Syllogism

Syllogism Definition
Syllogism is a rhetorical device that starts an argument with a
reference to something general and from this it draws conclusion about
something more specific.
Let us try to understand the concept with the help of an example. We
start with a general argument All men are mortal, we know that John
is a man so John is mortal. It is a deductive approach to reason and
is based on deducing specific conclusions from general facts.
We notice in the above example that Syllogism is a three-part set of
statements; a major statement or premise, a minor statement or
premise and a conclusion that is deduced. Therefore, All men are
mortal is a major statement or premise which stands as a general
fact. John is a man is minor statement or premise that is specific and
John is mortal is the logical conclusion deduced from the two prior
statements.

Syllogism and Enthymeme

Syllogism takes the form of Enthymeme when it is compressed.
Enthymeme combines the minor premise and the conclusion and
omitting the major statement. For instance, a syllogism All dogs are
canine. Tommy is a dog. Therefore, Tommy is a canine. can be
compressed in an enthymeme as Tommy is a canine because it is a
dog. The major premise remains implied or hidden.
Syllogism Fallacy
Syllogism may also be used to form incorrect conclusions that are odd.
For instance, All crows are black and the bird in my cage is black. So,
the bird in my cage is a crow. This is a false argument as it implies a
conclusion all blackbirds are crows is incorrect. It is known as
Syllogism Fallacy. Another example of Syllogism fallacy is Some
televisions are black and white and all penguins are black and white.
Therefore, some televisions are penguins. You can easily see that the
conclusion is practically impossible and in fact has a comical outcome.
Syllogism Examples in Literature
Let us look at some examples of syllogism in literature:

1. Shakespeare employs this rhetorical device in his play Timon of

Athens Act 4, scene 3:
Flavius: Have you forgot me, sir?
Timon: Why dost ask that? I have forgot all men;
Then, if thou grantst thourt a man, I have forgot thee.
Timon uses a witty syllogism to tell Flavius that he must have forgotten
him like he has forgotten all other men. It can be expanded in a threeset argument as;
I usually do forget as I have forgotten everyone. Therefore, I have
forgotten you as well.
2. Poetry is known for its passion and not reason but we find syllogistic
argument in Andrew Marvells poem To his Coy Mistress. The poet
says to his bashful beloved, Had we but world enough, and time. This
coyness, Lady, were no crime. It implies a general truth that life is
short and man is mortal. They do not have enough time to love and
cannot waste it in display of coyness.
Likewise, he and his darling may separate eternally before their union
in this world is established. Therefore, he says, But at my back I
always hear/ Times wingd chariot hurrying near; and speaks to his
beloved, Thy beauty shall no more be found,.
The poet reaches a conclusion that they should avail themselves of the
time they have, Now let us sport us while we may,
3. Compressed syllogism is found in famous metaphysical poet John
Donnes poem Elegy 2 The Anagram:
All love is wonder; if we justly do
Account her wonderful, why not lovely too?
If we expand the above Syllogism, it will have the following
organization of statements; All that is lovable is wonderful and the
mistress is wonderful. Therefore, the mistress is lovable.
Function of Syllogism
In logic, syllogism aims at identify the general truths in a particular
situation. It is a tool in the hands of a speaker or a writer to persuade
the audience or the readers as their belief in a general truth may
tempt them to believe in a specific conclusion drawn from those truths.
In literature, syllogism can contribute to add wit to the statements.
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Moreover, Syllogism fallacy may give us an opportunity to enjoy the

nonsensical conclusion.

Ad Hominem
Ad Hominem Definition
Ad hominem (Latin) means against the man. As the name suggests,
it is a literary term that involves commenting on or against an
opponent to undermine him instead of his arguments.
There are cases where consciously or unconsciously people start to
question the opponent or his personal association rather than
evaluating the soundness and validity of the argument that he
presents. These types of arguments are usually mistaken for personal
insults but they are somehow different in nature and the distinction is
very subtle.
Arguers who are not familiar with the principles of making logical
arguments commonly end up saying something that would draw the
audiences attention to the distasteful characteristics of the individual.
Such people use this fallacy as a tool to deceive their audience. Making
such a blatant personal comment against somebody makes it hard for
people to believe it isnt true. Typically, even the arguer himself
believes that such personal traits or circumstances are not enough to
dispose of an individuals opinion or argument. However, if looked at
rationally, such arguments even if true never provide a valid reason to
disregard someones criticism.
Ad Hominem Examples
1. Just look at this common example.
How can you argue your case for vegetarianism when you are
enjoying your steak?
This clearly shows how a person is attacked instead of being addressed
for or against his argument.
2. A classic example of ad hominem fallacy is given below:
A: All murderers are criminals, but a thief isnt a murderer, and so
cant be a criminal.
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B: Well, youre a thief and a criminal, so there goes your argument.

3. Another example of ad hominem fallacy is taken from Velonews: The
Journal of Competitive Cycling.
After an article about the retirement of Lance Armstrong, its webpage
shared a post with its readers. A commenter posted a comment saying
how great an athlete Armstrong was and that the people should be
proud of his achievements.

Another commenter wrote in response to the first commenter:

Hes not a great athlete; hes a fraud, a cheat and a liar. Thats why not
everybody is happy for Lance.
The reasons given by the arguer may very well be true but he does not
support his argument with reason and logic. He rather takes the
disregarding approach. He does not say anything to prove that the
premises it proposes are problematic, instead he goes on attacking the
person who proposed them.
Functions of Ad Hominem
A writers background is considered to be a very important factor when
it comes to judging his work. A book written on a particular subject in
history will be perceived differently keeping in view the background of
the author. Therefore, it is important to understand that a writers traits
and circumstances have a pivotal role to play in his feelings, thinking
and the construction of his arguments.
To put it simply, the considerations regarding the use of ad hominem
can explain certain arguments and the motives behind them better.
Nevertheless, such considerations are not enough on their own to
evaluate an individuals opinion and are certainly not sufficient to
disregard them as false or invalid. The fact is that ad hominem is a
kind of fallacy that leaves a great impression on the audiences mind. It
is an argumentative flaw that is hard to spot in our daily life. Although,
the personal attack that has been made on the opponent might not
even have a speck of truth in it, it somehow makes the audience
biased. Ironically, despite being flawed, ad hominem has an amazing
power of persuasion.
The worst thing about using ad hominem purposely is that an
opponent insults you publicly. Whenever this happens to you, you must
recover from the humiliation and then point out the false connection in
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the argument, which was used a trap for the audience. Moreover, the
dilemma with ad hominem is that once it has been used against you it
smears your reputation. Once somebody makes such a judgmental
argument about you, the audience instead of evaluating it on logical
grounds take it to be true.