1.2.

1 Units of Measurement

1.2UNITSOFMEASUREMENT
FROMHANDSONCHEMISTRY
COPYRIGHTPRENTICEHALL
ALLRIGHTSRESERVED
HTTP://WWW.CSUN.EDU/~VCEED002/HERR/HANDS_ON_SCIENCE.HTM

1.2.1THEIMPORTANCEOFUNITS...............................................................................3
1.2.2UNITSINCHEMSITRY...........................................................................................6
1.2.3PROBLEMSOLVING(dimensionalanalysis)........................................................11
FORTHETEACHER.......................................................................................................15
1.2.1THEIMPORTANCEOFUNITS.............................................................................16
1.2.2UNITSINCHEMISTRY.........................................................................................17
1.2.3PROBLEMSOLVING(DimensionalAnalysis)......................................................19

Anaccurateandconsistentsystemofmeasurementisthefoundationofahealthy
economy.IntheUnitedStates,acarpenterpaysforlumberbytheboardfoot,whilea
motoristbuysgasolinebythegallon,andajewelersellsgoldbytheounce.Landissold
bytheacre,fruitsandvegetablesaresoldbythepound,andelectriccableissoldbythe
yard.Withoutaconsistent,honestsystemofmeasurement,worldtradewouldbethrown
intochaos.Throughouthistory,buyersandsellershavetriedtodefraudeachotherby
inaccuratelyrepresentingthequantityoftheproductexchanged.IntheBibleweread
thatthepeopleofIsraelwerecommandedtonot"...usedishoneststandardswhen
measuringlength,weightorquantity"butrather"usehonestscalesandhonest
weights..."(Leviticus19:3536).Fromancienttimestothepresenttherehasbeenaneed
formeasuringthingsaccurately.
WhentheancientEgyptiansbuiltmonumentslikethepyramids,theymeasured
thestonestheycutusingbodydimensionseveryworkercouldrelateto.Smalldistances
weremeasuredin"digits"(thewidthofafinger)andlongerdistancesin"cubits"(the

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

lengthfromthetipoftheelbowtothetipofthemiddlefinger;1cubit=28digits).The
Romanswerefamousroadbuildersandmeasureddistancesin"paces"(1pace=two
steps).ArchaeologistshaveuncoveredancientRomanroadsandfound"mile"stones
markingeach1000paces(milisLatinfor1000).TheDaneswereaseafaringpeopleand
particularlyinterestedinknowingthedepthofwaterinshippingchannels.They
measuredsoundingsin"fathoms"(thedistancefromthetipofthemiddlefingeronone
handtothetipofthemiddlefingerontheother)sonavigatorscouldeasilyvisualizehow
muchclearancetheirboatswouldhave.InEnglanddistancesweredefinedwith
referencetobodyfeaturesoftheking.A"yard"wasthecircumferenceofhiswaist,an
"inch"wasthewidthofhisthumb,anda"foot"thelengthofhisfoot.Englishfarmers,
however,estimatedlengthsinsomethingtheycouldmoreeasilyrelateto:"furlongs",the
lengthofanaverageplowedfurrow.
AsvariousculturesemigratedtoEngland,theybroughtwiththemtheirvarious
measurementsystems.Today,theEnglishorCustomarysystemreflectsthevarietyof
differentmeasurementsystemsfromwhichitoriginated.Thereare,forexample,many
unitsinwhichdistancecanbemeasuredintheCustomarysystem,buttheybearno
logicalrelationshiptoeachother:
1statutemile=0.8688nauticalmiles=1,760yards=320rods=8furlongs=5280
feet=63360inches=880fathoms=15840hands
ManyEnglishunitsarespecifictocertainprofessionsortrades.Aseacaptainreports
distancesinnauticalmilesanddepthsinfathoms,whileahorsetrainermeasuresheight
inhandsanddistanceinfurlongs.Unfortunately,mostpeoplehavenoideawhatnautical
miles,fathoms,hands,orfurlongsarebecausetheyonlyusethemorecommonmeasures
ofmiles,yards,inches.
TheearlyEnglishsettlersbroughttheCustomarysystemofmeasurementwith
themtotheAmericancolonies.AlthoughtheCustomarysystemisstillwidelyusedin
America,scientistsprefertousethemetricsystem.UnliketheEnglish(Customary)
system,themetricsystemdidnotevolvefromavarietyofancientmeasurementsystems,

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

butwasalogical,simplifiedsystemdevelopedinEuropeduringtheseventeenthand
eighteenthcenturies.Themetricsystemisnowthemandatorysystemofmeasurementin
everycountryoftheworldexcepttheUnitedStates,LiberiaandBurma(Myanmar).
In1960,aninternationalconferencewascalledtostandardizethemetricsystem.
TheinternationalSystemofUnits(SI)wasestablishedinwhichallunitsofmeasurement
arebaseduponsevenbaseunits:meter(distance),kilogram(mass),second(time),
ampere(electricalcurrent),Kelvin(temperature),mole(quantity),andcandela(luminous
intensity).Themetricsystemsimplifiesmeasurementbyusingasinglebaseunitfor
eachquantityandbyestablishingdecimalrelationshipsamongthevariousunitsofthat
samequantity.Forexample,themeteristhebaseunitoflengthandothernecessaryunits
aresimplemultiplesorsubmultiples:
1meter=0.001kilometer=1,000millimeters=1,000,000micrometers=1,000,000,000
nanometers
Table1showstheSIprefixesandsymbols.Throughoutthisbookweusethemetric
systemofmeasurement.

Table1:SIPrefixesandSymbols
Factor

DecimalRepresentation

Prefix

Symbol

1018

1,000,000,000,000,000,000

exa

15

1,000,000,000,000,000

peta

12

1,000,000,000,000

tera

1,000,000,000

giga

1,000,000

mega

1,000

kilo

100

hecto

10

deka

da

0.1

deci

0.01

centi

10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

103

0.001

milli

106

0.000001

micro

10

0.000000001

nano

1012

0.000000000001

pico

10

0.000000000000001

femto

1018

0.000000000000000001

atto

15

1.2.1THEIMPORTANCEOFUNITS
ConceptstoInvestigate:Fundamentalunits,derivedunits,factorlabels,dimensions.
Materials:none.
PrinciplesandProcedures:WhencrossingthebordertoCanada,Americanmotorists
areoftensurprisedtoseespeedlimitsof"90"or"100".Iftheydon'trealizethat
Canadiansmeasurespeedinkilometers/hrwhileAmericansmeasureinmiles/hr(1.00
mile/hr=1.61kilometers/hr;60miles/hr=97km/hr)theymaysoonbeinfortrouble
withthelaw.If,forexample,anAmericanmotoristacceleratesuntilherspeedometer
(measuredinmiles/hr)reaches"100",shewillbetraveling38miles/hrovertheposted
speedlimitof100km/hrsinceaspeedof100km/hrisequaltoonly62miles/hr.Asthis
exampleillustrates,measurementswithoutunitsaremeaninglessandmayleadtoserious
misunderstandings.Everythingthatcanbemeasuredmustbeexpressedwithappropriate
units.
Unitsineverydaylife:Weuseunitseveryday,oftenwithoutevenrealizingit.In
thestatementsthatfollowyouwillfindawidevarietyofinterestingfacts,buteachis
missingacrucialpieceofinformationthedimensions(units)!Allthestatementsare
meaninglessuntilyousupplytheappropriateunits.Onthebasisofyourexperiences,try
tomatchtheappropriateunitsfromthelistprovided.
carats
cm
degreesCelsius
degreesFahrenheit

feet
grams/ml
inches
kcal(Cal)
kilograms

kilometers
kilowatthours
liters
megabars
miles
milesperhour

milligrams
pounds
stories
tons
yards

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

(a)

America'stallestbuilding(SearsTowerinChicago)is110___high.

(b)

TheEmpireStateBuildinginNewYorkis1250___high.

(c)

TheNileistheworld'slongestriver.Itis4180___long.

(d)

TheAmazonRiverinSouthAmericais___6296long.

(e)

Thecoldesttemperatureeverrecordedwas128.6____inVostok,Antarcticain
1983.

(f)

ThehighestrecordedtemperatureintheUnitedStateswasinDeathValley,
Californiawhenthemercuryreached57____!

(g)

TheworldrecordrainfalloccurredinCherrapunji,Indiawhere1042___ofrain
fellinoneyear.

(h)

ThelargestrecordedhailstonetoeverfalllandedinCoffeyville,Kansasin1979.
Ithadadiameterof44.5_____!

(i)

ThelongestpuntinNFLhistorywasbySteveO'NealofthenewYorkJets.He
kickedthefootball98____.

(j)

Thelargestseedintheworldisthatofthecocdemercoconuttree,whichmay
weighasmuchas40____!

(k)

Theworld'slargestmeteoriteislocatedinSouthwestAfrica.Itweighs650
________.

(l)

ThemostpopularsoftdrinkintheWorldiscurrentlyCocaCola .Morethan
210million______wereconsumedeachdayin1990.

(m)

ThelargestdiamondintheworldwasminedfromSouthAfricain1905and
weighs3,106_______.

(n)

Earthisthedensestofthenineplanets,withanaveragedensityof5.515_____.

(o)

Theworld'sfastestaircraftistheLockheedSR71Blackbird,clockingarecord
speedof2,193.67____.

(p)

Thelargestgoldnuggeteverfoundhadamassof100________!

(q)

Onelargechickeneggcontainsanaverageof274____cholesterol.

(r)

A16yearoldmalerequiresanaverageof2800____ofenergyperdaywhileaan
average16yearoldfemalerequiresonly2100____.

(s)

TheUnitedStatesproducesandconsumesmoreelectricenergythananyother
nation.EachyeartheUnitedStatesproducesover2500billion____.

(t)

Thelargestpressureeverdevelopedinalaboratorywas1.70______,usedto
solidifyhydrogenin1978.

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

Questions:
(1)Whyisitessentialthatallmeasurementsbeaccompaniedbyappropriateunits?
(2)Individualswhotraveltoregionsoftheworldwithpoorsanitationarewarnedtofilter
orboiltheirwaterbeforedrinkingittoremovedeadlywaterbornpathogensthatcause
diseasessuchascholeraortyphoid.Ifyouweretravelinginaregionknowntohavea
pollutedwatersupply,wouldyoudrinkwaterthatyourhostsaidhadbeenheatedto100
degreesforfiveminutes?Explain.

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

1.2.2UNITSINCHEMISTRY
ConceptstoInvestigate:Fundamentalunits,derivedunits,SI(InternationalSystem)
units.
Materials:optional:dictionary,encyclopedia,chemicalhandbook.
PrinciplesandProcedures:
FundamentalandDerivedUnits:Thereareonly26lettersintheEnglishalphabet,yet
withthese26lettersitispossibletoconstructallofthewordsintheEnglishlanguage.
Similarly,thereare7"letters"inthe"languageofmeasurement"fromwhichallunitsof
measurementarederived.These7"letters"aredistance,mass,time,electriccharge,
temperature,amount,andluminousintensity(seethefirstsevenentriesinTable2).
Theseareknownasthefundamentalunitsbecausetheycannotbeexpressedinasimpler
fashion.Allotherunitsarederivedfromthesesevenunits.
Distanceisafundamentalunit,becauseitcanbeexpressedinnosimplerterms.
However,volumeisaderivedunitbecauseitisexpressedasthecubeofdistance.For
example,whenmeasuringthevolumeofaboxyoumultiplyitslengthbyitswidthbyits
height.Theresultingvolumeisexpressedasacubeofdistance(d3)suchascubicfeetor
cubiccentimeters.Densityisalsoaderivedunitbecauseitisexpressedastheratioof
mass/volume,wherevolumeitselfisaderivedunitexpressedasafunctionofdistance
cubed.Thus,wecanexpressdensity(aderivedunit)intermsoffundamentalunitsas
massdividedbydistancecubed(m/d3).
In1960the11thGeneralConferenceonWeightsandMeasuresadoptedthe
InternationalSystemofmeasurement(SI)andassignedbaseunitsforeachphysical
quantity.Table2showssomecommonphysicalquantitiesandtheirSIunits.Thefirst7
(boldtype)arethesevenfundamentalunitswhiletheremainingunitsarederivedfrom
these.

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

Table2:PhysicalQuantitiesandTheirUnits
symbol
SImeasurementunits
symbol unitdimensions
distance
mass
time
electriccharge*
temperature
amountofsubstance
luminousintensity
acceleration
area
capacitance

d
m
t
Q
T
n
I
a
A
C

meter
kilogram
second
coulomb
Kelvin
mole
candela
meterpersecondsquared
squaremeter
farad

m
kg
s
C
K
mol
cd
m/s2
m2
F

concentration
density
electriccurrent
electricfieldintensity

[C]
D
I
E

molar
kilogrampercubicmeter
ampere
newtonpercoulomb

M
kg/m3
A
N/C

m
kg
s
C
K
mol
cd
m/s2
m2
C2.s2/kg.m2
mol/m3
kg/m3
C/s
kg.m/C.s2

volt

kg.m2/C.s2

joule

kg.m2/s2

newton

frequency
heat

f
Q

hertz
joule

Hz
J

kg.m/s2
s1

illumination
inductance

E
L

lux(lumenpersquaremeter)
henry

lx
H

kg.m2/C2

magneticflux

weber

Wb

kg.m2/C.s

potentialdifference

volt

kg.m2/C.s2

power

watt

kg.m2/s3

pressure

pascal(newtonpersquaremeter)

Pa

velocity
volume
work

v
V
W

meterpersecond
cubicmeter
joule

m/s
m3
J

kg/m.s2
m/s
m3

electricresistance

ohm

emf
energy

force

kg.m2/C2.s

kg.m2/s2
cd/m2

kg.m2/s2
*TheofficialSIquantityiselectricalcurrent,andthebaseunitistheampere.Electricalcurrentisthe
amountofelectricalcharge(measuredincoulombs)perunitoftime.

SImultipleunitsandNonSIUnits:Someofthemostcommonlymeasured
quantitiesinchemistryaredistance,mass,time,temperature,volume,density,pressure,
amount,concentration,energy,velocity,molarity,viscosity,andelectriccharge.Allof
thesequantitiescanbemeasuredinavarietyofdifferentways.Forexample,distance
canbemeasuredincentimeters,nanometers,miles,inches,feet,fathoms,ngstroms,
microns,kilometers,yards,lightyears,femtometersandmils.Differentunitsareusedto
measuredifferentthings.Forexample,interstellardistancesaremeasuredinlightyears

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

(e.g.thedistancebetweenourSunandthenextneareststarProximaCenturaiis4light
years)whileintermolecularbondlengthsaremeasuredinngstroms(e.g.thedistance
betweenhydrogenandoxygeninwateris0.958)
Unfortunately,thoseunfamiliarwiththevarietyofunitsusedtomeasuredistance
mightassumethatalloftheseunitsrepresentdifferentphysicalquantities,wheninfact
theyareallusedtomeasuredistance.AlthoughgroupsliketheInternationalUnionof
PureandAppliedChemists(IUPAC)andothershaverecommendedthatallquantitiesbe
measuredinSIunits(e.g.meters)ormultiplesofSIunits(e.g.femtometers,nanometers,
micrometers,millimeters,centimeters,kilometers),manyothermeasurementunits
continuetobeused(e.g.,miles,inches,feet,fathoms,ngstroms,microns,yards,light
years,mils).
ThelefthandcolumninTable3listssomeofthemostcommonlymeasured
quantitiesinchemistryandthemiddlecolumnliststheSIunits.Table4providesalistof
otherunitsthatareusedinthemeasurementofoneofthese8quantities.Examineeach
ofthesetermsandtrytodeterminewhichquantityitmeasures(distance,mass,time,
etc.).Placetheseunitsinthetableadjacenttothequantityyoubelievetheymeasure.
Afterclassifyingtheunits,consultadictionary,encyclopedia,chemistrytext,orother
resourcetodetermineifyouclassificationiscorrect.

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

Table3Differentunitsforthesamequantity
Quantity

SIunits

distance

meters

mass

kilograms

time

seconds

temperature

kelvin

volume

cubicmeters

density

kilogramsper
cubicmeter

pressure

newtonsper
squaremeter

energy

joules

otherunits

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

Table4Unitsofdistance,mass,time,temperature,
volume,density,pressureandenergy

ngstroms
astronomicalunits
atmospheres(atm)
atomicmassunits
bars
barrels
bayre
boardfeet
Britishthermalunits
bushels
Calories
carats
centigrade
centigrams
centimeters
centuries
cmH20
cubiccentimeters
cubicyards
cups
days
decades
degreesCelsius
degreesFahrenheit
degreesRankine

dynes
dynepersquare
electronvolts
ergs
fathoms
feet
femtometers
gallons
gramspercubic
centimeter
gramsperliter
gramspermilliliter
grams
hours
inches
joules
kilocalories
kilograms
kilojoule
kilometers
kilopascals
kilowatthours
lightyears
liters
metrictons
micrograms
microns

mils
miles
milligrams
millennia
millibar
milliliters
milliseconds
minutes
mmHg
nanometers
nanoseconds
ounces
ouncespergallon
pascals
pecks
pints
poundspercubicfoot
poundspersquareinch
quarts
slugs
tablespoons
teaspoons
therms
tons
torrs
yards

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

1.2.3ProblemSolving(DimensionalAnalysis)
ConceptstoInvestigate:Problemsolving,dimensionalanalysis(factorlabelmethod,
unitanalysis).
Materials:none.
PrinciplesandProcedures:Cardiovasculardiseases(diseasesoftheheartandblood
vessels)aretheleadingcauseofdeathworldwide.Toaddressthisproblem,biomedical
engineershavedesignedvariousartificialhearts,andsomedaysurgeonsmayroutinely
implanttheseinpatientswhoseownheartsarefailing.Beforeimplantingsuchadevice
inapatient,asurgeonneedstohaveanideaofhowlongitmightbeexpectedtowork
beforeneedingtobereplaced.Ifanartificialheartiscapableofpumpingatleast
17,000,000pintsofbloodbeforefailure,howlongwillitprobablylastinapatientif
theiraverageheartrateis72beatsperminutes,andaveragestrokevolume(theamountof
bloodpumpedwitheachstroke)is70mL?
Whenfacedwithsuchaproblem,peopleusuallyresorttotheircalculatorsand
punchinsequencessuchasthefollowing:
(17,000,000x473x70)/(72x60x365)=?
(70x72x60x365)/(17,000,000x473)=?
(17,00,000x473x72)/(70x60x365)=?
Eachoneoftheseincludesthecorrectnumbers,butwhichequationyieldsacorrect
answer?Actually,allareincorrectbecausetheydonotspecifyunits(adimensionless
productismeaningless)andillustrateerrorsinlogic(thecalculationswillyieldincorrect
numbersbecausetheyarenotsetupcorrectly).Fortunately,sucherrorscanbeavoided
usingatechniqueknownasdimensionalanalysis.
DimensionalAnalysis(alsoknownasfactorlabelmethodandunitanalysis)isthesingle
mostpowerfultechniqueinsolvingproblemsofthiskind.Dimensionalanalysisallows
youtosetuptheproblemandcheckforlogicerrorsbeforeperformingcalculations,and

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

allowsyoutodetermineintermediateanswersenroutetothesolution.Dimensional
analysisinvolvesfivebasicsteps:
(1)Unknown:Clearlyspecifytheunits(dimensions)ofthedesiredproduct(the
unknown).Thesewillbecomethetargetunitsforyourequation.
(2)Knowns:Specifyallknownvalueswiththeirassociatedunits.
(3)Conversionfactorsandformulas:Specifyrelevantformulasandall
conversionfactors(withtheirunits).
(4)Equation:Developanequation(usingappropriateformulasandconversion
factors)suchthattheunitsoftheleftside(thesidecontainingtheknown
values)areequivalenttotheunitsoftherightside(thesidecontainingthe
unknown).Iftheunitsarenotequal,thentheproblemhasnotbeensetup
correctlyandfurtherchangesinthesetupmustbemade.
(5)Calculation:Performthecalculationonlyafteryouhaveanalyzedall
dimensionsandmadesurethatbothsidesofyourequationhaveequivalent
units.
Letusillustratedimensionalanalysisusingtheproblemoftheartificialheart.
(1)Unknown(targetunits)
Wewanttodeterminethenumberofyearstheheartcanbeexpectedtobeat.
(2)Knownvalues
Theartificialheartisprojectedtopumpatleast1.7x107pintsofblood
Theaverageheartrateis72strokes/minute
Theaveragestrokevolumeis70mL/stroke
(3)ConversionUnits
Thereare473mL/pint
Thereare60min/hr

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

Thereare24hr/day
Thereare365day/yr
(4&5)EquationandCalculation
7
1.7x10pints
=
h6.0years
72strokes
min
70ml
stroke
pint
473ml
24h
y31d
365.25d
0min

Wecannowanalyzethedimensionstoinsurethatourproblemissetupcorrectlybefore
performingthecalculation.Theonlywaythatwecangettheunitsontheleftandright
sidetobeequalisbydividingbythestrokevolume,heartrate,andtimeconversion
factors.Noticethatwhendividingyousimplyinvertandmultiply.Theunitsofthe
unknown(thetargetvalue)areyears.Sincealloftheunitsontheleftsideofthe
equationexceptyearscancel,theproblemissetupcorrectlyandwecanperformthe
calculationanddeterminethattheheartmaybeexpectedtopumpalittlemorethanseven
years.
Inadditiontoinsuringthatyourproblemissetupcorrectly,dimensionalanalysis
alsoyieldsotheranswersenroutetothefinalsolution.Inthisproblem,thefirst
calculationindicateshowmanymillilitersofbloodtheheartmaypumpwhilethesecond
indicatesthenumberofstrokestheheartmaybeexpectedtoperform.Thethirdproduct
indicatesthenumberofminutestheheartmaybeexpectedtooperate,whilethefourth
andfifthcalculationsindicatethissametimeconvertedtodaysandyears.
h6.0years
72strokes
min
70ml
stroke
pint
3473ml
24h
y1d
365.25d
0min

4
7
9
8
6
3
1.7x10pints
=
8.0x10mlblood
1.1x10strokes
1.6x10minutes
1.1x10days
2.7x10hours
3.0years

Anotherexamplemayhelpindicatehowusefulthistechniqueis.Let'ssaythata
painterispaintingafence300meterslongand2.0metershighwithpaintthatcosts

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

$23.00gallon.Ifagallonofpaintcovers60squaremeters,whatdoesitcosttopaintthe
fence?
Theunknowninthisquestionisthecostofpaintingthefence.Thus,ouranswer
ontherightsideoftheequationmusthaveunitsofdollars($).Lookingattheknown
informationweseethattheonlythingwhichhastheunit"dollar"initisthecostofthe
paint($23.00/gallon).Knowingthattheanswermustbeexpressedinunitsofdollars,we
startofbymultiplyingby$23.00/gallontokeepdollars($)inthenumerator.Allthatis
necessaryatthispointistocancelouttheunitsof"gallons"inthedenominator.We
knowthatagalloncovers60squaremeters(1gallon/60m2),sowemustmultiplybythis
valuetocancelgallons.Nowweareleftwithsquaremeters(m2)inthedenominatorthat
canbecanceledifwemultiplybythelength(300m)andheight(2.0m)ofthefence.All
oftheunitsontheleftcancelexceptdollars($),indicatingthatwehavesettheproblem
upcorrectlyandthecalculationcannowbemade.
gallon
=
$230
60m
2.0m
300m
gallon
$23.00
2

Questions:
(1)Analyzetheunitsineachofthefollowingequationsanddeterminetheunitsofthe
answer.
(a)Theproductofdensity(g/ml)andvolume(ml)=
(b)Theproductofconcentration(mol/l)andvolume(l)=
2

(c)Theproductofpressure(N/m )andarea(m )=
(d)Thequotientofmass(g)dividedbyvolume(ml)=
(e)Theproductofvelocity(m/s)andtime(s)=
(2)Dimensionalanalysiscanbeusedtosolvemostwordproblems,regardlessofthe
subject.Solvethefollowingproblemsusingdimensionalanalysis.
(a)CalculatethenumberofsecondsinthemonthofDecember.

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

(b)Linoleumflooringissoldinonefootsquares.Approximatelyhowmany
squaresmustbeorderedtocovertheroomsinaschoolifeachroomis1300
squarefeetandthereare10roomsperfloorand3floorsinthebuilding?
(c)Howmanydonutscanyoubuywithtwentythreedollarsiftheycost
$3.00/dozen?
(d)Alightyearisthedistancelighttravelsinoneyear.Sirius(thedogstar),the
brighteststarinthesky,isapproximately8.6lightyearsfromearth.How
far(inkm)fromtheearthisitknowingthatlighttravels3.0x108m/s?
(e)Thedensityofleadis11.3g/cm3.Whatisthemassofablockoflead20.0cm
high,by30.0cmlongby15.0cmdeep?

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

FORTHETEACHER

Scientificnotationandsignificantfigures:Whendealingwithverylargeorsmall
numbers,itisbesttousescientificnotation.Scientificnotationisamethodwhich
simplifiesthewritingofverysmallandverylargenumbersandcomputationsinvolving
these.Inscientificnotation,numbersareexpressedastheproductofanumberbetween1
and10andawholenumberpower(exponent)of10.Theexponentindicateshowmany
timesanumbermustbemultipliedbyitself.Someexamplesfollow:101=10,102=10x
10=100,103=10x10x10=1000.
Exponentsmayalsobenegative.Forexample,101=1/10=0.1.Also,102=
1/100=0.01and103=1/1000=0.001.Followingaresomeexamplesofnumbers
writteninscientificnotation:
30=3x101

150=1.5x102

60,367=6.0367x104

0.3=3x101

0.046=4.6x102

0.000002=2x106

Writinganumberinscientificnotationinvolvessuccessivelymultiplyingthe
numberbythefraction10/10(whichisequalto1).Multiplyinganumberbyonedoes
notchangethevalueofthatnumber.Forexample:
(3

Itiscertainlynotnecessarytousetheaboveformalproceduretowriteanumber
inscientificnotation.Aftersomepracticeyourstudentswillbedoingitintheirheads.
Youmaywishtoexplainscientificnotationasfollows:towrite142inscientificnotation,
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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

movethedecimalpointtwoplacestotheleft(whichisdividingby102),andmultiplyby
102toget1.42x102.Towrite0.013inscientificnotation,movethedecimalpointtwo
placestotheright(whichismultiplyingby102),anddivideby102toget1.3x102.
Computationsinvolvingnumberswritteninscientificnotationareeasyto
perform.Tomultiplynumberswritteninscientificnotation,multiplythewholenumber
partsandaddthepowers(exponents).Todividenumberswritteninscientificnotation,
dividethewholenumberpartsandsubtractthepower(exponent)ofthedemoninator
fromthepowerofthenumerator.Followingaresomeexamples:

Scientificnotationmakesitpossibletounambiguouslyindicatethenumberofsignificant
digitsinameasurement.Supposeastudentreportsameasurementofthemassofa
reagentas230g.Howmanysignificantdigitsarecontainedinthismeasurement?We
don'tknow!Thedigits2and3areobviouslysignificant,butwhataboutthezero?Isit
justaplaceholderordidthestudentactuallyestimatethemasstothenearestg?
Scientificnotationcanhelpthestudentandusanswerthisimportantquestion.Carefully
inspectthefollowing:
230=2.3x102
230=2.30x102
Thefirstmeasurement2.3x102indicatesthatthereareonlytwosignificant
digitsinthemeasurement.Thatis,thestudentdidnotmeasuretothenearestgramthe
zeroisonlyaplaceholder.Thesecondmeasurement2.30x102indicatesthatthe
studentdidmeasuretothenearestgramthezeroisasignificantdigit.
1.2.1THEIMPORTANCEOFUNITS
Discussion:Itisverycommontoforgettoincludeunitswhenrecordingmeasurements
orperformingcalculations.Remindyourstudentsthatmeasurementswithoutunitsare
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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

meaningless,andencouragethemto"catch"youwheneveryouhaveomittedunits.If
studentstrytocatchyourmistakes(realorplanned),theywillbemuchmoreawareof
theirown.
Thisactivityisdesignedtohelpstudentsunderstandtheimportanceofunitsand
recognizetheiruseineverydaylife.Studentsareaskedtosupplyunitsforvarious
measurementswheretheyhavebeenpurposelyomitted.Someofthequestionsare
designedinaseeminglycontradictoryfashiontohelpstudentsrecognizetheimportance
ofalwaysusingunits.Forexample:question"a"statesthat"Theworld'stallestbuilding
(SearsTowerinChicago)is110___high,"whilequestion"b"statesthat"TheEmpire
StateBuildinginNewYorkis1,250___high."Thisseemingcontradictionisresolvedif
onerealizesthattheheightsofthesebuildingsaremeasuredindifferentunits(stories
versusfeet).
Answers:
(Activity):(a)stories,(b)feet,(c)miles,(d)kilometers,(e)degreesFahrenheit,(f)
degreesCelsius,(g)inches(h)cm,(i)yards,(j)pounds,(k)tons,(l)liters,(m)
carats,(n)grams/ml(o)milesperhour,(p)kilograms,(q)milligrams,(r)kcal(Cal)(s)
kilowatthours,(t)megabars.
(1)Therearemanydifferentwaystomeasureanyparticularquantityanditisessentialto
usethecorrectunittoavoidconfusionandunwieldynumbers.Forexample,masscan
memeasuredingrams,centigrams,kilograms,milligrams,micrograms,atomicmass
units,carats,ounces,slugs,tons,ormetrictons.
(2)Hopefully,beforeyoudrink,youwouldaskyourhostwhetheritwasheatedto100
degreesCelsiusorFahrenheit!Waterat100degreesCelsiusboils(atatmospheric
pressure),whilewaterat100degreesFahrenheitisonlyslightlyabovebodytemperature.
1.2.2UNITSINCHEMISTRY
Discussion:FundamentalandDerivedUnits:Thereisacommontendencyonthepartof
studentsandteacherstoomitunitswhenperformingscientificcalculations.Thisbad
habitmayresultfromthefactthatmanyofushavelearnedmathematicsina
"dimensionless"environmentwheretheproblemsdonotinvolvereallifemeasurements.

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

Encouragetheteachersatyourschooltoemployunitswhenteachingmathematicsso
studentswillbeaccustomedtousingthemwhenstudyingscience.
Anunderstandingoffundamentalunitscanhelpyouandyourstudentsdiscover
andunderstandrelationshipsbetweenvarioustermsandquantities.Everyderivedunitis
composedoffundamentalunits.Forexample,accelerationcanbeexpressedintermsof
velocityandtime.Byexaminingtheunitsofacceleration(m/s2),onecanseeits
relationshiptovelocity(m/s)andtime(s):

m

a= 2
s

Thus,byexaminingtheunits(dimensionalanalysis),itbecomesclearthataccelerationis
theratioofvelocitytotime.Thisdiscoveryisconsistentwiththedefinitionof
accelerationasthechangeinvelocityperchangeintime.
Asecondexamplemayfurtherhelpshowthevalueofdimensionalanalysis:A
faradisameasureofelectricalcapacitance(theabilitytostorecharge)andcanbe
expressedinfundamentaltermsas:
C 2

whereCrepresentschargeincoulombs,srepresentstimeinseconds,kgrepresentsmass
inkilograms,andmrepresentsdistanceinmeters.Ifweknowhowaquantitymaybe
expressedinfundamentalterms,wecandiscoverrelationshipsbetweenitandother
quantities.Forexample,knowingthefundamentalunitsofcapacitance(C);potential
difference(V),andcharge(Q),wecanseetherelationshipbetweenthem:
C = capacitancefarad =

C2

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

Byexaminationofthefundamentalunits,itcanbeseenthatcapacitanceisverysimilarto
theinverseofpotentialdifference:
capacitance:C =

C2

Ifwemultiplytheinverseofpotentialdifference(1/V)bycharge(Q;measuredin
coulombs,C),thentheunitsarethesameascapacitance:
1

Q

Thus,byexaminingthefundamentalunitsofcapacitance,chargeandpotential
difference,wehavediscoveredabasicphysicalrelationship:capacitanceisequaltoratio
ofchargetopotentialdifference(C=Q/V).
Thisexampleindicateshowananalysisoffundamentalunitscanelucidate
importantrelationships.Italsoillustratestheconfusionstudentsmayexperiencewhen
solvingproblems.NoticethatCrepresentscoulombs,whileCrepresentscapacitance.
Studentsarefrequentlyconfusedwhenthesameletterisusedtorepresentdifferent
things.Fortunately,therearestandards(Appendix21)forthedesignationofsymbols
andtheseshouldbeintroducedtostudentsbeforeconfusionarises.
SImultipleunitsandNonSIUnits:Thisexerciseisdesignedtoshowstudents
thevarietyofunitsthatmaybeusedtomeasurethesamequantity.Whenstudentssee
thecomplexityofterms,theywillhopefullyunderstandthevalueofusingSIunits
wheneverpossible.

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

Table5SIandNonSIUnits
Quantity
distance
mass
time
temperature
volume
density
pressure

energy

SIunits
meters

otherunits
centimeters,nanometers,miles,inches,feet,
fathoms,ngstroms,microns,kilometers,yards,
lightyears,femtometers,mils,astronomicalunits
kilograms
grams,centigrams,kilograms,milligrams,
micrograms,atomicmassunits,carats,ounces,
slugs,tons,metrictons
seconds
hours,days,minutes,centuries,decades,millennia,
nanoseconds,milliseconds
kelvin
degreescentigrade,degreesCelsius,degrees
Fahrenheit,degreesRankine
cubicmeters
milliliters,cubiccentimeters,liters,bushels,
gallons,cups,pints,quarts,pecks,tablespoons,
teaspoons,cubicyards,barrels,boardfeet
kilogramsper gramspermilliliter,gramspercubiccentimeter,
cubicmeter
gramsperliter,poundspercubicfoot,ouncesper
gallon
newtonsper
pascals,kilopascals,bars,millibars,dynes/cm2,
squaremeter
bayres,torrs,millimetersHg,centimetersH20,
atmospheres(atm),poundspersquareinch(PSI)
joules
joules,kilojoules,ergs,dynes,Calories,kilocalories,
kilowatthours,Britishthermalunits,therms,
electronvolts
1.2.3ProblemSolving(DimensionalAnalysis)

Discussion:Dimensionalanalysisisaverypowerfultoolforsolvingproblemsandcanbe
usedineverydisciplinewherecalculationsaremadeusingmeasuredvalues.Inthis
sectionwehaveintroducedsomesimpleexamples,butitisuptotheteachertoillustrate
thistechniquerepeatedlywhensolvingproblemsbeforetheclass.Studentswilllearnby
example,andifyouarenotconsistentwithusingunitsanddimensionalanalysis,they
willnotbeeither.Dimensionalanalysishassavedmanyteachersembarrassmentwhen
solvingproblemsinclass,becausetheteachercancheckunitstodetermineifthe
problemsetupiscorrectorincorrectbeforeproceedingwithacalculation.Insistthat
studentsincludedimensionsandperformdimensionalanalysiswhensolvingproblems.
Anotherexampleofdimensionalanalysismayhelpillustrateitsusefulnessinchemistry:

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

Determinethevolumeofdryhydrogencollectedoverwaterat27Cand75.0cm
Hgasproducedbythereactionof3.0gzincmetalwithanexcessofsulfuricacid.
(1)Unknown:Theunknownquantity(V2)isthevolumeofgasatstandard
temperatureandpressureandhasunitsoflitersofhydrogen.Notethatthe
unitisnotmerelyliters,butlitersofhydrogenasdistinguishedfromother
substances.
(2)Knowns:
Startingmassofzinc:3.0gZn
Temperature:T2=27C=300Kelvin
Pressure:Thegaspressure(750mmHg)isthesumofthevaporpressureof
waterat27C(27mmHg;seeAppendicies15and16))plusthe
vaporpressureofhydrogen.750mmHg=27mmHg+P2
P2=723mmHg.
(3)EquationsandConversionfactors
Thebalancedequationforthisreactionis
Zn
Thus,themoleratioofzinctohydrogenis:1molezinc/1mole
hydrogen
ThegramatomicweightofZnis:65g/mole
Standardtemperature;T1=273K
Standardpressure;P1=760mmHg
Atstandardtemperatureandpressurethemolarvolumeofagasis
22.4liters/mole
Combinedgaslaw:
P2112V21
=
V
T
(4)ConnectingPath(DimensionalAnalysis):Theequationtobeusedis

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

3.0gZn 1moleZn 1moleH2 22.4literH2 300K 760mmHg
=1.2litersH2

65gZn

1moleZn

1moleH2

273K 723mmHg

moleZn
consumed
moleH2
produced
V1 litersofH2
atSTP
V2

litersofH2
at300K,723mmHg

(5)Calculation:Thecalculationisdoneonlyafterananalysisofthedimensionsinsures
thattheleftandrightsidesoftheequationhaveequivalentunits.Inthiscase,theanswer
is1.2litersofhydrogen.
Thestudentmustmakesurethatallunits(dimensions)arecanceledappropriately
toleavejustthedesiredunit,whichinthiscaseislitersofhydrogengas.Youwillnotice
thatwhatmayseemlikearathercomplexproblemisreducedtoasimpleseriesof
multiplicationsanddivisions.Virtuallyalloftheproblemsencounteredinsecondary
scienceclassesmaybereducedtoasimple"straightlineformat"whichhelpsstudents
structuretheirthinkingastheysolveproblems.Withalittlepracticeyourstudentswill
findthefactorlabelmethodiseasyandconvenienttouse,andisahelpineliminating
errors.Ifthedesiredunitdoesnotappearinthefinalanswer,yourstudentscanbesure
thatsomethingisamissandcanimmediatelyproceedtolocateanyerrorsinlogic.
Studentsmaynotbefamiliarwiththestraightlinemethodforsettingupproblemsand
mightnotrealizethattheverticallinesreplacetheparenthesesinastandardalgebraicset
up.
Manystudentsgetconfusedwhendividingbyfractionsbecausetheyfailto
specifyunitsand/ordonotclearlyspecifytheorderofoperations.Forexample,whena
studentwritesdowntheproblem3/4/5,heorshewillget0.15ifthreequartersisdivided
by5,or3.75if3isdividedbyfourfifths.Suchconfusioncanbeeliminatedbyusing
thestraightlinetechniqueandrequiringthatfractionsnotbeexpressedinthenumerator
ordenominator:
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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

Answers:
(1)(a)g;(b)mole;(c)N;(d)g/ml;(e)m

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

APPLICATIONSTOEVERYDAYLIFE

Business:Everythingthatisboughtorsoldhasdimensions.Alandinvestorneedsto
knowifatractismeasuredinacres,hectares,squarefeet,orsquaremiles.A
commoditiesbrokerneedstoknowifsoybeansarepricedbythebushel,peck,kilogram,
liter,cubicfoot,orcubicyard.Abuildingcontractorneedstoknowwhetheradeveloper
hasgivenhimanorderforconcreteorderincubicyardsorcubicfeet.Itwouldbenearly
impossibletorunasuccessfulbusinesswithoutknowledgeoftheunitsofthetrade.
Retooling:Inthe1980s,muchoftheAmericanautomobileindustryswitchedfromthe
Englishsystemofmeasurementtothemetricsystemofmeasurement.Changingthe
measurementunitsrequiredamassiveamountofretooling.Forexample,whereaone
inchboltwaspreviouslyused,a2.5cmboltwassubstituted.Becauseoftheslight
differencesinsize,itbecamenecessarytobuynewtoolsetstoworkonthesecars.
However,theeffortputtheU.S.automobileindustryinamorefavorableposition
internationallyandeconomically.ManyotherindustriesintheU.S.eitherhavemadethe
changeoraremakingthechange.
HomeEconomics:Recipesalwaysspecifymeasurementsinunits.Youneedtoknow
whetheryourrecipeismeasuredintablespoons,teaspoons,cups,quarts,gallons,
millilitersorliters!Whencookingdinner,itisessentialthatyouknowwhether
directionswerewrittenforastovecalibratedinCelsiusorFahrenheit.Whencomparing
theratesofcompetinglongdistancephonecarriers,itisnecessarytoknowtheuniton
whichthebillingrateisset.
MonetarySystems:Eachcountryhasitsownmonetarysystem.Althoughcountries
mayusethesameunit,itmayhaveadifferentmeaning.ACanadiandollarisnotworth
thesameasanAmericandollar,neitherisaJapaneseyenworththesameasaChinese

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1.2.1 Units of Measurement

yuan.Thefullnameoftheunitshouldbespecifiedwheneverdoingcalculations.Inother
words,itisnecessarytospecifyanAmericandollar,notjustadollar.
Measurement:Itisimportantthatyouknowthemeaningoftheunitsbywhich
somethingismeasured.Onbusinessreportsyoumayhearthepriceofaparticular
commodityquoted.Althoughtheymaysaythatitcosts$1000perton,thequestion
remains,aretheyquotingthepriceperlongton(1.016metrictons),pershortton(0.97
metrictons),orpermetricton?Tounderstandtheworldaroundus,itisnecessaryto
knowhowitemsaremeasured,andwhattheunitstheyaremeasuredinrepresent.

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