GROUP 1

Prepared by:

ANITAH A/P GOTANDABANI

(819826)
KUNAREKA A/P SUBRAMANIAM
(819837)
RAJESWARI A/P KRISHNAN
(819855)

 CHAPTER 1
COGNITIVE LEARNING AND MODELS OF
TEACHING
CHAPTER 2
ESSENTIAL TEACHING SKILLS AND THE
TEACHING OF THINKING

Cognitive Perspective
Thecognitive perspectiveis concerned with understanding
mental processes such as memory, perception, thinking, and
problemsolving,andhowtheymayberelatedtobehavior.

View of Learning
asaprocessofactivediscovery.
learningispresentedasaprocessofactivediscoverybutto
facilitatediscoverybyprovidingthenecessaryresourcesandby
guidinglearnersastheyattempttoassimilatenewknowledgeto
oldandtomodifytheoldtoaccommodatethenew.

Behavioral Views of Learning

Behaviorism
(learns to)
1. Learning involves the formation of associations between
specific actions and
specific events (stimuli) in the
environment. These stimuli may either precede or follow
the action (antecedents vs. consequences).
2. Many behaviorists use intervening variables to explain
behavior (e.g., habit,
drive) but avoid references to
mental states.
3. RADICAL BEHAVIORISM (operant conditioning/behavior
modification/behavior
analysis): avoids any intervening
variables and focuses on descriptions of relationships
between behavior and environment (functional analysis).

Behaviorism Theory
Learning is a change in
behavior.
Explains learning in terms of
environmental and external
events.
Interested in how people
respond to stimuli.

Behaviorism cont.
Stimuli perceivable units of the
environment or events that may
affect behavior
Responses observable reactions
to stimuli
Contiguity whenever two
sensations occur together over and
over again, they become associated
School bell (stimulus)
Scurrying student
zipping backpacks, slamming lockers,
crowded hallways, etc. (responses)

 The Behaviorist approach to language learning

grew out of the belief that students could learn a
second language by being taught to produce the
correct response to the appropriate stimulus. The
students would then receive either instant positive
or instant negative reinforcement in the shape of
either correction or praise from the teacher.

Types of
Behaviorism

1.Classical Conditioning
2.Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning
Developed by Pavlov
Includes stimuli and responses
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
automatically produces a response
Unconditioned Response (UR) naturally
occurring response
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) an object used
to stimulate a response
Conditioned Response (CR) learned
response

Operant Conditioning
Developed by B. F.
Skinner
People learn by doing.
Learn through
reinforcement &
punishment.
Reinforcer A stimulus
that increases the
frequency of behaviors.

Cognitive View of Learning

Look at how people process and
organize information and
construct knowledge.
Assess how people make
sense of the knowledge they
gain.
Assume that humans are active
participants in their own acts
of cognition.

Cognitive Views of Learning

Cognitivism
(learns that)
1. Learning takes place in the mind, not in behavior. It
involves the formation of

mental representations of the

elements of a task and the discovery of how these elements

related.
2. are
Behavior
is used to make inferences about mental states
but is not of

interest in itself (methodological

behaviorism).
3. EXAMPLE:
Tolman & Honziks experiment on latent learning.
Tolman, a

pioneer of cognitive psychology, argued that

when rats practice mazes, they acquire a cognitive map of

the layoutmental representations of the landmarks and
their spatial relationships.

Cognitive theory assumes that responses are also th

result of insight and intentional patterning.
The Theorists : Jean Piaget
Robert
Gagne
Lev

 Comparison between Behaviorist Theory

and Cognitivist Theory
Behaviorism and Cognitivism are
both a good way of teaching and
learning processes, however, there
are some differences between them
which is very significant.

Comparing the two sets of

Theories
Behavioral Learning Theories
focuses on observable changes in
outward behavior & on the impact
of external stimuli to effect change.
Cognitive Learning Theories focuses
on the internal mental processes,
how they change, and how they
affect external behavior changes.

Behavioral vs. Cognitive

Learning
Behavioral
New behaviors
are learned.
Reinforcement
strengthens
responses.
Teacher-centered
instruction

Cognitive
Knowledge is
learned.
Reinforcement
is feedback or
information.
Studentcentered
instruction

Comparison between Behaviorist Theory

and Cognitivist Theory
Behavior
theories

Determine which cues elicit the

desired responses.
Arrange practice situations so
they will prompt elicit
responses in a natural
setting.
Arrange environmental
conditions to enhance stimuli.
Focus on the design of the
environment to optimize
learning.
Use feedback (reinforcement)
to modify behavior in the
desired direction.

Cognitive
theories

Focus on the mental activities of

the learner.
Acknowledge the processes of the
mental planning, goal-setting, and
organizational strategies.
Stress over efficient processing
strategies.
Make use of feedback (knowledge
of feedback) to guide and support
accurate mental connections.

A COGNITIVE LEARNING
MODEL

Teaching Strategies
TEACHER KNOWLEDGE, ENTHUSIASM AND RESPONSIBILITY FOR
LEARNING
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES THAT ENCOURAGE LEARNING
ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES THAT ENCOURAGE LEARNING THROUGH
EXPERIENCE
EFFECTIVE FEEDBACK THAT ESTABLISHES THE LEARNING
PROCESSES IN THE CLASSROOM
EFFECTIVE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE TEACHER AND THE
STUDENTS, CREATING AN ENVIRONMENT THAT RESPECTS,
ENCOURAGES AND STIMULATES LEARNING THROUGH EXPERIENCE

Teaching Models

Definition
B.K.PASSIL.C.SINGHANDD.N.SANSANWAL
(1991);Amodelofteachingconsistof
guidelinesfordesigningeducationalactivities
andenvironments.
Modelofteachingisaplanthatcanalsobe
utilized
toshapecoursesof
studies

todesigninstructional
material

toguideinstruction.

 JOYCEANDWEIL(1972);Teachingof
modelisapatternorplan,whichcanbea
curriculum or courses toselect
instructional materials andtoguidea
teachers actions.

Teachin
g
Models

Formulat
ea
complete
& perfect
teaching
scheme.
Enable

Function
of
Teaching
Model
Provide
guidance to
planners &
teachers to
enable
them to
plan &
carry out
the
teaching
process
effectively.

As basic
guidance
for
teachers
for
reflection
during
feedback
session.

Enable
teachers to
analyse &
evaluate its
strengths &
weaknesses
so as to
plan &
implement
appropriate
follow-up
actions

Improves the
quality of
instruction.
Offers
alternative
ways of
representing
content/skills
.

Develop
learning
experiences
that yield
successful
outcomes

Teach
er
Bene
fits
Facilitates
awareness
about
students
learning
needs.

Systematic
approach to
planning for
instruction.

Assess
impact of
instruction.

Increases
ability for
learning and
retention.

Builds
academic selfesteem.

Learn more
quickly

Stude
nt
Bene
fits
Acknowledges
characteristics
and aptitudes.

Facilitates
different kinds
of learning.
Promotes
student
awareness of
how they will
be taught and
what changes
are necessary.

What do you
understand from this
picture?

COGNITIVE SKILLS IN CLASSROOM

Cognitionismorethanjustlearninginformation.Instead,it'stheabilitytothinkaboutnewinformation,
processitandspeakaboutit.Inaddition,cognitioninvolvestheapplicationofthisnewinformationto
other,previouslyacquiredinformation.
Aschildrenmature,forexample,theydeveloptheabilitytothinkonhigherlevelsandcriticalthinking.
Theycanprocessinformationmoreskillfullyandmakeconnectionstootherinformationmoreeasily.In
otherwords,theirthinkingskillsgetprogressivelybetter.
Cognitiveskillsallowchildrentounderstandtherelationshipsbetweenideas,tograsptheprocessof
causeandeffectandtoimprovetheiranalyticalskills.Allinall,cognitiveskilldevelopmentnotonlycan
benefitthechildintheclassroombutoutsideofclassaswell.

Chapter 2

ESSENTIAL TEACHING
SKILLS
analogous to basic skills and can be
describes as the critical teacher
attitudes, skills and strategies
necessary to promote student
learning.

1. Teacher Characteristics

2. Communication

Alerts students to important information in a

lesson and can occur through vocal and
verbal behavior or repitition.

3. Organization
Organizing strategies include
planning, lesson design, time
use (time management, time on
task, and pacing, for example),
advancework, and classroom
management.
4. Instructional Alignment
Refers to the match between
objectives and learning activities.

5. Feedback

Is information about current behavior that can be

used
to improve future performance.
Immediate
Specific
Provides information
Depends on performance
Has a positive emotional tone.

6. Monitoring

Is the process of checking students verbal and

nonverbal behavior for evidence of learning progress

7. Questioning

8. Focus
Is the set of teacher actions designed
to attract students attention and
provide an umbrella for the rest of
the lesson.

9. Review and Closure

Review summarizes previous work and forms a link

between what has been learned and what is coming.
Closure is a form of review that occurs at the end
of the lesson.

Creating Productive Learning

Environments

Teaching for Thinking and

Understanding
What is understanding?
When someone truly understands, they candoor perform these six behaviors
which are the principalfacetsof understanding. They can:
Explainconcepts, principles and processes by putting it their own words,
teaching it to others, justifying their answers and showing their reasoning.
Interpretby making sense of data, text and experience through images,
analogies, stories and models.
Applyby effectively using and adapting what they know in new and complex
contexts.
Demonstrate perspectiveby seeing the big picture and recognizing different
points of view.
Display empathyby perceiving sensitively and walking in someone else's shoes.
Have self-knowledgeby showing meta-cognitive awareness and reflecting on
the meaning of the learning and experience.

Critical Thinking
Criticalthinkingisthedisciplinedmentalactivityofevaluating
arguments[information]orpropositionsandmakingjudgments
thatcanguidethedevelopmentofbeliefsandtakingaction. Ennis
(1992)

Criticalthinkingisbothaframeofmindandasetofmental
capabilities.
Criticalthinkingistheabilitytothinkclearlyandrationally.
Criticalthinkers:distinguishbetweenfactandopinion;ask
questions;makedetailedobservations;uncoverassumptionsand
definetheirterms;andmakeassertionsbasedonsoundlogicand
solidevidence.Ellis,1997

Critical Thinker Skills

THE IMPORTANCE OF CRITICAL THINKING

Critical thinking is a domaingeneral thinking skill .

Critical thinking is very important in
the new knowledge economy.
Critical thinking enhances
language and presentation skills.

Critical thinking promotes

creativity.

Good critical thinking is the

foundation of science and
democracy.

Teaching critical thinking using

Blooms Taxonomy
The upper
levels of the
triangle
represent
critical
thinking

CAROLYN WESTBROOK+ APRIL 18, 2014 ADULT COURSES,

ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES,SKILLSCOMMENTS (7)

Bottom two
levels are
factual
questions
and NOT
considered
critical
thinking