Shallow Foundations The most important thing isto Keep the most important thing the most important thing. Shallow foundations are those that transmit structural loads to the near-surface soils These include spread footing foundations and mat foundations. This chapter introduces both types of foundations, then Chapters 6 to 10 discuss the various geotechnical and structural design aspects, 5A SPREAD FOOTINGS A spread footing (also known as a footer or simply a footing) isan enlargement a the bot- fom of a column or bearing wall that spreads the applied structural loads over a suffi. ‘iently large soil area. Typically, each column and each bearing wall has its own spread footing, so cach structure may include dozens of individual footings Spread footings are by far the most common type of foundation, primarily because oftheir low cost and ease of construction. They are most often used in small to medium. Size structures on sites with moderate to good soil conditions, and can even be used on Some large structures when they are located at sites underlain by exceptionally good soil Or shallow bedrock. Spread footings may be builtin different shapes and sizes to accommodate individ Wal needs, as shown in Figure 5.1 These include the following: * Square spread footings (or simply square footings) have plan dimensions of BXB. ‘The depth from the ground surface to the bottom of the footing is D and the thick= ‘ess is 7. Square footings usually support a single centrally-located column, 145other str of the € cannot t rotate ar oO footing) nected t the ecce a strvett Materiz Before t shown i specific from rar lite ten ural sire Al large an example Chicago 1948). # that wer Tt Chicago includec the steel modifies They pr Combined ing shapes and dimeasios. Figure $1 Spread «+ Rectangular spread footings have plan dimensions of BxL. where L is the longest dimension. These are useful when obstructions prevent construction of a square footing with a sufficiently large base area and when large moment loads are preset «+ Circular spread footings are round in plan view. These are most frequently used foundations for light standards, flagpoles, and power transmission fines. If thest foundations extend to a large depth (.e., D/B greater than about 3), they may be hhave more like a deep foundation (see Chapter 11).ations agest uate sent “das hese | ‘spread Footings 147 *+ Continuous spread footings (also known as wall footings o strip footings) are used to support bearing walls, + Combjned footings ate those that support more than one column, These are useful ‘when columns are located to0 close together for each to have its own footing, + Ring spread footings are continuous footings that have been wrapped into a circle. This type of footing is commonly used to support the walls of above-ground circu Jar storage tanks. However, the contents of these tanks are spread evenly across the total base area, and this weight is probably greater than that of the tank itself. There fore, the geotechnical analyses of tanks usually treat them as circular foundations with diameters equal to the diameter ofthe tank. Sometimes it is necessary to build spread footings very close to a property line, an- other structure, or some other place where no construction may occur beyond one or more of the exterior walls. This circumstance is shown in Figure 5.2. Because such a footing ‘cannot be centered beneath the column, the load is eccentric. This can cause the footing to rotate and thus produce undesirable moments and displacements in the column, One solution to this problem is to use a strap footing (also known as a cantilever footing), which consists of an eccentrically loaded footing under the exterior column con nected to the frst interior column using a grade beam. This arrangement, which is similar to a combined footing, provides the necessary moment in the exterior footing to counter the eccentric load. Sometimes we use grade beams to connect all of the spread footings in structure to provide a more rigid foundation system. Materials Before the mid-nineteenth-century, almost all spread footings were made of masonry, as shown in Figure 5.3. Dimension-stone footings were built of stones cut and dressed to specific sizes and fit together with minimal gaps, while rubble-stone footings were built from random size material joined with mortar (Peck etal, 1974) These footings had very litle tensile strength, so builders had to use large height-to-widh ratios o keep the flex- ural sitessestolerably small and thus avoid tensile failures Although masonry footings were satisfactory for small structures, they became Jarge and heavy when used in heavier structures, often encroaching into the basement. For example, the masonry footings beneath the nine-story Home Insurance Building in Chicago (built in 1885) had a combined weight equal to that of one ofthe stories (Peck. 1048), As larger structures became more common, it was necessary to develop footings that were shorter and lighter, yet still had the same base dimensions. This change required structural materials that could sustain flexural stresses. The steel grillage footings used in the ten-story Montauk Block Building in Chicago in 1882, may have been the firs spread footings designed to resist flexure. They included several layers of railroad tracks, as shown in Figure 5.4. The flexural strength of the steel permitted construction of a short and lighweight footing. Stee! grillage footings, Modified to use T-beams instead of railroad tracks, soon became the dominant design, ‘They prevailed until the advent of reinforced concrete in the early twentieth century.Chapter 5 Shallow Foundations . Interior Colman Exterior Column eeenic tats Footing) Figure 5.2 Use fa strap footing to support xeror cola when costco canaot extend beyond the property line Figure 5.5 shows a typical reinforced concrete footing. These are very strong, ¢¢0- nomical, durable, and easy to build. Reinforced concrete footings are much thinner than the old masonry footings, so they do not require large excavations and do not intrude into basements. Thus, nearly all spread footings are now made of reinforced conerete. Construction Methods Contractors usually use a backhoe to excavate spread footings, as shown in Figure 54 ‘Typically, some hand work is also necessary to produce a clean excavation. Once the && cavation is open, it is important to check the exposed soils to verify that they are compat ble to those used in the design. Inspectors often check the firmness of these soils using 51 Spread Foo Figure 53 (2) Dimensio nd) Rubble stone foot Fig Chics eckrallow Foundations ery strong, eco sch thinner than ‘not intrude into 1 in Figure 56. 1. Once the ex- ¥y are compare se soils using # Spread Footings Mi 88 ei 149 FigureS3 and () RaeChapter 5 Cola 4 Dowels Capital, Pie, or Pedestal (Optional) Reinforced. Concrete Footing Figure 5. Reinforced concrete spread footing 9-mm (3/8 in) diameter steel probe. Ifthe soil conditions are not as anticipated, especialy if they are too soft, it may be necessary to revise the design accordingly ‘Most soils have sufficient stzength to stand vertically until itis time to pour the con- crete. This procedure of pouring the concrete directly against the soil is known as pouring 4 neat footing, as shown in Figure 5.7a, Sometimes shallow wooden forms are placed above the excavation, as shown in Figure 5.7b, so the top of the footing is at the proper el evation. Ifthe soil will not stand vertically, such as with clean sands or gravels, it is mec ‘essary to make a larger excavation and build a full-depth wooden form, as shown in Figure 5.7c. This is known as a formed footing. (Once the excavation has been made and cleaned, and the forms (if needed) are in place, the contractor places the reinforcing steel. Ifthe footing will support « wood of steel structure, threaded anchor bolis andor steel brackets are embedded into the cond Figure 6 backhoe making an excavation fora spread footing Figure 5:7 Medios of p sings: (2) Nest excavats ‘Yaion vith wooden for Famed footing with forms. crete, For co: that they ext ‘umn or wall crete is plac ‘completed sp 52 MATS ‘The second ty is essentially the structure. forced concresundations ‘6:1 ” Spread Footings sspecially Ne Esc tthe con: s pouring re placed oroper el- shown in 6) are in wood or the con Figure 8.7 Methods of placing concrete in ‘octings (a) Neat excavation, (b) Neat exca vation with wooden forms atthe top. fe) Formed footing, with fall-depth wooden rete, For concrete or masonry structures, short steel rebats, that they extend above the completed footin ‘umn or wall steel. Chapter 9 discusses the: crete is placed and, once ‘completed spread footing alled dowels are placed such ig, thus providing for a lap splice with the col- 's€ connections in more detail. Finally, the con. it has cured, the forms are removed. Figure 5.8 shows a 52 MATS {ihe second type of shallow foundation isa ma foundation as shown in Figure 59, A mat the cently a very large spread footing that usually encompasses the enlite footprint of fhe sitcture. They also are known as raf foundations. They are always made wt ny forced concreteChapter 5 Shallow Foundations Bearing Pi F conditi “1 a “T w T +7 oa Figure SA completed spread foting. The four bots extending out of the foting will he conmected othe bse pate fa ste] column, Me types of supportec (6310) be 53 BEARING P The most and the se along the sure durin ing capaci Mat Poundotion Distrtbast Although 4 ‘must be ec Figure 89) Amat foundation necessarilyrer >w Foundations 53, Beating Pressure 153 Foundation engineers often consider mats when dealing with any ofthe following conditions: *+ The structural loads ate so high or the soil conditions so poor that spread foot would be exceptionally la cover more than 50 percent of the building footprint area, a mat or some type of deep foundation will usually be more economical As a general rule of thumb, if spread footings would The soil is very erratic and prone to excessive differential settlements, The struc tural continuity and flexural strength of a mat will bridge over these irsegularitis, The same is true of mats on highly expansive soils prone to differential heaves The structural loads are erratic, and thus increase the likelihood of excessive differ ential settlements. Again, the structural continuity and flexural strength of the mat will absorb these irregularities The lateral loads are not uniformly distributed through the structure and thus may a cause differential horizontal movements in spread footings or pile caps. The conti nuity of a mat will resist such movements The uplift loads are larger than spread footings can accommodate. The greater and continuity of a mat may provide sufficient resistance The bottom of the structure is located below the groundwater table, so waterproof ng is an important concern, Because mats ate monolithic, they ay saterproof. The weight of the m the groundwater. much easier to also helps resist hydrostatic uplift forces from Many buildings are supported on mat foundations, as are silos, chimneys, and other {ypes of tower structures, Mats are also used to support storage tanks and large machines The seventy five story Texas Commerce Tower in Houston is one of the largest mat Supported structures in the world. is mat is 3 m (9 ft9 in) thick and is bottomed 19.2 (63 ft below the stret level 5.3 BEARING PRESSURE ‘The most fundamental parameter that defines the interface between a shallow foundation and the soil that supports it is the bearing pressure. This is the contact force per unit aes along the bottom of the foundation. En of bearing pres: sure during the nineteenth century. thus forming the basis for later developments in bear gincers recognized the importan ing capacity and settlement theories. Distribution of Bearing Pressure Although the int of the bearing pressure across the base atea of a shallow foundation ‘must be equal to the force acting between the foundation and the soil, this pressure is not necessarily distributed evenly. Analytical studies and field measurements (SchultzeChapter § Shallow Foundatio 1961; Dempsey and Li, 19895 and others) indicate thatthe actual distribution depends oq several factors, including the following: + Eccentricity, if any, of the applied load * Magnitude of the applied moment, if any + Structural rigidity of the foundation + Stress-strain properties of the soil + Roughness ofthe bottom of the foundation Figure 5.10 shows the distribution of bearing pressure along the base of shallow fi foundations subjected to concentric vertical loads. Perfectly flexible foundations bend a4 necessary {0 maintain a uniform bearing pressure, as shown in Figures 5.10a and 5.10by whereas perfectly rigid foundations settle uniformly but have variations in the beat pressure, as shown in Figures 5.10c and 5.10. carefully and develop more detailed reinforcing ste! layouts. Therefore, we conduct mene detailed analyses to determine the dstbuton of bearing pressure on mats. Chapter 109 discusses these analyses. r When analyzing shallow foundations, iis customary and reasonable to neglect any sliding friction along the sides ofthe footing and assume that the entire load i transmitted to the bottom. This is an important analytical difference between shallow and deep fou ation, and willbe explored in more detail in Chapter 11 ‘Computation of Bearing Pressure ‘The bearing pressure (or gross bearing pressure) alon — P+W, ‘| @= A earing pressure vertical columa load weight of foundation, including the weight of soil above the foundation, any Bearing F vi puted usww Foundations 53. Bearing Prossure 185 1se of shallow in mats more ia conduct more s. Chapter 10 ists ad deep foun. slow founds Figure £101 Psi ea of foundation (B° for square Foundations of BL. fe re al bottom of foundation (i.c..at a depth D below the tundation, if Virtually all shallow foundations are made of reinforced concrete, so W puted usi ig 8 unit weight for concrete of 150 Ib NimFigure $.11 Definitions for lads on contin ous footings Chapter 5 Shallow Foundations Beeving F ‘The pore water pressure term accounts for uplift pressures (buoyancy forces) tha are present if a portion of the foundation is below the groundwater table. If the ground. water table is at a depth greater than D, then set uw» = 0. For continuous footings, we express the applied loads as a force per unit length, such as 2000 kN/m. For ease of computation, we identify this unit length as b, which is usually 1 mor I ft as shown in Figure 5.11. Thus, the load is expressed using the variable fb, and the weight using W;/b. ‘The bearing pressures for continuous footings is then: P]b + Wy Ss Mp 62) cores Example 5.1 4 “The 5-1 square footing shown in Figure 5.12 supports a column load of 100 k. Compute the p= RMBRES.12 Spread bearing pressure 7 : ‘Solution 4 Use 150 forthe unit weight of concrete, and compute Wai the concrete extends fom the ground surface toa depth D (iis s conservative when te Tooting i covered with si be. 45 cause sll has a lower unit weight, but the err introduces small) | (5 8X5 (4 (1501/10) = 15,000 1 : (5 f(s Mt) = 25 8° 1 sy = Yada = (62 IH/APY(A A — 3.) = 6210/1 | Example Ao foot Con Solu Use 03 Shallow Foundations 49. Bearing Pressure 67 (buoyancy forces) that ter table. If the ground. a force per unit length, ait length as b, which is ‘essed using the Variable 62) Pigre 512 Spread footing for Exam. ‘oad of 100 k. Compute the Le F the conerete extends from soil be ing is covered wit », ib Bs 62 Ib/tt? 4538 /t— < Anower say Example 5.2 A 0.70-m wie continous foting supports a wall lod of 110 KN. The bottom of this footing is ats depth of 0.50 m below the adjacent ground surface andthe sol has & wai weight of 17.5 kN/m’. The groundwater table is at depth of 10 m below the ground surface. Compute the bearing pressure, Solution Use 25.6 kN/m’ forthe unit weight of concrete Wb = (0:70 m)(0.50 m)(23.6 kN/m?) = 8 KN/m HO kN/m + 8 kN/m “ 70m =169kPa AnswerChapter§ Shallow Foundations Net Bearing Pressure An alternative way to define bearing pressure is the net bearing pressure, q’, which isthe difference between the gross bearing pressure, 9, and the inital vertical effective stress, 4, at depth D. In other words, q’ is 4 measure of the increase in vertical effective strese at depth D (Coduto, 1994), Use of the net bearing pressure simplifies some computations, especially those as. sociated with settlement of spread footings, but it makes others more complex. Some en. gineers prefer this method, while others prefer to use the gross bearing pressure, ‘Therefore, itis important to understand which definition is being used. In this book we will use only the gross bearing pressure for designing shallow foundations because: + This is the most commonly used method. + The presumptive bearing pressures presented in building codes use this method [IBC 1805.4.1.1). + Itis conceptually easier. + It simplifies the analysis of floating foundations. Flo: 1g Foundations ‘Mat foundations are often placed in deep excavations, as shown in Figure 5.13. In add tion to providing underground space, such as for subterranean parking, this design de- creases the bearing pressure because the weight of the foundation is substantially less than & the weight of the excavated soil. In other words, the weight ofthe structure and the fous dation is partially offset by the removal of soil from the excavation. This reduction in significantly reduces the settlement. Such designs are called floating foundations, and they are discussed in more detail in Chapter 18. | | 87m [50m Figure 5.18 flstng foundation Exan Foundati Most foun fairly unifc to accomm called ecce eccentricity or, for contiShallow Foundations sure, q', which is the tical effective stress, srtical effective stress s, especially those as- ‘e complex. Some en vss bearing pressure, ased. In this book we ations because: des use this method \ Figure 5.13. In addi king, this design de- substantially less than {ructure and the foun- fn. This reduction in q ting foundations, and 87m [50m eS 20KNim® 59° Bearing Pressure 159 Example 5.3 ‘The mat foundation in Figure 5.13 i to be SO m wide, 0 m long, and 1.8 thick, The sum 4 ofthe column and wall lads is 805 MN. Compute the average bearing pressure, then com, 4 Pare it withthe inital vertical effective stress inthe soil immediately below the mat Solution Use Yoaue= 23.6 kNim W,= (50:m)(70 m)(1.8 m)(23.6KN/m') = 149,000 KN 4 se = Yate = (O8EN/m\8.7 m ~ 50m) = 36kPa 4 = (50m)(70m) 4 pew, | i, | 805,000 KN + 149,000 kN | - KN sepa 3500 m? te 27kPa Answer i Note: Mat foundations are neither perfecly flexible nor perfectly rigid Thus, the actual bea ing pressure will vary across the base area, Ths computation produced the avenge rave | ‘The vertical effective stress at a depth D before constuction was, Sin = Ea — w= (190KN/m')(8.7 m) ~ 36kPa = 129kPa << Answer : Ths, the net result of making the excavation and constructing the building will result in a 237-129 = 108 kPa increase inthe vertical effective sires immediately below tg q mat. Answer i Foundations with Eccentric or Moment Loads S Most foundations are built so the vertical load ets through the centroid, thus producing @ fusly usiform distribution of bearing pressure. However, sometimes i becomes nevesney 40 accommodate loads that at through other points, as shown in Figure 5 Ids, Thea a J called eccentric loads, and they produce a non-uniform bearing pressure distribution, The 4 cvcentrcity, , of the bearing pressure is equal o: | [,~_Pai 3 4 oO Pew, C2) 4 L Frm 4 or, for continuous footings: i [.- 2a] 5 1 jb+ W/o Bay i a