fy forall "= W since F, © Fu Bence ni Fy fr overy Wan this ges ¥5 ©) F, = So F contain teas ne pit; if lo,» isin Fthen both andy are in foreach mand thin sve re») = dam Fy». Therefore.) = 0, Now let us show that X's complete if it sates che stated conto, Let fig be a Cauchy sequence in Vand put Fy = (ay yey) he Fo Apa... Ie > 0, chose N such that day 5) 2 for each ‘n/N; this gives that dim (iy yy yoou2) 5 ¢for = and so dsm Fs eforn © N (Exercise 9). Tus tae F, 0 an, by hypothe there S's point i ith (xp) = Fy 8 Fe os. In parila ist Fy snd So aise. 5) © diam f.->0 Therefore, So lim yl "There iva standard exec associated with this theorem Ii 0 find @ sequence of sett (F,] in Rich sts two ofthe conditions (@) cach Fis losed, Wahoo ( dam F 0: Dut which has'F = Fy 9. F, 9... either empty oF coming of more tha ‘one point. Everyone should et examples satihing the posible combina M8 Propoion, Let (X.d) be a complete metic pace and let YX. Then (aya complete meine space HY i hosed in Proof eile as an exeese show tha (Yad) ommplee whenever Ys a closed subsets Now assume (a be Compt; fe het point SEY" Then thee ios selene (15) of poms sm ¥ seh that yl enue fis} st Cauchy sequen (ereme 8) 309 mat converge 10 Dvn yt Yin (Pf) m vt Hole tt y= ty a tao ll As amt pts Hee Dv cn Propet 44» eu pean he Toso of © Evers 1. Prove Popsiton 314 2, Far th dtl ofthe proof of Propston 38 5. Show that dam 4 = dam 4 {ENS poms in Cand tbe the merc on Cx Show hat = 0 if and day 2)-> 0. Ao show that "2 hen) Cauchy in'C, (st (conver in Cx) 5 Sow that ey Comer sequence in (Xi Cab sgh {Give the examples of om complete ti spaces 5: pura mene don Bch tat fs] 7 and only Hdl 2) =>, Tati Ga sa Cuchysesuore fo (Rd) hem > 2 (Hin: Take Inopiaton fom C.) Pippen} rs Cauchy sequence and fxg} 1 2 subsequeee that omer Show tht [s} must be comer 4. Compacness Te conpt of compactness is an extension ofthe Benefits of items to infinite sets Most properties of compact sets are analogues of roretes Unite sets which are quite vial For example, every sequence na finite Ser hmss convergent subsequence, This is quite rival since there must Be at Het Soe point wich i epated a fie numberof Ces. However the ‘me statement remain true "ink replaced by “compact “41 Defaiion, A subst K of met space Xs compact if for every calle tion @ af open set in X withthe property a Ke: Ges, there is fnite numberof sts Gy.» Gein $ such that K = GVO, ‘UG, A collection of ses stshing (42) is called a cover of Kit ach meiner of i an ope set ti ale an open coer of Ke ‘Chery the smpty se and al fie sets are compact, An example of 8 7 ‘noncompact set is D = (2: le} < 1-106, = fe: [el <1 ~ Zh form = 2, 3g them (Op, Gye-esh 8 a0 open cover of D for which there is no ite saver 43 Proposion, Let K be a compat subst of X then (a) Kir closed, (0) 1 Fis else ond FE K thon Fis compas. ‘Pra. To prove pat (a) We wil show that K = K°. Let x96 "3 By Prov Fron Benin oe tt A) and sopene that suf A: Ther each Gs open and K'« [J Guten ee aes) To prove pat (bet be an open cove af F. Then, since Fis lod. Gu (EOF) wan open cover of Kr bat Go Gy Bests im such that KEG)U..-UG,Uk-P) Cleary, FO G01 UG, and 90 Fis compact. IF ia collection of sbics of X we sty that has thesia inter- ston property Cap) where (Fy, Foe BA) FANE 2 FF CL An exstple of such a collection is (DG, BGy..--) where Ue sts 6, ae as i the example praceing Proposition 43 4A Prop, 4 set eX compact Uf sry alection & of coed ‘ita of Rh the fap. hs (VE Fo hf Pro. Suppose Kis compact and F i sliston of closed subsets of K tov he Taps Asume ta () (00 Foo Toe andi Se Oo PoP tan Qe POF =~ QUE Peal ak Oy the Pye F such that Ke {) C=) =~ Qh. Bt hisses that fF © =K and ince cach ina ut of Rit mtb hat f= Ch Conrad the ip fi hep fe conve is a an exe. 445 Cartary.Ecery compact mene space is complete Proof Tis olows easy by applying the above proposition and Theorem a 446 Conary. 1 Xi compact then every infest hata int pont bX, Proof Let S be an infiite subset of X and suppose $ has no Hint pins, Let Taj dy on) be a sequence of distinc points in S; then Fy (ay sys} iso has no lia pos But ia set has it pois it contains si tis its pnts and ust be closed! Thus, each F, i closed and. (F 1s Ii asthe Lip. However, singe the points a, ay... are distinct, Fe entraitng the above propesition. Wl . -£7 Definition. A mete space (is sequela compact if ever sequence ‘wa convergent stbegices: Tew be shown that compact and sequently compact metre spaces ae the sane, Td this th flowing iy msc AN Leben’ Covering Lemma, F(X lh 1 squeal compacted2 ei paca he Tel of { team open cover ofX then thre is a «> Ouch hai 1s nN, there a set in 8th BCE) ©. Proof The prof is by sootadistion; suppose that is an open cover of X Endnote > O canbe found, In partiaay, fr every integer n thee is sequently compact tere plat xy in and 8 sobseguen® (5) Socata 8 such nt oy a hone «> MER aU Bla; on Ge Now lt Be sch tht i,q) = a2 fr al M2 A La be any tee lrg tha Doh N ao 2 an ey Bs Na Tes ce 9) eer) de 9) Pe lm eT RS Hing Biot © Gp. sonadating the chase of Na. hee ate wo coomor midntpraions of Lebegu’s Covering Len ot ipsa cy authing and th te tha tas to mh Six aan open conrng of follows tat exch xX icone fo Sei in 9 Thos there nan «> Ouch hat Dies 0 = G since Gt open. AU Gota however: pes one «© O such that for any «BG: ) i cone Inline meme of # The other astern 1 0 belie that orte\e 0 obaied inthe lon, Bes) eonaied in each G i seni see. 49, Theorem, Let (XA) be a metric space the the following are eae (a) Xi compoer (0) ery ite sete bas. it pot: (6) Xirsequntaly compat (Xie complete and for esery «> 0 there re afte numberof pos ecsen Sad Xu tha raG mun = ‘Proof That (a) imps (the statement of Cola 4. “(5 imc): Let fe] bea sequence i X apd suppose, without os of| seo, that the pote xy, y= ae all dtnt, By (8, the set > seas lint pot Thus tere fa poi xy, © ACs 1 ial {tere ip a integer ny > mth « Bl! V2). Coniuing we get teers Ire my corse wih gh Hl). Ths, = ti ny andi sequen tal compact (© implies (8): Tose that X is comple it seqtence apply the delintion of sequential compat Enenhe 38 ‘Now ite = Oana x 92 XIE Ate then we are done: tes vse ebine tp Boel ABR AEA ce) Bt) Weare Gone 5) be a Cauchy sea appl 10 Snot, xy ©¥—[Bl 0) Bay: Hts process sever stops we Bad 2 sequence (x) such that ‘But this imps tha for n # mds) 2 «> 0. Ths (x) cam have no convergent subsequene, contradicts (0) {0 implies (Tis pat ofthe proof wil we 2 variton of the “pigon hole rien" This pine sates that i you have more ebjets than you have reeepaces then atleast one receptacle must hold more than one object. Mercove, if you hive an lafiaite number of points contained in a fie number of balls then one ball contains ine many pois, So ut (dys that for eery« > O and any infinite set ia, theres» point, {ye such that tps «contains ately many points ofthis et, Let Lx, bea sequence of ditnct points. Tere 2 point in Xand a wubsequence (2) of (4) such that (9) = Bly: 1) Also, thee isa pint ys in and a subsequence (4) of e) such that (x2) © Bs 3) Continuing, foreach integer k > 3 thee iv pointy, Wand a subsequence (a) oF Co) that (8) i Le = (APs hen diam 2k and Fy > Fy > +. «By Theorem 34 FF, ~ (she We lai tat 9» (and fa isa subsequence of) Im fat, © 5 that ca) = Siam Fy <2), and xg = lina (pis a) Let bean open cover of X. The preceding emma gives ane > Osuch that for every ¥ there Isa Gin # with B(x) © 0. Now (@ ‘abo implies (2); hence there are pola... MX such that X= Boi). Now for 1 s & 5 there isa set Gy «9 with Bo) © Ga ence X= Gy: that, (Gyo Gy) fie subeover of A 4.10 Helo-Bore Theorem. A subset K of R*(0 = 1) compat if K's closed ud bounded Prof. WK is compact then K is tally bounded by part (4) of the receding theorem. It follows that K mutt be closed (Prposiion 43): iho it east show that a totaly Bounded set also bounded. "Now suppose that Kis closed and bounded. Hence there are ral uber ny aBd By such that Ke Flay by) Lab) ean be Showa that Fis compact then, because Kis closed, it olds that 1 compact (Proposition 4b), Siace Rs complete and F is closed it fotlows tha F's complete. Hence. agais using part (2) of the preceding ‘eorem we aced only show that Fs totally bounded. This is esy hough wmewhat "messy" to write down. Let ¢>0: we now will Write ts the union of madmen retansen each of diameter less than « An ‘ing ths we wal have Fs (J AC 4ie) where each 6, Belongs 40u Mic pce ad th opty of © ‘one of the aforementioned rectangles. The execution of the details ofthis Strategy lef fo the eeader (Exereise 3) erect 1 he poo of Ppstion 44 art ang eta fe pie ohn < Becht iP et ose lth howe im n= 4.0~ [§, 0-70] -F- ._- show tha there Rand dam 2 < efor each, If 52 he it follows that Ry © Bs: 4 Show that the unin ofa Brite number of compact set is compt. 5, Let te the set ofall bonded sequences of complex numbers. That is Ged if sup (ss n> l) < Ihe = (5) andy Duh define S9) = sup (sepa w= D- Show that foreach in X and «> 0, BGs) ‘Snot coly bounded although iis compete (Hit: You might have an taser tine of ii you fst show that you can assume x = (0, 0,...3) Show tha the clowure of toally bounded Sets totaly bound 6 eetangles Ryo Ry sch that Fo $5. Contig (One ofthe most elementary properties ofa function i comin. The presence of contautyguarantss a certain degree of repularity and snooth> hess without which dificult o obtain any theory of functions ona metic Soe, Since the main sult of this book tthe heory of Tunctions of 3 ‘ompix variable which poms dvivatives (and soar ontinuos) the study ‘oF continlty base ‘51 Definition. Let (Xd) and (0, p) be metric spaces and let fi X-» 8 be {Mancina eX and 1 hen im fs) = wor every « > Other is 15» Ouch that p(/(2) 0) < « whenever 0 < dx a) < 8. The function fis continous othe point ai in fs) ~ fla fs contauoes at cach pint of LX then fis @ continuous function from X to. |$2 Proponion. Lt fd) (0, 7) be a faction and aX. 2 = (0 The following are equivalent statement (@) fs commeus ar: (0) Forsvery «= Of M(x) contains a al wih center at: (= limfls) wherer a — in "The prot wl beet a a exes forthe reader. ‘Tha was the last prpestion concerning eominity of a fanetion at a pot From now on we wllsonser ourselves onl wth funstions continous nal of, 153 Propasin, Let fi (X, d)—=(0, 7) Be a finction, The following ae ‘puto sates: (@) fi conta: (8) 115 is epen fn then f°") is open in Xs (0) IFT closed be 2 thon fC) eased X Proof) implies (8): Let be open in O and let xf"). Mw = ft) then wind; by definition, thee i an « > O wth Bor «) = 8. Since fs onzinuous, part (t) ofthe preceding proposition pives a > 0 with Be: 5) SF MB) 0 and 9 Sequence (% such that (Js), JC) = « for evry while « — lim sy Let P= 2 Biste; 0s then Py coned and 20h i inf). Sine Gy (6) F~'M0) ie lsed we have © of), Bat {is implies (0, fa) > «> 0, 8 contradiction. Ml "The following ispe of rsul i probably well understood by the reader 0d 50 the peo is fel a an exces 4 Propose. Let f and g be continuous futons from X fto © and let Bee Then af and fy ove both continuous. Abo, fig it continnes rode xs) #0 for every 218%. 55 Proposition. Let: -» Yond: ¥-»7 be continous futons. Thon of (here tof) = UJ) Ha continous fatetion fam X into Z. Proof HEU is open in Z then g°*(U) is open in Ys Benes, f-*GE™HUD) = Gf) "W)s open in S46 Deion. A function J X, )-» 9) unformly continous i for vey > Othe isa > O (pending only 002 sch ha ff). /0)) <¢ Suhonevers9) <5. Wesay tht isa Lipscteonctoni theres constant ‘Mf Osuch tbat (J) QD) = Maks for all ad yin 1s enn to see thal every Lnshite funciona uray continuous Infact. ire given, tke — Mf Teineven ene toe hat every uriformiy ‘continuous function is continous. What ate sore examples of sh Fn tions? 1F-X == B then fx) = x7 is continuous but et _unformly continous. 1X = 2 = (0, 1] then fl) = 11 is uniformly continuous but IN'not a Lipschis funtion. The following provides wealthy supply of ip anton etd eH and x Xs deine the diane rom «1 he ser A ds A, by Ay i 187 Proponin, fet AX: the GRAY AS A By (S48) = sada A6 eS and he Topo of 0) ds, 4) = OF re (6 le, 4) ay, A) 3) for alls, yi X Proof (IFA © B then it ister fom the definition that dix, B) = is Hence x, A) # as, On the othr band, i > O there i 2 point [yin A” such that als, 4°) 2 dex 9)s/2 Ano, there is post i 4 with, 1p.) <2 But is 9) a all Aly, 0) = o/2by the range regal In prt x, 9) > ds, 2) —e2 This ges x, A) = ly ade = le A) Soe was arbitrary ax, A) = a, 4,30 tat (2) 1s proved ier itvea then O~ ax, A) = Al, 4. Now for any xin X there fa miimiing sequence (a) io A sich that i 4) ~ tim ds a) So iF (A A) = Osim ds.) 0: that, = im a and 0 x6 A (6) Fora in da) a, 9) a, a). Hence, i, A) ~ it (as 0 acid} inf (A) 2a eae A} = de 9)+ ay, 4). Th ves os, — 4G. A) 2 aks, 9: Siniary ay, 4)—dls, 4) = a9) 0 the desi fm atality folows Notice that pitt () of the proposition says that f: X—» deta’ by {flo} ds. A) fs 4 Lipsitefoneton. Ife vary the set Awe ge 2 ange ‘ply of thee function. Tes not toe thatthe product of two uniformly contouows (Lipschitz) functions saga uniform coainuous (Lipshit). For example, fs) = Is Lipsitz but ff ot eve ufo continous. However I both sad are bounded then the conlason is valid (ee Exercise 3). “Two of the most important properties of eontinuots function are contin in the flowing rest [SH Theorem. Let J: (Xd) -r(O, 9) be comin ftion Gh i compact then JX) ie compact sist of (0) 1° i connected the $00 1 connected sbset of 9. ‘Proof Yo prove (a) and (2) t may be supped, without loss of generality, that fCX) = 0. (a) Lat (o,} bea Sequence in 2; then there foreach fr Iya patsy ia X wth = flog). Since X is compact there Ts a pot Thin Wanda sabieguense (vg) sich that x = lig, But if = /3), hem the cotinty off sve hat» — im 0, hence compact by Theorem 445. () Suppose © = i0 ls both open sad closed in and that 37 Then, beae 1X) = 0, ©) 7 J"); also, J") is both open aad closed tecnise/ is continous. By cosets, fC) = Wand this gives 9 = 3 ‘Ths 05 connected 9 Corollary. If fs X—>40 ie comnaous and K-& X is ther compact oF fomect in then j(K) ie compact or romeced espetitel) It S40 Corollary. ff X=» Ri como ond X is comected then UX) a Imerh “Fi flows fromthe characterization of canst suns of Ras S.A Inermediate Value Theorem, ff, 81> is cominaous and fa) = § 15 J18 thon thor ia pont x2 5 © & contoous ther there are pons xy ad yy tn K with LWtsoh = sup tytls ©) andy = i Ufa 6 Prof. This cory folios fom te preceding ne bese (0) = 70 defines a continuous function from X into R. dee S14 Condes, 1° Kia compact subset of X and x in X then thre br @ point Kh as, 9) = eK, Proof, Defoe fs X—>R by f0) = ats, y). Then fis continuous and, by {Corley 512, assumes smiaimum value on K- Tati, there is. 2 point {yin K with) = fl) for every 2K. This tes ls, ) = as, )- "The net wo theorems are exiemly portant and wil be wsed re peatedly throughout thi book with no specie wlerence To the theorems sures SAS, Theorem, Suppose f:X-» i continuous and X is compact then fs norm continuous. Proof Let «> 0; we wish 19 find ¢ 8 > O such that ds, y) <5 implies HPC), $0)) <«. Soppone there 5 Ro such 8; in particular, each 8 I) fri fal 0 work Then for every 2 I there are pots x, andy it X ith {sg 9) Hn ut s/s). FO) = «Siw Xf compact there a sub Sequence iq} and 8 point-x°X with x= lim xy Cia. x ~ Ln Jy BFct, yq) = Alyx) ya this ends to zer0 as kepoes to BUI w = flo) = lim sq) = lim fl) 50 tat + 2 M5a)SOW)) 5 Hilo) * perf) nd the right had side ofthis inequality goes to zr. This is a contention and completes the oot 16, Deion. 14 and B are subsets of X then define the dtc fom Ay BA, 8) by A, BY in ho, Beas Abe B Notice tha Fs the sinepoint set) them A, G83) A AD HEand B= fx) then afc} 9) = ahs 9) Abo, if 4.0.8 4 C then di, B)~ 0, but we cin have AA, B) = O wih A and B dsin. The ‘ow popular iype of example isto take A ~ fo, Os ¢R) © 2 and Bem (cre) ve R}, Note that A and B ae bth closed and disjoint and sin 4,2) = 0 S47 Theorem, 174 ad Bordon set in X with B cloed ad A compact ther alas B) > 0 Proof Define f.X-» Rby fs) = dis, B). Since A.A B = Chand Bisse, A)» Ofor each ain A Bo since Ais compas tere isa point ais sack ‘hat 0-< fla) = ial (fle) x64} = AA, Exercies 1. Prove Proposition $2. 2, Show thar if and gare uniformly continuous (Lpshit)furtions fom XW into then 908 fe 3. We say tat fo N © ie bounded if shee 6 constant Mf > 0 with [js = M for all x in X. Show that if and g are Bounded wniormly continuous (Lipschia) functios from nto then 50 i 4" the composition of eo uniformly continous (Lipset) functions tin wiormly coninaas (ipchit)? 52 Suppose fo» surly continuous; show that (x) isa Cauchy Sequence i ¥ then (f(s) isa Cauchy sequent this il tue i WE ‘only aun tht ff sotinunes? (Prove or ave 3 eoumerexampte) 12 Recal de detition ofa dense st (1.14, Suppose that fsa complete ‘ere space an hat (Ded) (0 i normaly contnaots, where Dis denne in (t ), Use Exercise $v sow that tere isa uniformly continous Fonction g2 >» 2 wit ts) = fu for every in D. Tet be an open sitet af Cand let Pb a polygon in G from ato b Use Theorems 5115 and 517 40 show that theres polygon Q © trom a to bwhich is smpoue of ine segments which are paral to ether the el fr iapiary ats Une Lebxgus Covering Lemma (4.8 0 give another proof of Theorem 51s, 9. Prove the following converse Exercise 28 Suppose (Xd) sa compact Imrie spice having the property that for every «> O and foe any points 2, Bin ¥ there are points 2 Fy -s-ain Xi Band des f) < efor | 2 k= n Ten yd} connected. (Mint: Use hearers $17) 10, Lec ang be cotinsus fonctions from (¥, 4) 10 Op) and te D Be 2 dese net of X. Prove that i 3) = #0) for nD then f= Use this oto thatthe function g obtained in Exvsise 6 unig 6, Uniform convergence st he st an 99 metre sp an uppene ffe fs te Santis to into Theses Lf eeres wnformiy to witien f= olin fil for every «> O there isa iter V depending on « Stone) suck that ts, a) «forall in X% whenever =. Hence, sup (Afleh.fla): #0} © € Whenever > “The int problem is his: 8 no just x set but a mec space sd each ‘Jc is cominades dest olow that fis comtineous? The nrswer fe, 61 Theorem. Suppose fo (Xd) (0, pi eames fr ack m and that So ai then cot Proof Fis xin X and « > 0; we with 10 finda 8 > O sch that ft, {B) even dig, ¥) © 8. Since f= aim f there is Teton fh (A, Ss) «13 toe all x in X,Sinee fi cominuous there in 3 > 0 Such that ef) 3 when dy), Therefore if aX) <8 Hl) ON = fey fsa AU FA) HAL JOO) Cet 8) = seo) huts We say fo) = Fa U0) ~ if foreach xn X “he series $i nfrmly convergent tof = ai f 6.2 Weiss Meet, Let = Cb a fition cht = My or ees xn on pps cana sary SM Ler f00 ian sad cote) =, EM foreach s Sine FM, converses, f(a} ia Cauchy sequence in C. Thus there is number § © Sith = if). Define fa) = £5 thn ives a fanetion fo X > ©. Now 9100 Eons Smo, fe sn iacomergen ory «> Orbe amine Neha, Aig c ewer n= NT hes 8) =f) < «fall in Xen 1. Let {fina sequence of uniformly continuous functions from (Xd) ‘nto (0p) and suppose tat f= a= f es, rove that fs uniformly mtnuous I caf, a Lipehitz function with constant My and up Wu < a, show tha fsa Lie Faction, Wau My = 2, show tht J tay fall be LipachieChapter HI Elementary Properties and Examples of "Analytic Funetions SU Power series In this action the dfiniion and basic properties of power serie wil be given, The power seis wil hen fe una to ge examples of anaic functions. Before doing ths it necessary To give some elementary fc on infinite sees nC whove statements for infinite sere 8 should e wall known 10 the reader. Ifa in C for every n= 0 then the series F ecoprinsitreneye > Otten nage Voaitat Sao whew m2 A Tews ener a omen 1 Proponent tel se cere Dot Le > 0 and pu matey ctes, Se a cones whan ge Nah a Hn tn beral= LE ale $, tals Bice ‘That is) Cauchy sequence and so there a2 in C with = Hence Dat = ‘Abo eal tbe defritons of lini inferior and superior of «sequence in LAT fa) sequence in then deine Nin y= im i Cg nnd tim sep up (ae a.on Id ‘An alent notation for tm nf a an lim sup is tin ad IE ‘ein Ga Ogy yu) hen {an increasing Saquence af real numbers of {oo} Hence tim in a bas exists although it may be 2. Silty Tim sp a always exits atough it may be + A numberof properties fina i up are inode in th execs ofthis stn, Z "A poner series about a is an nite series ofthe form $ One. ‘ofthe eves examples of a power series (and one of the eho esa i the comer ses or which values of = does this series converge and when does i diverge? It iseusytosee that 1=2"*" = (L=a)(L424. 42%), tee r If x) < 1 then 0 = im 2 and ao the geomet neve is convergent with 2 Leetit 1 [z|> 1 then tim |e" = co and te series diverges. Not only i this result an archetype for what happens oa general power iri, but ican be wed {o explore the convergence propectis of power series 1.3 Theorem. Far gieen poner series $ ae) define the mumber R, Oe Reuly me im supa" then: (a) eal < Rte sve conerges abst (©) 20] > R, the vrms ofthe series become unbounded and so the sree dees (9G Oer eR the the series concerges wifey on (2:5 1 ‘Moreover, the mamber Rs he oly mamber having properties (a) and (). Pro Memysmpo hte = OA 2) hen at Rank hone rai flor R Hee integer with come ube The fumer A is elled the rau of cuurergeme of the power eisBenet Propet and Bamps of Amie Fsns 14 Prom. 1's Gen power ee wth ada of co rergene Ry then R= timeless Fs ini exis. ‘Proof Asin assume tht = Oa let « = in ay Which we sppove fo exist, Suppose that 2] <7 and find ae steer N such that < ledgesi for all m= N. Let B= Jos thon lel?" Teal Blogs? = lagna luni lag" $ Boral n = ¥. But then az] lpr s BEL or alnz &. Sine [ r> a the ln fr alm age than Some intaer N. AS tere, me get lay") = Bo fgr for m= N. This ives oat BEL which apyeches 2 a8 does. Hens, Ea" dress it mets lu teem oni sf. Rope 4 we he hh ta nun foe Hee te oy op nt land the convergence it uriform on exch compact subset of C. Maintaining & parle with cles, we designate this seis by « ven De hex seo cin ACh ttlowig option fo the Sey of ike ar he rot it be sre 15 pn Let 9nd ay core set nt ane en ail cre ih sm a) 4). and bea" be poner series wih ads 16 Propsion Le Sa of conegorce 21> 0. Pat tho otk power ere S (a4) regener ond aad fea hare radi of com Anat nce 3 Elesthy af = [Eale-e'+ Eo le~or'} Latenat = [Later] [Ehe-o] Jor lenal 8 a 3 CS raat 26 Sorte). (ork nade—ay* as ras of comergence (©) The faction fis intely dieremabe on Bla: R) and, frthermore, F%2) pte bythe serie (26) forall k= Wand eal < (Fern, 29 vo Proof. Mgsinsosue that @ = 0 “i Welt omark that f(a) proved fork ~ ten he anon = 2 wil wT Gt the ce kFcan he obtains y apping poet (a fr De ithe serie Jamie or We have thay him pla": we/ ec Pees et gt nb i tue hin 2 se fae Rates thee Jaa" < Jaol-+ 21 lapese"] < 2. This ges Rs RM 2 O then F Jaye"t < o@ and Fl tht 82. Th ges tt A= and gs 7 fa Co For < Ame) Fmt) > Sa nde =F sera pln 0: st £7 So FeEinvaitea tae Todas oe nein cay See atlas Se kos Cee be ait ee See or on aa LO gy = [= = tim sup na" = 1 The rest wil follow rom kn up fg "then Ris the radios of convergence of Ya shence fll < k < Rand ts] tao [ete het cha EH 2 kA PREAH «San ssc < RE JaAe-! camer and ofr any « > 0 teria nese Ny su tat for 2 My 4 <5 2209). ‘As. km 0) = gn) 0 ere is a integce Ny sh that 0) 01 < whenever © + Ry. Let the mas of the two integers My and My “Then we can choose 5 > O sich that whence 0 < lew] <8 Pating these inequalities together with equation 2. we bave that fern foe 0 < [2-w] <8. That inf) = eC (©) By a straightforward evaluation we get 0) = f°%0) = a. Using 28) ora 0} we get f40) = kia and ths pes formals (27) ~ af 29 Carry. Ifthe series $a—0" has ra of comerence R > 0 thon ‘H2) = E24-0F ison n Be: Heiceexp= J. :*/0! analytic in Before further examining he exponential funetion and defining cos: and sinz, the following result must be proved 210 Proposition. If G 1s open en comectd and Gis difevemiabe With) O for all 2 , thn fi conto Proof. Fix zn Gand kt wg = fea) Put A = {2262 fc) = wo; we wil show that A'='0 by sowing hit dis both open and closed in GLa. tnd let {5} © 4 be such tat == fim zy. Since fag) = sy for ach m 2 1 tnd fis onnuous we get f@) = ay oF =A. Thos Ais lsd in G. Now fixdin A and kt e> O be sich that Bla: «) © G.I Bate), st gt)= Mee (=he), 0-2 42 1, Then aa O=H19)__e~06)_(t-9e Ho ios (=aresie Thus. if We let os we pet (AAD, Appendix A) im f= That i 914) = 0 for 0-< F<, implying tht g i a constant. Hence, SE) = w=) = J) = vg. That, Ble) = A and Ais abo ope. ‘Now dierentnte (2) =e; we do this by Proponiion 2.5. This gives Ths the complex exponential fncton Bas the Same property as is veal counterpart. Thats a oe = PeH(l-gavtena) #0 |= emery Propet en ape of Anite Fntns Put g() = #* for some xed ain Cstheng(@) = #¢“t4e(~e7) = 0, Henge g@) ~ forall? in © and some consant In particular, wing One pee = 20) =. Then et =e forall: Thus eo = ee fo all and bin €. This ao gives 1 = 26°" which impli that #0 for any £ ane” ~ Ife. Returning to the power series expansion of ‘Socal the coefcents of thi seis are real We have exp # = exp = In aril, for @ real number we pete = ee =e? = 1. More Peoeraly J = ee = et = exp (2Re 3). This ans lems] = exp (Res). ‘We se, teers that e has he same properties hat the real fusion e* ths, Again by analogy wih the rel power series we define the functions con ands by the power ses, HD Gay + tO aEDH ach ofthe series has infinite rds of convergence and so e082 ad sin = fre anuj in © By wing Propotion 2 we fd that (6s 2) = ~sin 2 nd (in 3 — cos z By maining power series (which Is jusiod ince ‘hes secs converge able) ae cme Sette) sin = Lee) “This pes for zi ©, co =i and 2s a const tains In partic if we et = Hence, for in © 26 rake where Bmargs, Since e**¥= ee we ave fe!) exp(Ree) and ange" Ine ‘A tanction fis proc wih period ei f(e+<)= f(z) forall in C.K ‘sa pid of” then ee"? mere” implies that e*= 1 Since, =e texpRe(e) Ro{e)=0. Thus c= for some Bin R.But I= e°=e# sd + Taind pres that the periods fe" are the multiples of 2x. Thus. if we {Guide the plane iat ifitely many horaoeal sips by the lines tmz Ok I}, Kany intger he exponent fneton behaves the same in {ach ofthese strips Ths proper of peieity one which not present in ibe rel exponen funtion. Novice that by examining complex fae tions we have demented 4 relationship (218) between the exponential Funcom ane trgononet Ft Whi wes ot expected rom oe 4 real number 9 in 1S) we get e = cls & [Now lt us define log =. We could adont the same procedure a before and let log be the power series expansion ofthe real logit about some point But tis only gives log = jn some disk. The method of defining the logarithm as the integral of "fom 1 10 x, x'> 0, iva posi, bat ‘proves o be rsky and unsatising inthe compiex cw, Also. since € 6 nak ‘one-one mapas inthe eal es, log = cannot be defined asthe inverse fe We ean, however, do somthing sia ‘We want to define Tog 80 that it satisfies w = et when 2 = log. Now sncee’# Ofor any we cunot define log0. Therefor, suppor = and w #0; iF = 44) thes jn] =e and) ~ arg m+ 2ek, for tome ke Hence aur og + Karg w+ 2k): is any iter) {isthe solution st fore = w. (Note that og | ithe sl real logarithm.) 2.48 Definition. 1G isan pen connected sein C and f G+ € is com Sous ft ic ht =~ 4p 1) fa all: thn & Bch of the loariti Notice that 0¢ Suppose i & given branch of the logarithm on the connectd set and suppose kis a intege. Let (2) = fe) Bel, Thon exp 2) = exp) w= 2,0 gb also a beach ofthe learithm, Convery and gare oh branches of log: then foreach =n G./(2) = g2}+2eK oe some iter k, where depend on = Docs the same k work for ach in G? The answer is yes Tn fat if =e then His continuous on @ and MG) 2, the imegers. Sine @ is connected, NG) must sso be connected (Theorem I 38). Hence thre nen Z ith fe) + Deki — 2) forall in This gies 219 Proposion. 1G © C is ope and connected and fa ranch of log (on G then the rotalyof branches of log = re the anton (2) + 20k, Ko. [Now ites manufacture atleast one branch of log © on sone open connected st Let Once 20); that i “st” the plane alog the negative real ais ley @ i connected fn each2 in Gcan be uniquely represented by 2 = [le where ~» <8 = For # inthis range, define (2) ~ log +8. We save the proo of con. ‘into the reader (Exercise 9) Tollows that fis branch ofthe logarithm on, 1s fanalye? To answer this we frst prove a general fst 2.20 Proposon. Let G and be open subsets of. Suppote that fs G-» © and g: "> Care continua fonction rch that f(G) = 0 and g4ft2), for al G. If difeeniabe and (2) #0. i aiferentiable end ri - gue° nen Prope al amp of Ae Fess fa icaiyc, Ji analy Proof Fs ain G and let he sch tha h # Oand atthe G. Hence a= ‘fla and +4 = g(a +) imps fo) # fla). Abo sta asta) _ lot h)=sia) florh=fe) Hle+Nfa) 4 [Now te limit of the let hase af +0, couse, 1550 thei of he nak and sie xs Sie fim a) J = {fase Faria)” #0 Hence we gt ta sas sce Ula) # 0, and T= BVO “Thon 0) = LeU" Irs analy then” continuous and his eves th fi ana 2a ie We designate the paticlar branek of the logarithm defined above fon G=(e: z= 0} to be te princpa branch of the logarithm. I we wets fog # a a fuetion we wil alvays fake it to be the pinipal Branch of the Togaston unless otherwie stated. iia branch of th logarithm on an open connected set Gand iin © is sua then deine g: Ge by #2) — exp (f(a C8 an ime, then 2) 2 linthi manner we define a branch of 2, nC, for an open om feced set om which thee isa branch of log 2 IF we write (2) = 2 as @ function we wll always understand that * = exp (@ log 2) whee log zis ‘he ping ranch ofthe logarithm; 2s amas og = ‘ris evident from the considerations jest concded, connectedness lays portant role in ana funtion tory. For example, Proposition PO's fae ules G ie connected. This is aalogous to the role played by Jnterat ncaa: Bae of thi itis comsenent to introduce the erm “felon” A rian is an open conected subst ofthe plane ‘This scion concludes witha dision of te Cauehy-Riemann a> tion. Let -»€ be analytic and let us 9) = Re (040, 98.9) {flrs foe 4p in G. Let ws evaluate the Tit AEH Crary. A branch ofthe loath facto anata es dercatce rey in ow dierent ways, Fist kt +O theough Fad values of he Hor hf 8 Wf) _ fleh+s) feet) * Dimids 9) eth Des») * 4 woe Leng A 0shes 2m Fo Men sitter Now lt 4-0 trough purty imapiary aus hati fr ban hee eti-fle) _ _juaarthaudsy) , daayshb—otn 9) + + an re Hane tn Equating the real and imaginary parts of (222) and (2.28) we get the Caucy-Riemann equations au oo gg B® ‘Suppose that w and © have continous second pata derivatives (we will ‘evenly show tha they are infinitely dilate). Dilerenating the ‘Cavehy-Riemann equations agin we ge Hence, 22s #4 Pho, Any funtion with continuous second devvsivessattying (2.25) i std 10 te hormone. In a similar fashion, «© 1 also harmoni We wil study armonicfuesons ia Chapter X et G be rpin in the plane and let wand p be functions defined oa | G sith cominovs partial dervatves, Furthermore, suppose that w and © sats the Cauehy-Riemann equations. I then fan be Shawn to be anlyic in G- To see ths, ek z= 4-4 G and let BUEN) Gethavtire BOA then Worts pHa 9) Mets penis yt PIM 2M Applying the mean vale tore forthe dete of & function of oe Variable to each af these ached expressions, cds foe each 240 IO: cubes, adr tt ats fs and i < end aoe EEF ME ID nlc ae ne® cy Pept Et A on Tesi = bce yeas ti Hb) 220 gst we actayt acon) se gla ley tn) 460)) ut = ei fh = Jeti © Booed by) = de) +4) analyte wand v sais the Conch Reman ‘pati Example, I 3) = le (2+) harmonic on G = (0)? The aser [nye Thi could be shown by ifreniatng uo sx that it satis 29, However, team alo be shown y observing tht in neighborbood of ach Frito Gis he real prof an analytic funtion defined in that neighbor Food. (Which Fett’) “Another problem concerning harmonic functions which wil be taken tp in moce dal in Sesion VIN. 3s the elowing. Suppose Gis region ihe plane anu. ©» Bs harmon. Dees there exist a harmon fenton eG Rauch that fave aati G2 sich a function rex tis aes harm amiga of Her and af 90 harmonic cones Ste thenter ra) nt ir) Gt By) i unayie on Gand only kes on Awe foci » rly imaginary vals, It follows that two harmonic conjugates of a armoni fncion differ by a eonstan ee Exerc 14). Returning tothe question ofthe existence of s harmonic conjugate, the ove euample (2) ~ log [sof harmonic Function on the region G = C= {o) has no harmonic conjugate, Indo if i did bent would be posible to ‘eine an analyte Branch ofthe logaritimo G and this cannot be done (Excreie 21) However thee ae some reions for which every hareric function ha a conjugate In particular, i Wl now be shown that this the ‘ce when fany disk othe whol plane. 2.30 Theorem, Let G be either the whole plane C or some open dk IF tnG rm bw harmonic finton th u ha 0 harmenieenjugate Proof Tocarry ot the proofof thistheore, Leiba’ frdierentiating ter the intgrl sian needed (hss stated and proved in Proposition IV. BI) LRG ~ BO; R) 0 < Rs w,andletw-G > Roca harmonic funtion. “The proof wil be accomplished by Roding a harmonic fnction w soc that ‘and any the Cauchy-Riemans equations. So deine woy~ [eds and determine so that +, ~~ Diferntaing bth sides ofthis equation With respect Io = ges shor [ube narre ufos di4ufe.0}+80) So it ust be thats) ~ us Os easly checked that w and stein = fats Foo o satis the Cauchy-Riemann equations ‘Where mas the fact that Gis a isk or C used? Why ca’ this method of roof e doctored suficeny tats lds for general regions G? Where lee the prof Break down when G = C~ {0} and a) = log lI? Exercises 1. Show that fe) = 2. Prove titi Sup ay then ab = pouiiy & dropped? Show that na = 2-4) has a derivate only atthe ori. are eal aad positive and O © = lity @ = tin “up ad). Doct this ema tre i the reqlement of“ Beomtany Proper tnd Bape of Artie Fonson 4, Show that (60s 2° = —sin# and (602) 5. Derive formulas (2.18) 6 Describe the following sets: (2: ef =, Ge = Uh Eo =D Greos2 = 0), (& sin = 0) 17. Prone forms for cos (2+) and sin (2+) 4 Defntn 2 = 9 : where is this function died and ana? A coe rere iS fg ect Pin £3 din a eee ry ac hand ed on Greet ed ee ree vaccines cette ty ae ee re eae cea TTS Se rar seaee or eae at ese te ec tameraene Fee ee Seay Se eet Bad omit Bees east ey oa eee ee cowed Sen ttt feta cee {sem a= feu nn(") wend Oand REC 2) > 0 for 12 km Show that og (1-2) = 1og 2,4 + 1 ‘thee loge the principal banc ofthe loath. Ihe resticions om he rite removed, does the formola remain valid? "row that there no Branch ofthe logarithm defined on G = C= (0). (iin: Suppo such a branch exists abd compare this with the principal ‘anen) {8 Anup fietons as mappings. Mobis romsformations {Consider the funtion din hy fe) ACS eh iy andes if) thea pen ste yie Bae Mam, the Rypeebols

0 the purabla? = —4e3G.-c!) gts closer and close 0 the negative real ai ‘This conrspands tothe fact that the fonction 2! maps G = C~ (277 = 0) onto (=: Re = 0}. Notie also that r= eand.x = ~e(andy = dy = ~d) fre mapped onto the same paral ‘Wat happens toa ere conrad at she iin? IF = re then f() = "Fe than the srl of rasa 7 about the orga mapped onto te le fof radius ina two to one fston Filly, what happens to the setor Sy 8) = (=: 4 < arg = <8), for <7 Ie scully sun that the iageof Slo ) ithe sector (2s 29. The Fesirction of / 0 Ste 8 will be one-one exactly when B= <= “The above dscstion sheds some light on the nature of f@) = 2 and, likewise, itis sf to study the mapping properties’ exer analyte functions Inthe theory of analytic fonctions te folowing problem hols «paramount postion: given wo open conneted sets G and, there a analyte union F dein on G auch that (0) = 127 Besos being incall iatreing. ‘he solution (or eather, the information about the exence of a soation) ofthis problem is wer useful, {1 Definition. A pot na region = Cis continuous faction yLa.8}—> G for some interval [a.8} m R. If y'(0) exsts for each ¢ 1m [a0] and ¥:le.8}¥C i continuous then y is «smooth path. Also 18 pecewise Snooth i tere is a partion of ab. = yt ty=b, 0h that yi fvooth on eachsubuteral [ut 1 “To say tata function y[abl-2C has a denvadivey'() foreach point ¢ ‘e [ab] means that weeh—v) a vo xis fora< 1b and tha he night and et ied lint exist for r= @ and 120, respecely This i, ofcourse, equivalent to saying that Rey and Imy have a dervative (ee Appendix A. ‘Suppose 9: [a,b] isa smooth path and that for some ia (eB) 1ghe0. Then 9 has 8 tangent ine at the point y= yl). Thi ne goes Tncough the pont Zn the Section of (he seco 9 oF the slope of the ine tocar) Hy ay, ate te sooth paths ith 7h) tnt) ayand (0) 0, 742940 hen dine te angle Between the pate yrand yy at he sen) atestect Propet tn Eales of Antic Fncon Suppose 7 isa smooth path in G and f:G-r0is analytic. Then 0= fo is aso a smooth path and @(=P'(yyy). Let Zym yg and suppose thar Gg)#0 and /(Gj)#0, then 6(Gj)#0 and arzo =a e+ argvllg. That a sree Arey id=anel eh [Now let yy amd yy be smooth pats with ¥()= 7) ad i) Oe yk); let = fy, and o,= foe As, suppose that the patsy and fre not tangent io each other at Zi that roppose (1) Fa ‘on (32) ates as aera) arg yy) = ar ef.) are of). “This sys that sen any two paths through zy f maps these paths ono Wo pats trough sy = (2,)and. whea (Gq #0 he angles between te curves re preserve both in mage and alvcon, This summarizes es Fallows, 3A Theorem, f5 G+ ie nate then fpreserees angles teach point Fo 0 where f(z) #0 ‘Afncton f:G'» C which has the angle preserving propet and alo has te)= 0) existing called a conformal map Ii aatic and (2) # 0 for any = ‘hen fs conformal. Te conerse ofthis sateen i also tue TE fe) = eth fs conformal throughout C; let ws Took a the expo~ neni function more cosy. = = ey where ef xed then ls) = re” for =e That if maps the ine x — conto the ce with center at the frig and of radius «Also, maps the line y= onto the ini ray bende r=} We hae aleay cen thi poms om any oriomta ep of wilh ctrl fe cwe dimes wl Tena) a ties Oc abe “Jape the vertical sepments (= = c¥iy, — < y < =} om the part ofthe Gils [¢e) on <0 x), and the horizontal ine y= d, mcd < ows ont the ey making ah angle d with the postive real ax ‘Notice that log the principal branch ofthe Inartm, does the epost 1 mape ono the snip G, crc onto vertal segments in Grays onto horizontal resi. “The exploration ofthe mapping properties of eos =, sins, and other analyte functions will be Gone in the exercise. We now proceed © an mazing clas of mappings, the Mobis transformations. ath 5 Detation. A mapping ofthe form S(e) = Ss called neo foc: onal tanformation. Wa bc, add also sais ad—Be #0 then S{e) called Mabisteansformation. eb IFS i 4 MBbins ~ ASE sates (SH) = $-NS(e) = 5 thas, S~* isthe imerse mapping of S. IF Sand Pare bth nea fractional transformations then feows that S= 7 salu, Hence, the set of M&bius maps forms a group under composton UUnle eterwise state, the ony linear factional transformations we wil conser are Mébivs transformation. wsformation then Lar St) = £45 5 iF sany noms complex number, then ae +00) esd) “That th cette a 6, re ot unique (ae Bercise 2) "We say alo consider Sas defined on C, with S{c) = afe and S(—de) = 2, (Notice that We canot have @ = O'= € or ‘sine str Situation would contradict adhe 0} Since S has an inverse itmaps Cy onto Cy I Sie) ~ 20 then $ then Sis a dlaion: i [36 Proposition, 15 is Matias transformation the Sis the compton of Translates, dons, ond the imerson. (OF couse, some of these nay be rising) se) ed a translation if (2) = a: with a 4 0 tebe ia vtarin; finaly i $() = Hs Proof Fit snp c= 0 Hee Se) ~ (eh 90S) = lid SU Seid then SoSs2 Sand were de fl Now let ¢ # 0 and put S,(2) = r+dle, Se) g 54) = Fale, Then $= Soo Sy° Sy 5, ML ‘What ae the fscd pont of 3? That, what are the points = satisfying SG) = 1.11 stises this condition then a deae—b <0. ‘a 50) =“« Benety Prope an ale of Asc Fens Hence, « Mobios transformtion can have at mos wo fixed points unless Ste) = 2 forall ‘Now it be 8 Mabiastanformation and et bebe distinc points in C, wih « ~ S(0), 2 SIO), 7 ~ S(C). Suppose that Tis another map tit te property. Then 7" Shas a , and ea Ged pols an there fore, Fete == the hoi, That is, $= 7. Hence, 2 MOBS map is tig determined by ite ation on any thre pven points Ci Tet Sy, 24 e points in C.- Deine SoC, > Cy by 50) = «. Inany aw S13) = 1 Se) = 0, $C) ‘on havin this ropes. [87 Defnian. Wz, «Cx the (Zn 3, 20 (The ers ratio of 220 25, “) the image of, under the unigoe Mobis transformation which fakes 210 Ip 23 10, and 210 Tor example: (9,2, ar 4) = and (1,0, 2) ~ 2 Al, i Ms any Mabie map ands, fy ate the pots ssh that Mi = T, Af Mig = 0 then M2 = (oy Wa) 38 Propostion. If 25, 2,24 are dnc plus and Tis any MBbix trans foomaton ten = cand Sis the only wasforma- (ei. 20 20 = (Poa Ts Ted) for any point Proof et Se = (2,20 220; then $ is a Mobius map. IF ME = S71 then -M(Te3)~ ly MOTs) —0, MUP) = 2; hence, ST's — (2, Tey Ty, Teg forall in, Inpaicla, if? ~ Ts the dred esl Flows. 39 Propostion. 3,3, are satin pins in Cand. yg are alo ‘lisincr point of thn thre one and ony one Mabias rensformation S ‘uch thr Sey = wg, Sry = 0 Seq Proof Let Te ~ (25,25, 24) M2 = (2, e834) and put S = MT, ‘Guly Shas the devied prope 1 Ris anather Mobis ap With Re, = (oy for = 2.3.4 then Ro" has hye ed pas (2.25, and 3). Hence Rika Lors Rll ‘ell known fom igh choo! pom ha thee pis the plane ttcnie a cic (Real tht wick in png tough + cep. Tis tag fine € Hoe hoe ao fost i the pes ae ‘ment the word “noncoinear) A sight ine inthe plane will be called 3 ‘lele) The ext esl explains when four pots eon a ee ‘S60 Proposition, Let 212525 Be fur distin pos Coy Thon (0235 2424) 8410 munbor il fot pons He on gece Pro et $C. => ©. bedefiedy St = (23.3 2; than $“HR) = te Sarof ech ta (cet al Hen, Hel be hed fe cm Sow that he ings of der a MObius tanormation sce Let se = S44 sips = we Rand w = $0) then x = So imps that So) = Sta} Tati, auth aah coed” aed (Cross multiplying this sves BML (92d)? +(ad— Behr t Beda (d—B) = 0. Wag is rat then af—de = 0; puting « = 2ad—be), B= Hbd—bi) and iiying (3.1) by £ aes 312 = Im (eu) =f = tm (au) since rea. That i es on he ie determined by (3.12) for Hed «and IF ei ot weal then (3.11) becomes e+e for some constants y nC, 8 in R. Hence, 313 beta whste -5=0 Sine yan re independent of xand since (3.13 the equation ofa cite, the prot i ished. A M4 Theorem, A Mabie tronformation takes crs ant cltles Proof. Let be any circle in Cz an let be any MBbius transformation, Let zs 2424 be tree distin points 08 P and pul w, = Se Tor) ~ 23,4 “Thon wn os determine a oe I”, We eli tat S(T) = 1 fet forany zinc, as by Proposion 2, By the pressing proposition, if =f om Then both Sie of (215) ave fea, But this hat S20 Now It Pand Phe tweed, and et 2.54 Peay. areca PACA Go sye 2p 20h SE Fee og The Ps SP map 2) = (Sey ye)2 emctr Poet an Bangle of Ane Pus Tonto 1 In fact Tey = uy, forJ = 2,3, 4d, 8 in the above proof it fatows tha (0) = ‘L16 Proposition. For any seen cles Pad I" tC there @ Mabie ‘naifrmarian T such that T(1) =. Furthermore we can ape that T take any three pons on onto any thee point af Ef we do seep Ts, for} 2, 3,4 (dine = 0) then Tg ‘Pron Te proof, xe for he aniquenes statement, is givenin the previous prsgraph The uniqueness pur isa til exces forth ade. Now that we Know that a Mobius map takes ist cies, he net sqston iss What ppens tothe inside andthe outs of tho ecles? Toanewer this we inode sme new concepts ‘317 Defston. Let bea ctl through points 2a, #5: The pots in Cy ae sa 0 be symerie with respect to Pit y a8 Cuntn2d Gin [Asi stands, this dition not only depends onthe cice but ako onthe points 225,24 Ui ls a eerie forthe reader to show that symmetry ' independent ‘of the points chosen (Exercise 1. ‘Also, by Propostion 310 2 is symmettic to ise with respect to Pit andonly i= ef Let us investigate wi it means for = and 2 to be amines. IT sa straight line then our linguistic prejudies ad us to belive that # and = resjnmatsc with ree to Pathe ine throgh ¢ an = Is prpenoul {oP and 2 and 2* ae the sane distance from F but 08 opposite sides of This is indeed the cae. TET isa straight tne ten, choosing =4 = 2, equation (18) becomes This wes tnd = are suidistant from each point on T. Abo ‘Hens, we have (unless #1) tat = and: tie in dferent half planes deter mined by It now follows that [, =) is perpeniclar to. Now suppose thal P= (2 |2mel = A) (OR < 2) Letty 2.24 be pointe ins sing (318) and Propostion 3.8 fora number of Mobios wans- Formations pes (reed that ts onthe ray fas1—0):0 = ¢ © 2) fom a tough 2 Using the fac thal [ona =e) — RE we can obtains” from => bs isda) vin the pure below. That Let Le the ray fom a through =. Comact ‘line P perpendicular to Lat = and atthe poit where Pinterssts cone ‘tet the tangant to The pitt ofitersction ofthis tangent with Lis the point =, Thu, he poinse and 0 are symm with Fespet (0 319 Symmetry Principle. Uf Mabine transformation T taker @ crle Py fn the cite Uy thon amy pte of pine spate wih respect to are ‘mapped by T onto por of points smmetric with respect ta2 Pema pert and amos of Attic Fests Proof. Let 25 25 £4€P,i follows that if = and 2 are symmetric with respect 00) thea (08, Pep Tey Te Br RS by Proposition 48, Hence Te* and T= are symmetric with respect 10 TM Now we wil discs orientation fr eicls iC. : this wil ables ising between the “inside” and “outside ofa ele im Cy. Novice that on © (he spers) there no obvious choice for the ise ard ouside ofa sie ‘3.20 Defsiion, IFT tle then am orientation for is an ordered tre ‘Of points 2, £5 Sch tal each 2 is nT. Totuiyely, thew thee points ive 8 irestion to T. That is we "go" fhom 21 £025 If only Wo poms were Ben, his woul, of eOUNE, be ambiuows ash eed Sine Tift) = Ri follows that ab dsan bechowe to be ea mumbers (Gee Exerese #), enee, Lat = Rand ft 5.25.25 ¢R also, pt Te = Im(e.54 20.29) “Thus (2m (24 2 23) 0} i iter the upper or lower half plane O or (adbe) <0. (Note that abe is the "éterinant” of 7) Now lt be airy, apd suppose that 2), Za. aré on P' for any Mabie transformation we have (by Proposition 38) les 24 25,25) > 0} = (2m (55 5 = Seri 85.8 In prt, if $b oss tha Smaps gato BR. then {=> Im 5 Zena Of equate 8 "eter the upper oboe hall pa, ite seco) neat them we dete the eh se of 1 (oth opt ty, 0 be Artis econ mappings Mit taormaons s Simul, we dsine theif sie of P10 be fel (2425525) <0) ‘The proof ofthe following theorem i et as an execs. ‘321 Oremation Principle. Let Ty and be two ccs tn Cand let Tbe 1 Mabintonformation sok that F(T) = Ty Let (2.242) Be at orient tion for Py Then T takes the eght si and the Ite of Vy ota the ike {ide ond lt side of wi pet to he arena (Tey, Te T=) ‘Conse the erinttion (yO, <2) of By the definition ofthe cross ratio, 10, 2) = = Hence, the nah side of with espect (15 =) isthe upper half plane. This its ou tution that the rp side es On ot Fight as we walk along & from 1 t0 Oto. ‘Asan cxample consider the following problem: Find an analyte funtion f.G--C, here G = (2: Res > 0} such hat /(G) = D = fe: e)<1)- We Solve this problem by Bauing a Mabius ransormation which fates the imaginary ex onto the unt ee and, by the Orinaton Princip, takes {Gon D hat i me mst howe this map cart i ode that i dee not send G onto {21 > 1). we sive the imaginary axis the oventaton (~1 0,1) then (2: Re 2 > 0} 4s om the ight ofthis ais In at, Hence, {25 Im (s, =, 0, 9 > 0} = fz: Im (2) > 0) = (2: Re 2> 0}, Giving F the orientation (=, 1, ) we have that Dies onthe right of aa, Mat zt wee (E)E) then T = R~'S maps G ont (and the imaginary axis onto 1). By algebraic Imaniatations we have G-i-hoe a [Combining this with previous res we have that ee) = 7! maps the aie sin fs: tn 2] < n2} onto the ops anit isk. (I woth eat mentioning that oo“ nent Prope an se of Astrc Fsons Let 6, be open conneted sts to Uy 10 find an analytic function such that (6) ~ Ge ws try 0 ap BOING, and Gz onto the open uit disk Iris can be done, cam be obtained by taking the composition of one Function with the inverse of the ote [Asan example, let Ge the open st side two tls Py and Ty tr- secting at pointe @ and (a #4). Let be the line passing trough and tn pe Le nation (oy Then To 0, = (2) maps L onto the rel axis (Teo = 1, Ta = 0, T6= «2, Since Toms ay ‘Seles ont cles, Paps Py aod Tomo cites through 0 and ce, Tat Trp and T{C,) ate sist lines, By the use of orientation we have that, TG) = on © aw ») for some # > 0, or the complement of some St closed scion fy thew of an appropiate power of = and possibly & Fotation we can map thi wedge ont the rht half plane, Now, composing tit the map (21) (241)? es a map of G onto D = (ez Th 1. Find the image of (e: Re = <0, fm function, 2'Do exes forthe set (Im 2 < #2} 53 Deus the mapping properties of eos = and in z 4 Deus the mapping popes of and =" form 2. (Hint: we polar foodies) Find the fixed pont of dation, a transation and the inversion on C.: 6 Evatt he following cos ais: (a) 44 10 2) (H) 2. P=. 19) Oh, NEHh ot. ath 11 T = T tnd » <<) under the exponential (in term oF 4B, ste that 8.167: = S18 show tat IR.) ~ Reif we cam choos b,c 40 be real numbers 9. 1072 = S22, find necesary and sufficient condone that TAP) = 1 where Pi the unit circle (el = 1) 0. Let D = {2:[z| <1) ad nd all Mabius uansformations such tat T(@) =. 11. Show that the definition of symmetry (3.17) does not depend on the choice of point 5,35 34, That show that ia. wy areal in then equation (3.18) sais i (2,3. wy) = (reg yw) Hint: Use Exercise 8) 1 Prove Theorem 3.4, 13, Givea dscusion of the mapping fe) = e+ 14 Suppose tht one circle i contained inside another and that they are tangent a he pint a. Let be the region between the two eles and ‘ap. G conformally onto the open unit ik. (Hin sty (=a) *) 1S. Can you map the open unit disk conformally nto {2:0 [2] <1)? IG. Map'G = C~ (#2 —1-= 2 1) onto the open unit disk oy an analytic Sunesion f Caaf be one-one? 17 LetG bea region sod suppose that fi C->€ is analytic such that /(@) i. subset of ctl, Show that constant 18 Let 20 for Rez > 0. (@) Show da fog 1) # defied for Re 2 > O and any real number acess tuo prove that [log (2—19| < Zit Rez > 0, (6 Leth be asin (0) and prove tat Me) = Tmo (a) Show tat i) 108 ¢—0) J fp- re -beti (int: Use the Fundamentat Thoorem of Cletus) {e) Combine) and (to we that, forage = acon 2) as?) (€) loterpret part (6) geometry and show that for Re = > 0 ff) i the angi depicted inthe igure stn) show that $= Tf here nom 2210 compl numer sch that «= Ae, B=, y = 25 = AM DI Ler Thea Mobis tasformation with fed pits 2 an 2S i ‘Matin trasformaton bow that "7s Bae pints 82nd Ss 22 ta) Show that a Mb iansoration fas Oana ws only xed fear beng pd peo ag Ana cons tapings Mobi tatomains ° (©) Show that « Mabiue transformation has of by ( ) |=" show that psa group homomorphism of GL,(C) onto. od) etd Find the ker ofp () Let SLO) be the subgroup of GL(C) consing of all maeces of ssterminant 1. Show thatthe image of ,(C) under all of =4/. What part ofthe kernel ofp SL(0)? F119 ia groupand.4”iea ingroup then Wes tobe anormal aberoup Of FES TSeH" whenever TN" and Se 9 isa siple group ithe ‘only normal subgroups of Fare {/} (= the identiy of 8) and ¥ ise Prove that the group ff of Mobius wansformations a simple group 28. Disuss the mapping properties of (1~27. 29. For complex numbers «and with [a +|h°=1 a= soe el +)80=1). ma (2) Show that U isa group under composition. (6) IF SU; is he Set fall unitary matrices wiih determinant 1, show that SU; is a group under matrix multipication and that foreach 4 in SU There afe unique complex numbers a and ft wth faf-+1Bi=1 and (© Show oa ( . Bats 1 am iomomphise of the group SU; oma U. of a GO) IEE (0,\otefono) et Hall the polynomial of Seree 21, For fn U define 12 yn Hy, by (HTM=)=( Be +0) V(a(2), Show isan invertible inca tansforniation on Hj and wr? an Injetve homomorphise of U ito the group af verte linear transfor rations of onto H 30, For 1< I define /¢2) by seymene| ogo 2))") (2) Show tht f maps = 21-1) conformally ato an annul 6 (5) Fin all Mot eansfortim S42) that ap 2 ot D aed sack pride ert nar elyChapter IV Complex Integration In his chaporrevuts re devised which are fadamental in the study of analyte fintions. "The theorems presented ete constitute one of the pillars ff Mathematics and have far ranging applcaions. ‘1. Riemann Seis integrals ‘We wil begin by defining the RiemannStljes integral in order to define be iteral of «fame ang a path nC. The dscusion ofthis Inept is by no means complet, but lied to thos ress esental 1o {cogent exposition of Line integral ALA Defnan. A funtion 7:(0,8]-»C, for [a.8] © 8 sof Bounded atom it thee iva constant A > Orch thal for any arion P= {a= f9< ty Siricig =) off 3} soir =F dno 5M “The total aration of y, V1) fined by Vio) = sop ty P: Pa partion of C0) Ghaly Vo) = M < tis enaly shown that» i of bounded variation if and only if Re y nd in ye of bounded variation. [ry real value and is non-detresng then of bounded variation and P() = (0)~r4a). (Exercise 1) Ot ‘tampes will be given, ut ist ets give some esl deduced properties of ‘these fonctions 1.2 Propston. Lt yf, 5» € be of bounded aration. Then (a) HP and Q are partons ofa 8) and P< O then oP) = WO) (0) ln A] € te aloof bounded eariation and, Pe © thr = +P0 {sof bounded cariation and Vay 80) = oi e)+18, C0 The poof i ett the rade. ‘The nowt proposition piven wealthy collston of functions of bounded aviation la actuality this the sto functions which of principal cone 13 Proposition, If y:lachh-=C tx picewitewmwwth then yt of bounded cain ond von fvone Rlenane jst ° Proof Assume that y is smooth he complete prool is easly deduced from {hi Recall that when we sa that y 5 smooth this means 7s continuous Let Pa(a= ncn co clan b). Then om the definition, sete ooo -E1f roa if wow = foe Hence V1) < [aso that y sf bounded variation. Since 9 i continuous i i anformly Continuo 90 ie > Oi given we sam choos > Osh that ff = 3y implies that y(@)~y (0) + Alo, ‘we may couse 8, > O such that if P= {a fy < css tq = 5) and Pls max (ues) 2 k= m) <5, then foro $ wean where nis any point i f= fh Hence Joota ses Evonacn, -0+ 5 Preval 24 §] J veo-rends §] fro 19 P< 8=eio(.8) then fy) ¥ COL Foe in Uy and bedH- Joie raiao + Amy) AV Hoh V0.« compen ate: eting «+04, ges Foros s von which is equity 1A Theor Let [a 8)» be of Bounded variation and supose thet file, oe i continua. Thon thre i a complex manber 1 such tht for feet) c= 0 tere a 8 > O such tha when Pm (fo © te Ss ly) periton off with WP = max (Warten ES ks om} <8 th for waster lee of eis fos 5045 ty “This murber Pelle the eral off ll epet toy ver [Band is designated by 1=[ra-~ [anav. Pr, Sef continous is nro: oy, an fd Grae Soe taken 88,2 By ene sh tm A oo) < For enchm 2 1 ofa, Bh with IPI < 5,590 ®, > 9, > o>. Finally define Fy (0 be the ‘Sone of te st ine colton of all partons P 1s (fieatiortiaieed, me iene “The fllowing are claimed to bol f. Foe and 1 21) lam F IF tis i done then, by Cantor’ Theorem (I, 3, tere xaetly on com pice numer such that ef every m= 1. Let us show that his wil Eymplte the proot Hee > O'kt m > (2k) VO; then « > Cin) Vi) = diam Fe Sint e Fs Foy © BUT). Thus, 1f 8 = 8 the theorem is proved Tow to rove (6). The fast that F, > Fy 2. fllows eval fom 2 the fact that 9, > >... «To show that diam Fy = & VG) i suis 2 te show thatthe diameter ofthe set in (1.8) 8 = 2 WG). This done ino stages, ich f which ci although the fs tein Wis thts pains we wil dete By 49s of the oon Settighvti) vty pl where ts amy pant ath ty 17 — Tins andl P= 9; te inst wl show ta <9 tenes 02) ten |9(P)-S(@e HY) We on Bete pl or thea re Q x ebay sno enon tot Pepnd yc, ame ae PolT= Wyse sto) E floolrar-ru-0] 44a 9] + Ho r5)- ve], = thn ng te et hat 0-101 for ehh Is(P)-s(= 3, Veda) He- DISD) Dh POH DLO) £ Eid AeDI+lMCe) MOB =H Hep oH HE 3, Wd Ae-0l + Ebvo Ean «ln For the vsond and ial stage let P ad be any two partons in 9. Then Q'= PUR ina prition and contains both P and Re Using the Bet part wept 1S(7)=S(R)<18(P)-S(01+15(0)-S\RIE2 VU) ee “The next eu follows fom the definitions by a routine «8 argument 17 Proposion, Let and g be continuous facto ona, Bad let 7 and 0 be furcton of bounded sarition on a 8). Then for any salar an () Grey dy = = fs 8 Pedy (©) Seer 4) = oft 8 fe. ‘The flowing i very useful est in cleulting these integrals 18 Proposition, Let y[,b)-+ Che of bounded sariton a et fe be contour Ifa tye ty =e = thon Ie fori fm“The profi ft as an exercise, AAs mas mentioned before, we will mainly be concerned with thos ¥ which ave peventse smooth The following theorem says that inthis case Ine ean ind [fy bythe ethos of integration learned in ales CG eee cee [fra fserreoe Prag Again we only consider the case whete y is smooth. Also, by looking atthe real and irupary pars of y. we rlce the prof w the fase where l4,bD@R, Lete>0 and choose 8 >0 sch tat i See he) has P< thon uso fy — $ seated—Ar) <4 sot tn |frrovina $ searteamter] O was arbitrary, thi completes the proof of the theorem. ‘We have ateady ef» path a8 cominvous Function yf, B]—>C yf] > ta path then test (0): a = ¢ = Bisel the race of y land is denoted it by fy}. Nous ha the trace of path aay a compact ‘ety a recite path iy fa function of Bounded variation. IF Pi a pation of 4 then oy: P) iexaetythe sum of lengths of ine segments onnecting points on the trace of. To say that 7 etfiable iso sy that has finite Teng and ie length is VG). Im particular. i ys seve Emo then 7 retiabl ands length i fa iy: [af =O i a eectiale path wih fy] © EC Cand f: Be ia ontinioun fonction tbe fo continuous faction on [aH With tha in mind the following defi makes sense 42 Detaion. If y: (a, 8)-»€ isa resiable path and f i a function ‘efined and continuous onthe race ofy then the (ne) legal of f along ys frien “This tin integral ako denoted by ff = ff 'AS an example fetus take 7 [0,25] C10 be 4) = e" and dine fa) =! fr £80 Nowy i itera 5, by Thee 19 ve have plan getun anon (ERE SP See mA ib s(1—a for 0511. Then Y(=6 Theorem of Cakes Wwe get that for 30, J, Me =o) Better a= 1 oer a9, “Thereare more example inthe exercises, but now we wl prove a certain invariance” result which, besides being otal computations, arms the ‘bass for ou definition ofa eure. ey: [a bl» € isa rectfable path and ge d}->[a 0] sa continuous nondecrening function whose images all of [a, 8} (Le, gfe) = @ and ‘a) By then yop [ed] -»C isa path wi the same trace a, Moreover Yop b resale because em sy ety coven = d then OH) = la) so" ola) = Biv. patton off, 8). Hen eterno = 09 sot Hy < 16) <= Biff coun on oi a 1.13 Propaton fy 8, 51->€ 0 recifale pth and gf, i 9 conta non-decraung fonction with Simeon f continuous oy} (79) then 5% 1d) = Bs the foray fre fs Frog Uns > Oa coon b> och at fy ey @o eh Parton of wih Gera) 0 sh aL A lg < fy <->" 1) a pation of Te Blwithinen © Asam mee te thenBut gis uniformly continous on, hence therein 8 > 0, wish an be Chosen mh 2b, such tha 9) yi) <8, whenever |s—s'| <8. Sot fhe py esrs< 2) toa parton of [6d] with (=-9) <3 <8 and oe ph then (fe th eee sf) 88 pation of (yb) wih =) Lahey se 24 and ny ='g(o) then both (16) and (1.15) Bod ‘Moreover ie righthand pars of hese two diference are equal! 1 flows oat Wi Les Since «> 0 was arbitrary, equity proved: “We ash dee an squnlece elation 9 th colton of ete pati so tht cach meron equivalence cs has the sae ase and Dt ibe ln tepals untion continous on ths race the se Foe Sch pth in tbe cst would em tat we oud deine o andy to Be Sule ify for some function y a8 above: However th st STegualens in! 116 Defion. Leto: [,d]-»€ and 7: (e ]--€ be retable pats ‘The pth enelonr toy te fone [eh a B) we connuns, sil tatenng. and with ()~ 5, of) =; sh Cat rep We cl te function cans of parameter “Kamen equivalence cla of path The ace of curves the te ofaty an ofits members fiscontnaous on he trae ofthe cre then the Sega af over he cre he gral off oe any rember of the cor "Xcure ir smooth (pevewse smogt) fad onl Hf sme one of 8 representatives smooth pewise st). Ffemarreard, ne wil oe make ths ston betwen a cure an represen fc exesions sch a5 et ye the unit cle tr {Grd ont inte coterlskwsesetion” wil be sed fo inate 2 Sine The vader aoe fo rs tht ars fr cures whch yt ‘Tet ony about pt wi ot be sated Tet yl] = € bea rota path and fora = # = b tbl (OB vegtor Tha tito = 0 wed te pon tf tent noadig nd 8 -» Co bude aa. pec umerer i faiel~ Frist aie. iva vein cvs then ele hy the env died by (794) Riera tees ey ss (=) for ~b = 1 = ~0, Another notation for this it 9. Alb if e« C fet ye dnote the curve dein by (7) (= y4e, The fllowing proposition ges many Basie popets of the line incr 1LAT Proposton. Let y bea rectfiabe cure and suppose tho faction continua ot p)- Then @ fa fof, iL = bin lel = vonsplise (©) Weve then f, fe) d= [flO ds “The prot is lft ay an exes “The nea ells the analogue ofthe Fundamenal Tore of ales Fortine integrals 1 Theorem, Let be open in and ety be avctiale path bx with Ii ad nd pine = ond epectiely. Vf > Ci continu faction witha printive F: GC, then wks Jren@-ne (Recall that Fis primitive of fwhen F” =) “The flowing useful fact willbe neoded inthe proof of this theorem, 119 Lemma fa ope stn © y:[o,b}->G i a reciale pa, end JF.G-€ ts continuous then forever) €0 there ts @polgonal pak TG ‘uch thar Pa) ya) F(@)= 710) and |, JI Proof. Cate 1. Sigpose G iran open disk. Since (7) & a compat st ist((y},86)>0. I follows that if G= Ber then {y) = BCe:0) where The reason for passing this smaller dk that fs unfoemly Continous im B(crp)=6. Hence without love of generality i can bo assumed that fi uniformly continuous on G. Choose 8.0 such that [/G)~s0l0 then Lemma 1.19 implies there isa polygonal path from a to suck that f/f] Bul is pscewise tooth, s0 by Case 1 f= FCB) Fla) Hence ,f-[F(B)- Flake ‘nce 0 ie arirary, the desred equality flo The we of Lemma 119 the proof of Theoret 118 o past from de piecewise snoth cas 1 the reetfiable eas ie typical of many proos of Fess on line integrals, We soll ee applications of Lemma 1.19 inthe Foti "A cure [a 6)» € sti tobe closed i 0) ~ 122 Corllay. Let, y, and fst the same ype a tn Theorem FIG fy ire cored ert then fre Riera tis ema « The Fundamental Theorem of Calsules says that each continuous funtion has a primitive, Theis far fom teing tre for functions of ‘complos variable For example ft 2) = 2? = x22 IF Fis a prime Off thon Fis analytic, So F= U4iV then x43? = PU&+ I). Nom tng the Caucty-Riemann equtions, ww ut SY =o imps that U3) = for some frend Fneion ws But this gives x 4y* = Yo vn, a clear contradiction, Another way to it EF dos not ae iio apy Tee 118 Ge xe Evercbes 1. Lat yf 8) + be non daresing. Show that yi of bounded variation and VQ) = 20x) 2: Prove Proposition 12 3. Prove Proposition 17 44 Prove Proposition 18 (Use induction). 5. Lety() exp (1490!) for 04 © Land 10) ~ 0. Show that y is 4 rosiable path and find V9) Give a rough Sketch ofthe race of Show this f, B)->C ts 8 Lipechite function then yi of bounded 1 Stow at 1-6 dy 19 = 4 a Hr 40 a 40) ~ 0, a path but i ot etal, Sketch ths pth Let and o be the two polygons [i and [ly i} Express 7 and o as pats and caleulate ff and ff where P 98 Dafne (025] ~ Cy i) = xp it) where isonet (postin negative © 20). Show tat |! de = 2 10, Define (9 = e* for O = 1s 2eand dd f, UL Let y be the closed polygon [I= Ubi [oe 12. Let He) = I © a where [0 «] > € is dati by 90) = re”. Show for every inte fy ct=t Tai Find 2°! de where 3)» i the upper lf ofthe wit cre fom 1 (oyy the ler lf of he eel fom 110 =18. Pov hat ig fa ln x cominous and ya) = 8) = 4 then vonsone iy iy ines 1S"Shw ta th latin in eso 1.16 a equivalenst elation, Te Show tty and ware seat eta ats then 7) =H If Show te fy fs > a path then te an equ th write {a Fre Popotion 1B.te ts pot of Cas | of Lem 119, where wa theasumpson hat iesteaaik wat 20. Let f) = Ite" for 0 = ¢ = 2w and find J, 7—1)"" Bt Latha deh ne S12 sand nd i) By Sellout aa Fae poe or > Cand Cis ont deo thoe conta csc tat AO) = €46,6) foreach in Sere ned ital cunen Ganda Show hal or 22 fice, 1 adewng eration by para Lt and be ana otadiay eercuncorcane toma obing Ten] fe = 100)" Foon“. 42, Power sre representation of analyte Fncins In this section we wil tata function f, ante in an open et, ‘nas poner sere expansion aboot each pia af In particular, an apayic Function i itely dere ‘We bei by proving Leis rule from Advanced Caleus 21 Propaton, Le ¢ fa Blo d-> € Bea comimous fiction and define Bled chy : ee ee comma, Morne etn ots jn (eid ctl fern md 2 vo=fitana ‘Proof The proof that gi continuous eft akan exercie, Notice that we prove tha i dferentinbl with given by formala 2.) then it wil fallow fom fs part ha come sae cota He _ Fi point fein (c,d and Jet « > 0, Denote by gy it ftows ‘hat most te uniformly condauows on fa, 8c Thus, there a8 > 0 such that p's eG, 0] <« whenever (ene) e nr)? € be analyte and supese Bla») < Ge > 0. fm arte! 0-5 2 then at [ 29" 5) =e for lend 0; then therefean integer such that Fo) FCW) < V9) forall won fy] sadn > 3 Bat ths es, by Proposion 1.170), a 4 fo) Fo vwhencver #2 28 Theorem, Let f be anatle n Bla: RY: then fC) Ret = 1%) esa ofoegne = ho Ut ia continuous feetion And deine ¢: GC by Fn ae eh teed 10 [Zine 3. Suppose tat yi retifiablecve in C and pis tne and cominvous tn (yh Use Exersne 2 to show hat, o-[ ts nce Pon fata 4. (9) Prove Abel's Theorem: Let Sa, (2—0 have eas of convergence 1 fad spose that Sa converges to. Prove that (tin: Find summation formu wich the asogse of tgationby {Bc Ades Theorem to poe Siete power seer expan of 1G the por series expansion of about = = 1 and find sais of Use te rel ofthis ecto to eat the following nears: fae nome Ostsie Of ae ee Use a Mois transformation to show tht Proposition 2.15 holds ithe dlsk Ba; ) is replaced by aha plane ‘9. Use Corll 2.13 to evluate the following itr ® f SSE de where mis postive integer and (9 = €8,0.5 1 23 of where mis a postive integer and 0) = e",0 <1 = 23 “ ei Incas of partial festion) o| 10, Exaoste de where 0) = 14468, 0 21 = ™ HO) = T4504, 0 5 05 Oe ea) vals of °c p< 2and2 to The punbersBy, = (If !an ar clled the Bernoull numbers form 1 Cabeulate Bs Bee Byy TH Find the power series sxpunion of tan 2 about 2 ~ 0, expressing the oofcents in terms of Beroul uber. (Hit: use Exercise 13 and the formula cot 22 = 4 cot 2} tan ° {5. Zero ofan analytic faction Ao) and (2) ae 190 poms then A well Lows ht olay) whe 0) sod ask pon an te dee a ics tan he dep of 9g pure sch Cat 7) then chow 0 for 90) Hees, 3 i) an) mt Ben chat pom ft ngs =a pen = pn Mol tnasch Ite sho hve hats) = we ean ft 2 cite we eee ea) whe oe pe oC, Tahoe aon th hat 1) 40. Ao. epee) = epee me SL Dean 1:6 € ani amd an Gain) = 0 ten 2 Iu Sowopf of min m 2 Treas eto #0 Santa oe ec aret) wae aa) 2 ‘Rowse dncesn of pam weave hat he mlihity of Sa pao must has han dee fhe poi 12 ZR Sopes ee pobuoml g@) an a a eal te Sti Bevel iene) = Camporese mee) pom Tin af Now ie Fans Romem eA yy at cnet ne rer icant, Hence i wecan ove hs ou e CaP cel emp ig) the pc Seger The lr mi be pany sured 0 know hat Sera esa thing Moma ih oo he eld Seon be enamel Tene Agha i ts maa 0 Seen oa abot aay anton. Ie ahd coment 0 de wee ew rst. {42 Definition. An entire facto i a fonstion which is defined and analytic in the whele complex plane C. (The term “integral function” is aso sed) The following result follows fom Theorem 28 and the fact that C contains (0: A) for ariel large R 3.3 Proposition. If am ent fmt then Fas a power series expansion fo, sith init radu of comerene. In ight ofthe preceding proposition, entire fantions can be consider ‘as polynomials of inte degre”, So the question are’ can the tory of polyomials be generalized to care functions? For example, can an entre Function be factored? The anover to this felt and i postponed to Section VIL Another peoperty of polyomialf that no non constant polynomial is bounded. Indeed, i p(2)= 240,12" 4-0" bay the Tim pt) = i = [e024 hag "} = The fat that this also ‘holds for esive functions is an extremely useful result, 34 Lowe's Theorem. If @ bounded entre function then fi constant Proof. Suppose |/() = M for all =a ©. We wl show that /'@) = 0 for al in C- To do this wre Catcy’s Estimate (Corliary 2.1), Sine f 6 nate in any disk B(e;R) we have that (73) = MR. Since R was sr ‘rary, it flows that f"G) 0 foreach 2 in Ch "Tne reader should not be decived into thinking that this theorem ie insigaicant because it has such a short proof. We have expeaded great eal ofeffort bung up machinery and nereasing our knowledge of analytic Tunetions. Wehave lowed, pantd and fetlind; we shouldnt be sured i, ocasionaly, something avalable for easy Picking. iouile’s Theorem wil be better appreciated in the Folow 35 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. If p(2) 1 @ non constant polynomial ‘the there ia complex number awh (a) = 0. Proof. Suppose 2) # 0 forall: and fet fc) [2's then fa etre function, fp not constant then, a5 was shown above, lim p(2) = <5 50 lim (2) = 0. tn particular, there js a number R > 0 such that [f2)| , Botfis continous on BO; R) 0 ther a constant AY sch that [y) = Arfoe |= R. Hence fis Bounded and, therfore, must be constant ‘by Liooil’ theorem It follows that p mst be const contracting ovr assumption. 36 Corll. If 2) i @ polynomial and a, Jrving map ky the fond Ky ees thy i the dee ofp Returning the alogy tween enti functions and polynomial the{ese shuld be warned tha hs canot Be aken oo fer. Fo exam ip polyoma and ac € then re nomber = wilh 2) ~ en ah thi fonts Tom the Fundameatal Tsorr of Agee by considering he Fobnonia me: Honor te exponent ibn fst hve tis rest docs no ume the ale sero, Novels, we ae ale TD tow ia th the wort tat can happen. That uncon aac in emia at most one vale Ths is known Paar Lie Theorem 28 wit te proved ler) Moron, no one sold fein to make an any Teiweca antic enon in an open Gand pomp defined 09 {Cotati you soul Oly nko the polysomiat as defined on ee goee (Moet (els < t)omoG = (Re 0). The zeae Nowe that cf fare he pins P=3:w oh: 50 a ininsy many see ere 2 However, as n> <0 the Ztos approaéh | whichis notin the domain of Atalay D.This i the sory forthe most general ese £7 Theorem, Let G bea connected open et and tf. —»€ be an ona ‘incon, Thon he following oe wqiclent semen sao; (8) re pol ain Gach tha f(a) = foreach m = 0: (0) tee: f= 0) has a ipo in. Proof. Ceaety (0) iples bth (9) a8 (2) (0) imps (0): Let a= and a Tat poin of 2 (ee Gf) = 0) and lt R> Oe sch that Bla; = (Since oa init pin f 2 and continuo ital that) = 0 Suppose there an integer 21 30ch tha 0) = (2) == fM) So and ote) 0. Expanding fia power sents about eves hat Sac-ot fe, forle-a RIF we = $ ae-at then gis ara in Bl 2) = Ear), ad Pi Vlabaetan ctor noon) a Aas we stein gc) 2D forsnal cr But se ha Tmt pit of 2 hee PERI in) 0 and 0< pret Ths pres = aR) Bay) bea comvann Hence no woh mt mean te Found is prs at “Py pet Let A (2 6: fe) 0 fall» 0, eo the hea eHow soe tat A th OPEN land closed in G; by the connstedass of wil follow that A mus be G nd tof = 0. Tose that isclowed Jel ¢ A~ and let 3 be sequence in 44 such that = = lim a Since cach /° is continaods it folows that P= lin f%(G) = 050 2¢4 and A is close, “Tose that Ais ope, lta A and let R> O be oh that Ba: R) © G. Ta Ra Paleaoh bed Ree A) heat 120 ee fe) = 0 for alin Bl) and, coment, Bie = A “hs 4 isopet adthiseompets he rota the ore 38 Cory, Ifa re rai on rein G then f= BU Ke He) = a) ha bt pit 6 Jain en pt hen em 39 Conia 1/1 anion open comected Gan 1 mt tet ety the for ech ain ih) ~ tare anger 2 ad an aie fction Gch tht) # and fl) ~ a) forall. Fin Tar eh sr of ha finite mie Pron Let mb the ages inter (1 such hat f°“ £6) = (€-0)'YE) for: # aan gt) = 3%) Ten gis leary anatic in lato that anand only shown to be aac in peghorood of This b acomplnbed by bing the method ofthe roo th ps (inthe ore 210 Corl. fC tear and ot contin 2° G8 fe) = 0 ihenheris an R> Ooch ha Ba 8) © Cand) ¢ OfrO = 2-0) R ‘Proof By the above theorem the ze off are toate. ‘Theres one nstance whe the analogy between pojnomis and analytic functions works in revere. That thee is» prope of anal anetions hick is nots transparent for polynomials ‘11 Maximum Modalas Theorem. 1G a egon and Q-> €i an anayie Poction sch tha threo pita G with fla > [f() for ll =, them Fur conson, Proof Let postion 26 0 and deine 1G, oo) = are for 0 = 15 Bu; according to Prov Poy = 3 [Oa wfresne© Compo nepton Hence vrais vee =0 | =. 0= fi-lses ema tice the itgrand i non-mptve i folows at [fo = fe FSET Mowe ra ry, meh tt {ap tho Bc Cit the ee | ~ wher «= fl But ships ht ae ie’ es ) (Execs Ue 1a part () = fr [smal SeAcconing to Coolary 38.) = ML 4st the Masia Modus Theorem, 3 ns-consant ana uncon ons wegion vant ase sania modus thi at fa feos even inte seo plysomiah. The consequences of ths {ica eaching soto ie along wih s oer examination of Be Summum odluy Trem, are prs Chapter VI. (Acta, {he ener ats point can posal Yo Secuors VL Tad VI 2) Execs 1 be an ete fncton ad seo here acosan M, a8 > 0, Tea eg wat sucht (10) © Al fo > Show Ut fi iyaomil of Sore SeGaean example tosh hat G mus Be asumed to be comet ia Theorem 37 Fda ee futon sch bat fo) = fo oR Prove hat e=t ety sping Coon 38 Prove at on (od) = cosecond snes by aplying Croiay 38 Beg ee eegon and suppose ha /'G-—€ amie and a6 ach that fy stoi forall em Show that ei fl) ~ 0 oF conta eee es emery oot of te Maximum Modulus There fr soma BYTES a eon and kt an ¢ be anu fueions on G sich hat Fee) = Dforal sng, Sw tt cer Dong = 8 SMe om be a hams function sch ha prove tht U ie conta {o Show that if and ee aa Functos on a ein @ such ha fit Analy ths ener 8 conan o = 2 forall sin: M4 The indes ofa clsed curve We have already shown tha 1,42 7 4.1 Proposition. 17710, I]-+0 i cloted rete cure anda ¢ (9) then si an integer. Proof. Tiss only proved under the hypothesis tht i smoot. In his ease define x10. P>€ by Mes 0) sn 0 ¢- a", We ao hve at fom tw oss hye Mra) (vray x-a)] So e°"(y~a) is the consant function © €-*(y() 2). Since O)= 1) we bave tha for some igs 4 (0)~ a) = 70) a corthat g(0)= 25k 442 Definion. I i closed etiiable curve in € then for @¢ (4) scaled the inde of y ith respestf0 the pont a, I is also sometimes Called the wading omber of yarn Recal tat fy. I}=Ci8 a cure, —y ory ‘isthe curve defined by (andmr(t=1) this is acuallyreparametnzation of the. orignal ‘efntion). Also if and o are curves defined on [0,1] with 1())=0(0) then 7a i the curve (7Fo}G)=72H HO=t= | aad (7+ aN)~ell— 21) it} 51/21. The prof ofthe folowing proposition inlet to the reader. 43 Proposition. 1fy ond o are cord rctifiabe curves having the same ‘nial poms then (@) atyco)= = n(~ y) for every 08 (1): (6) acy Fo:a)=a(yeay+m(oca for every 2 fy) uta). Why is mya) alld the winding numberof y about a? As was said before yipmate™ for O51 1 then niysa}=n. infact tbea)ch them aty:A)—m and if ol then mty-by=0. Ths can be shown Siecly wr one cam invoke Thsorcts 44 Beko, So at ast in thi ene In¢ysb) aveasares the tumbet of tines y rape stound b= with the mas® Cone eon “The following discussion i intutve and mathematical imprecise Aca with ite more sophistication this sscusson can be corrected {ind pve insight into the Argument Paneple (V3), ify smoot then ae [1a [ene firma “aking inspiration rom els one i ped wit (2a) losly(s)alfz}. Since y(1)= (0), this would always give zero. The diffi {hy ns at that 9() 2 complex valued aod unless (= as sn repon on whch nant fie fgatin ane defied the abore itapoton tras otto be oly so much ots In fact i wraps round thpont then we exo deine laa) soe ter Bo aay branch fhe logarhan died on = ‘verte there is conet inert of the preceding dc sin Me nk of Tog?—iogs args died then f(e=0) ae ~og|y()~6] te 10)~a)= {log|y(1) ~a|~log)y(0)—a}} +4 argl y(1)—2] —ara{ 7(0)—a]} Since the ily in deting log: is in choosing the comet vale of Ses wean thik of pr ofthe lt eresion ab eq 0 0 Sissy) it most bo hac even withthe amp in dting aes, Saedyeayanda( a] mos sual an ner mole of 2. od itera i ger cout th mmber of mes y Wraps around a tery be lve resale curve tnd cose the open st G=C— (a); Stee (4) Beompoc! [> R)e0 for some sulfoeny lage {ils prot hos one and only one bounded componen 44 Theorem, Ler y be a ced rectifiable cures in ©. Then ma) ‘stem fr belonging 6a component of G= C= (7). Also, n(y.0)=0 for (belonging tothe unbounded component of 6 Proe.Delse f:6- by F(a)=n(y:2). wl be show that fis contin fou, if this done then st follows that f(D) is connected for cach omponent of G- But since f(G) is coataned in the st of integers i follows that f(D) redces 1 9 singe point. Thats constant on D. "To show that / continuous real thatthe components of Gare open (Theoeem 29) Fina in @ nd let ra. (y}) M Ja b]<8< fr then Waystby= xe fea) any Je] Lf Ws HE ik aie But for |a~0)< fr and = on (y} we have that |2alz > and le— b> }r. I fotos that [/(a)—((b).< 25 Vp. So if €>0 im piven ten, by chosing 84 be smaller than {rand (2r')/26V(7), we se that / smust be continuous. (Abo, see Exercise 23.) [Now let U te the unbounded component of G. As was mentioned ‘fore the theorem there an A >0 suet that U>(z%|=|>R}. It e>0 hoowe @ with [al>R and |=—o|>(2x)""V(y) uniformly for = on (7) ‘hen ina) ces That i n(7:) 0 sk 220. Since m0) i Constant on Ui must be eo. mb Exercises 1. Prove Proposition 43, 2. Give an example ofa closed recsiable curve 7 in € such that for any integer there its point a [y} With eye) 3a pz) bea polynomial of degre and 1st RO be sulicienty large fo tnatp never vanishes in |e) =). y0)= Rev O's 2 show that I ocey 4. Fix w=re20 and let y be a recifiable path in C~ (0) from 1 10 Show that thre ean integer sch hat (2 de logy ++ Dk 8S, Caney’: Theorem and Integral Formae ‘We have already proved Cavshy’s Theorem for functions analytic 2 disk: 4G san open disk then |,f=20 for any anaticfeneton fon G and any closed rectifale curve yin (Popostion 2.15} For which regions © docs his result remain Vala? There are regions foe which the rest i fake. For example. if G=C.~(0) and fly=2 "then y0)=e" for 05S 2e pve that | =2et. The dfclty with C~ (0) isthe presence of hole Gamay (0}) To the next sections wll be shown that j,f=0 for every nate function fand ever eloed reculiable curve y isegons © that ‘hve no “oles” Inthe preient section we adopt a diferent approach. Fix a region G sand an analy fonction fon GIs thee a condos ona closed reviable Survey sch that |,/=0? The anawers farmed by the index af With Fespect 10 points utsde (Before presenting ths result we neat he following lemma (This has aleady been sen i Exercise 23) Si Lemma, Let he o reiiahle care ond appoe i a fnction defined ‘and continoat om (7). or cach ma | let Fats) [pte 2) for Paty) Then each Fy i anabiisom C--[y} and age) hg 2) Proof. We fis chim tat exch continuo nf, his fll i the ‘tne vay that we shred thatthe lex was continuo ce the prt of Theorem 44) One need nls where thal sie (comple gSo Compe neeaon bounded there; and use the Tatrization 1 Gate ay The deta are eft to the reader ‘Now fx aia G=C~[y) and et = 6, 2,1 fooms rom (5.2) that Fal e0ui(n—ay! 3 Fal Fal) _ OHO yg. eames fae Since a (y), fw -0)"* continuous on {y) foreach k. By the fist pat of thn proof (the part lft tothe reader, each integral on the right and side of (6.3) defines s continuous faneton of = mG, Hence ting nna (S3) gies that the lit exists and wo) en) recay= [att a7 Se Se mink 0) ‘54 Cauchy's Integral Formula (Fist Verslon). Lt G be open subse! of the plan and fC an amabcfcton 17s cloned veal cree In ouch ha ny) =0 forall» in CC. then for ain G= (7) atyaistay= 3b [Be Proof, Define ¢:G x 6-26 by gle.) =LF(2)~f9]/(2—m) ifs and lety=/to). Wi follows tht q 8 contiauous: and for each w in G se ptew) w analytic (Exercise, Lat Hm (we C:n(y29)=0}, Since Gn) a continuous inteervaied function of w. i open. Moreover HUG=C by the hypats Define #3020 by gem lop(enw)d sf 2¢G and a(2)= (4 Wounded 20H. Ize GH then ffsonrtnn [POO ay eer _ Hence 84 welldeined fart Hemnyseits cacnys ee s By Lemma 5.1 gis analytic on C; that ig is an ene funtion. But ‘Theorem 44 implies that H coniais neighborhood of 2010 Since f is bounded on (7) ad Jig (w--2)”"™=0 uniformly for w in fy) 7 vn cere tn f Lane In particular (55) implies there is an A >0 such that [g(2)) <1 for 2 R' Since gis ounded on (0, R) it folows that gina bounded eatize function. Henee constaat by Lowill’s Theorem. But then (©) sy that g=0. That sf a ©G™ (1) then o= [te [8 ‘This proves the theorem. HL ‘Otten there is & need fora more general version of Cauchy’ Integral Formula that involves moe than one curve. For example in dealing with an annolis one needs a formula involving wo cues ‘5.6 Cauchy's ntgral Formula (Second Version. Le bean open subi of the plane anf: G= an andi funtion Hy are loved vetabe ares tn G sich that nyse) °F MC jai n)=0 Jo all w in CG them fran ont) oe 140) & nc o- Sab [Ba Proof The roo! fllows the ines of Theorem 54, Define (2) a it was ‘done there and ft Am (weaCyiw) ton tags) =O). Now gC) ‘elined a 8 the proot of (58) excep thatthe sum ofthe integrals eet “ove used. The remaining detalls ofthe prot are Ie othe reader, ‘Trough an easy coroiary of the preceding theorem, the ext cesul is ‘very important inthe development ofthe tery of asi funtion 8:7 Cauchy's Theorem (Fst Version). Let G be an open subset ofthe plane ‘nd: G-20 an anatomy. Yar closed reciiable cares in Gch tha nsw) > ygsw)=0 fr all win GG then Efe Prof. Sota f(24 0 foe fin Theotem $6. Tet im {21 Ryle Re) and line curves y nd i @ by y(0)= raeterdtimne foe OF rte, where Rye ht Ry ME bel RySonne) iad Dm — msm i ol 2 Ry then ad me “Fat 0) $0 for all w in C6. {88 Theorem, Let G he an ope subst ofthe plane and f= on ana function I Yooh are ced recable cures in G such shat ny8) ee trai) 0 for all win CG then for @ in GC} and 1 ‘oe eS So f_fe 04a) 3 atrovent gt, f LO, ea Prof. This follows immediatly by diferentting both sides of the fr slain Theorem 5.6 and appbing Lemma 31. $59 Corry. Le G be an open set and f:G—-C an anal function. IF i elo recite cure te G ch thal my) = forall in CC then forain- (7 \ CCavchy’s Theorem and Integral Formula is the basi rest of complex analysis, With rest that 50 fondamentl loan entire theory itis osalim mathematic to seeh the outer mir of he theorem’ tality. ‘re there thee functions that siy f=0 for al closed carves y? The ‘answer sno atthe following converse to Cauehy's Theorem shows "A sowed path i si o be wena i is polygonal and hs thee sides 5.10 Morra's Tacoren. Let G be @ region ad fet f: C= be a continous Junction sich that |f=0 for eer angular pth Tin Gi then Janae We. Prof Fis bere that [wil be shown tobe analyte it ean be proved {tis aalye on each open disk contained in G. Hence, without fs of general. we may assume 6 tobe an open disk; sippore G= B(a: Use the hypothesis to prove that fs a primive, For zn @ dele (2) fey Pit zy it Gi then foray point = in the hypothesis ves that Foal th Hence Fe)-Fla) This gives Fer Bot by taking absolte values hich shows that Exeries 1, Suppose /:G-+€ is analytic and define 9-6 X6-+€ by (2.8) =L/(2) = skew)" and g(3.2)=/E) Prove hat gis continuous and foreach ted, 2-ap(z 7) anal 2" Give the deals of the poof of Theorem 56, B Let B= B(= 1:2), G= BO: 3)=(B, UB) Let tyros be cures Whose aces are [2~Ii=, e+ ll=1, and [s~2 respectively: Give 7, ye 8nd yy eneations such hat a,c) m(ym)-+m33¥) =O for al wT ce 44 Show thatthe Integral Formula follows from Cauchy's Theorem. 5: Lety be dsed rectfiable curve in © and.a@[), Show tht for 22 jena a=. 6! Lethe analytic on D= B(t 1) and suppose | Woy st 7. Let topes 8° La G be a region and suppose (,:G-4€ is analyte for each m2 Suppose that (converges unsflormiy to funeonf°G-oC Show thet / is analtc. 5 Show that f:€-sCis continuous function sich thet fs analyte off [= 1.1] hea sis an enie fenton 10. Use Cachys Interral Formula to prove the Cayley-Hanilton Theo- rem: IA s an xn matrix over and /()=de(s~ A) i the characte tie polynomial of then t)=0. (The exercise was taken from © paper BYE. A. MeCarhy, Amey. Mach Months. 82 (1973), 390-381), 1 fo |e} <1. Show +e" for 05125, Find j,(—=7)" defor all postive ine $6 The homotopic cerson of Cauchy’ Theorem and simple comectity “This section presens a condition om closed curve y such that /,f=0 for an analytic function. Ths condition i ese geeral but more geomeie ‘han the winding amr condition of Tasore $7. Ths condition false tse to intadace the concep of # simply nected region a simply oonnested region Cauchy's Toren all ow every analte function an every ehned retable eave. ete shntate the condition: By* copes nernion ‘onsderng a closed recifiale carve in lish a region where Cauchy's Theorem i always valid (Proposition 215) et G= B(a: R) aad let 7:[0,I]-+6 bea closed rctfiable curve. If Orel and Osi, and we put 2=104{I— drt: then # les on the ‘Srgh ine segment from to 73). Henee,z must hie in G: Let y(s)= 02 Tron) for 02521 and DES 1S, yay and yy the cane constantly equal ta the cues y, ate somewhere in between. We were ‘ble to daw y down tog because there were no hols. Ifa point inside» ‘were missing Irom G (imagine sick protruding up from the disk with ts ‘bse inside), then a8 y shrinks it would get caught on the lean could not goto the constant cue {64 Denon. Let y.9:(0, 11-26 be to closed rectiiable curves in & Fetion G then ys homie Wo , 8 Gil tere sa continuous function 0, 1}<(01}>G such tht F(aO)m yds) and M31 FaN=FL9 @srs1) So if we define 10 I-06 by 1(0)= (the each» i closed curve ad tn for contour aly of ees ch Sa 7 AB BD to'y, Note however that ere sno sequrement at each, Be Tecate In practice when yy andy, ae cet (or smoot) each of they wl alo be reciable (oot. TFs ontop toi 6 write m7 Actua notation sah son 1H) shold be ued eet ofthe ra of Ite ange fF ot ‘uted tobe nC then, av we shal se shorty all curves would be Fomotop However, uns thee ithe pons of oafusion. we will only we eee HW ore how tat “~" i an equlence ration. Clety any carve shomotoie el. yy and Ff oC sates (2) then deine Agen) =T(e-d) ose that yyy Finally, i yy, and rev nh satyng (62) and 40,110 so sahing AGO 0) 5851) 62 20) A.D = 469, and NOA= AULA) for alls and 4 define 0, I< [ajsoby (rian ozrs} [Maan atest “Then is cominuous nd shows that y= Hs 63 Detain. A set i comes if given any two points and bin the Tine segmeat joining a and h (2.8) ies entirely in G. The et Gis star Shaped sf there a point ain G sch that fr each sin, the line segment [a2 his entirely mG. Cleary each conver set Say shaped bat the converses jst a clea ae, We wll say that isa str shaped i [a.c]=-G whenever = © G.I Gis ‘2 sia shaped and 2 and w ae pois in G then [=a.»] a polygon in ‘connecting and w. Hence, ech star shaped st connected {64 Proposition. Lt G be a ope set which & a sar shaped. If the curs mach econ eat a then every closed ecifable curcein Gi Ihomorpie Ye Proof Let, be a closed retfible curve in G and put Tes) rno)+ (07a, Betause Gis a star shaped, Ts.) 2G for 5,15 1 Tis esy 0 See that Panties (6.2 The situation in which a uve is homotopic ta constant care it one that we wil often encounter. Hence it convenient wo node sone new terminology {65 Definition fy i closed retfiale curve in G then 7 is home to zero (y~0) Hy 18 homotopi oa canstant cue {66 Cauchy's Theorem (Second Verlan). 1/f:G-+€ an ana fartion land is a cloedretiable crc 6 Fuh that yD, then [rn ‘This version of Cauchys Theorem would follow immediatly from the frst versio if it eould be shown that n(yin)=0 for all in CG. whenever y~0. This can be done. A plausible argument proceeds as follows Let yey ana let yy be constant curve such thal -~ yy Let satity (62) and define he)= yew where y(G)=T 0) foe OS a0 51 and Fed in C~ G. Now show tat fi continuous om [1]. Since he integer valued and 0)=0 1 mst be that A) =. Tn particular fy) =O forall wine. The only point of dfcuky with this argument that for O 0 and theresa integer sch haf (03 H(0—1 8 < then Ineo=ne 2

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