.

: I

VI
,
.
, , .
,
(384 322. ....)
, (1. ) .
(Isaac Newton, 1643 1727.)
(1687. ).
, 19.
. (Caspar Wessel,
1745 1818), (Jean Robert Argand, 1768 1822), (Carl Friedrich
Gauss, 1777 1855)
, 1837. 1843.
(William Rowan Hamilton, 1805 1865). 1850-
(Peter Guthrie Tait, 1831 1901)
. ,
(Hermann Grassmann, 1809 1877) 1832.
1844.
(Ausdehnungslehre),
.
(James Clerk Maxwell, 1831 1879)
.
(William Kingdon Clifford, 1845 1879)
(1878.), (J. Willard Gibbs,
1839 1903) (Oliver Heaviside, 1850 1925).

18.
18.1.
16.1.
, .
, . AB,
, AB
|AB| . ,
.
18.1.2. AB CD ,
. AB = CD. EF GH
, . EF = -GH.
AB AB ,
a, a .

6.

123

. : I
18.1.3. V.
: :
. (a V) a = a;
. (a, b V) a = b b = a;
. (a, b, c V) a = b b = c a = c,
.
18.1.4. AB BC AC, . AB +
BC = AC.
,
. a b a
b , . b :

a b a (b) .
18.1.5. ABCD . M, N, P Q
AB, BC, CD DA. MNPQ
.
: MN

1
1
1
1
AB BC , QP CD DA . MN PQ
2
2
2
2

1
AB BC CD DA 0 , . MN QP , MN QP
2
. , MNPQ
.

18.1.6. (a, b, c V):

: a + b = b + a;
: (a + b) + c = a + (a + b) = a + b + c.
(k, m R):
1. k(ma) = (km)a;
2. (k + m)a = k a + m a;
3. k(a + b) = k a + k b;
4. 1a = a.
18.1.7. ( ) p q
a A A1, b B B1 C
a b, :
AB
CA
CB
.

A1 B1 CA1 CB1
: , AB A1 B1

6.

124

. : I
( ), AB k A1 B1 ,
AB
| k | . ABC A1B1C
A1 B1
AB CB CA A1 B1 CB1 CA1 .

CB CA k CB1 CA1 ,

CB k CB1 CA k CA1 . a b
,

, CB k CB1
CA
CB
AB
CA k CA1 , :
, .
| k |

CA1 CB1
A1 B1
18.1.8. , a a 0

a
.
|a|

18.1.9.
1. AB CD AC BD .
2. ABCD.
) AC BD AB AD .
) AB AD AC BD .
3. ABCD AD BC 60
AB. AD, BC CD 3. M, N
P AB, BC CD. AB AD a
b . : AB , BC , AD , AM ,
AN , AP , NP , MP NM .
4. CA u CB 2v . AB
D, DE E. u v
: ) AB ; ) AE ; ) CE .

[ 2v u ;

1
1
3
1
v u; u v]
2
4
4
2

5.
.
6.
.
7. A, B, C, D AB CD AD CB .

6.

125

. : I

8. T ABC, TA TB TC 0 .

18.2.
,
.
(3,2), (-3,1), (1,5;-4)
( ) ( )
,
( ), .
3-

,
: ,
(z ).
,
.
(3,2), (-3,1), (1,5;-4),
3 3 1,5
, , .
2 1 4
,
.
,

A = (3,2), B = (-3,1), C =
(1,5;-4), A(3,2), B(-3,1),
C(1,5;-4).

(. )

: OA 3i 2 j ,

OB 3i j , OC 1,5i 4 j ,
i , j ( k ) , ,
( ).
,
.
, .
.

6.

126

. : I

(.
Ren Descartes, .
Renatus Cartesius, 1596
1650.)


(La Gomtrie,
1637.)


.


,

.

,


.
.
18.2.1. .
: A(3,2), B(-3,1) C(1,5;-4)
13 , 10 18,25 ,
.
,
P1 ( x1 , y1 ) P2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) , ,

P1 P2T , x x 2 x1 , y y 2 y1 .
P1 P2 x 2 y 2 , .
P1 P2 ( x 2 x1 ) 2 ( y 2 y1 ) 2 . ,
(0,0), (,)

OA x 2 y 2 . , A(3,2)
OA 3 2 2 2 , . OA 13 .
, .
, ,
( ).
. , (16.1.6.) .
18.2.2. OP1 OP2 .

6.

127

. : I

: P1 ( x1 , y1 ) P2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) ,
. OP1
OP2
T ( x1 x 2 , y1 y 2 ) .
OT .


, .
( x1 , y1 ) ( x 2 , y 2 ) ( x1 x 2 , y1 y 2 ) .
18.2.3. P1 ( x1 , y1 ) P2 ( x 2 , y 2 ) .
P0 P1P2 a:b.
: P1P0 : P0P2 = a : b.
( x0 x1 ) : ( x 2 x0 ) a : b ( y 0 y1 ) : ( y 2 y 0 ) a : b .
,
bx ax 2
by ay 2
y0 1
,
x0 1
ab
ab
OP0 . , a : b = 1 : 1,
P0 (

x1 x 2 y1 y 2
,
)
2
2

P1P2.
x1, x2, ..., xn
k1x1 + k2x2 + ... + knxn,
k1, k2, ..., kn , n = 1, 2, 3, ... .
18.2.4. k1, k2, ..., kn
,
k1x1 + k2x2 + ... + knxn = 0,
x1, x2, ..., xn .
k1 = k2 = ... = kn = 0 , x1,
x2, ..., xn .
18.2.5. i, j, k ,
x = 3i 2j, y = j 3k, z = 3i 6k .
: a b z = ax + by.
, 3i 6k = a(3i 2j) + b(j 3k), (3 3a)i + (2a
b)j + (-6 + 3b)k = 0, a = 1, b = 2.

.

6.

128

. : I
2-
V2 ax + by , a b .

OX OY, i j.
x, y z 3- V3
ax + by + cz , a, b c .
OX, OY OZ
i, j k.
18.2.6. x, y, z V3,
v V3 a, b, c v =
ax + by + cz.
: , v a1, b1, c1
a2, b2, c2 v = a1x + b1y + c1z = a2x + b2y + c2z,
(a2 a1)x + (b2 b1)y + (c2 c1)z = 0. x, y,
z a2 a1 = 0, b2
b1 = 0, c2 c1 = 0, . a2 = a1, b2 = b1, c2 = c1.
18.2.7.
1. A(3,1) B(-1,3). OA OB :
) 5 OA 3 OB ; ) i ; ) j ; ) OC , C(5,4).
2. A(-2,3) B(1,2). OC AB
: ) 2:3; ) 3:4; ) 5:1; ) 4:5.
3. :
) (7, -5, 1), (4, 2, 3) (-13, -11, -2); ) (-1, 5, 2), 2, 1, -3) (3, -2, -4);
, .
4. A(-1, -3), B(5, 1), C(-2, 2).
) ABC.
) ABC.
) OA , AB, t A .
5. , B, C, D Pn(xn, yn), n = 1, 2, 3, 4.
) AC BD n, n.
) AC BD .
6. u(2,-1) v(1,3). :
) (4,5); ) (-3,2); ) (7,-1); ) (-2,-5).

18.3.
p , 1(x1, y1) 2(x2, y2)
A1 A2 , , .
. , P 12,

6.

129

. : I
,
x x 2 y1 y 2
P 1
,
.
2
2
1
OP OA1 A1 A2 . ,
2
P 12,

OP OA1 A1 A2 , R.
.
18.3.1. r a b , R,
a OA b .
r .
(18.3.1.)
(, ), (,
).
,
b
x a
1 1
y a2
b2

x a1 b1
. :

y a 2 b2
18.3.2. ( R)
(a1, a2) B(b1, b2) :
x a1 b1 ,

y a 2 b2 .
x
x y r . ,
y
x a1
y a2

, .

b1
b2

18.3.3. ()
(a1, a2) B(b1, b2) :
x a1 y a 2
.

b1
b2
. b1b2
b2x b1y = a1b2 a2b1, ax + by = c.

6.

130

. : I
18.3.4.
1 0
2 3
r t ,
0 1
1 4
1 , t .
: t = 0 A = (2, 1),
B = (5, 5), .
.
3
3
AB . AB = 3 2 4 2 = 5
4
4
.
A(2, 1),
B(5, 5) 5 /.
18.3.5.
1. :
) x + y = 5;
) x y = 3;
) 2x + 3y = 5.
2. A
v:
) A(2, 3), v = 5i 4j;
) A(-1, 2), v = 3i + j;
) A(2, -3), v = -2i -3j.
2 3
, R.
3. r
1 4
) r a b ;
) ;
) .

4. v1 v2:
)
)
)
v1 = 2i + 3j + (i + 2j),
v1 = (3, 5) + (-2, 1),
5 3
,
v1
v2 = 5i 2j + (2i + j);
v2 = (4, -3) + (-2, -5);
4
3 2
.
v 2
4 3
5 x 4 y 2
3
5. r

.
3
5
4
2

6. x = 4 3t, y = -4 + 2t.
a) ;
) t (-47, 30);
) (-35, 23) ;
) .

6.

131

. : I
7. r v / A B
( ) :
A 10:00 , rA = 7i + 2j, vA = 3i + 2j,
B 10:30 , rB = 8i + 5j, vB = 4i j.
) , ?
) , .
, B .

19.
18. 19. .

. :
;
;
;
;
;
();
;
;
(. Leontief model);
;
.

19.1.
1 2
, . j (j = 1, 2)
aj1 , aj2 aj3 :

1
2

a11
a21

a12
a22

a13
a23.

a
= 11
a 21

a12
a 22

a13
.
a 23

2 (. ) 3 , 2 3.
23, 2,3.
(. 3) ( 3).
. ,
, ,
.
19.1.1. ()
.

6.

132

. : I
, A = ||ajk|| B = ||bjk|| mn, A = B
mn ajk = bjk (j = 1, 2, ..., m; k = 1, 2, ..., n).
A B,
40 35 280
38 32 175
B
,
A
50 42 320
46 38 316

:
40 38 35 32 280 175 78 67 455
=
.
A B
50 46 42 38 320 316 96 80 636

19.1.2. ()
.
, A = ||ajk|| B = ||bjk|| mn,
C = A + B = ||cjk|| cjk = ajk + bjk (j = 1, 2, ..., m; k = 1,
2, ..., n).

. , ,
.
, .
,
. ,
R :

a
a a
a12 a13
a
.
11 12 13 = 11
a 21 a 22 a 23 a 21 a 22 a 23
19.1.3.

.
, A = ||ajk|| R, A ||ajk||.
, ,
.
19.1.4.
.

2 7 2 9
7 3 1
3 2 1

9 = 5 4
1 9 = 9 8 .
. 5 1 4
0 13 12 6 0 (12) 13 (6) 12 19

6.

133

. : I

, , A
,
.
19.1.5. :
1. (A,B,C) A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C ();
2. (A,B) A + B = B + A ();
3. (1)() + = + = ( );
4. (A)(A) A + A = A + A = O ( ).

.
,
,
. , P p1, p2
p3 , :

p1

P = p2 .
p
3
:

a
M P = 11
a 21

a12
a 22

p1
a13 a11 p1 a12 p 2 a13 p 3
= T.
p =
a 23 2 a 21 p1 a 22 p 2 a 23 p 3
p3

M2,3 P3,1 = T2,1 . , T2,1

.
, ,
:

q1

Q = q2 ,
q
3
M Q. ,
:

p1

S = || P Q || = p 2
p
3

6.

q1

q2 ,
q 3

134

. : I
, M S =
p1 q1
a p b p c p
a1 q1 b1 q 2 c1 q3
a1 b1 c1
.

p 2 q 2 = 1 1 1 2 1 3
a 2 b2 c 2 p q a 2 p1 b2 p 2 c 2 p 3 a 2 q1 b2 q 2 c 2 q 3
3
3

. ,
. Am,n Bn,p = Cm,p.
.
19.1.6. m n n p (m, n, p N) n
j- (j = 1, 2, ..., m)
n k- (k = 1, 2, ..., p) , n
j- , k-
.
, A = ||ajk|| mn B = ||bjk|| np,
n

C = AB = ||cjk|| mp, c jk a ji bik .

i 1

, Am,n Bn,p Cm,p

cjk = ajibik i = 1,
2, ..., n.
. ,
( /) () (). ,
.
, .
19.1.7. A, B C , :
A(BC) = (AB)C ;
A(B + C) = AB + AC ;
(A + B)C = AC + BC .
.
19.1.8. P1 P2 x y .
20% 30% .
. .
: , P1 P2 :
x1 = 0,8x + 0,3y,
y1 = 0,2x + 0,7y.
0,8 0,3 x x1
, MX = X1.
:
0,2 0,7 y y1
, :

6.

135

. : I
x2 = 0,8x1 + 0,3y1,
y2 = 0,2x1 + 0,7y1.
0,8 0,3 x1 x 2
, MX1 = X2, M2X = X2,
:
0
,
2
0
,
7

y1 y 2
0,8 0,3 0,8 0,3
. ,

M2 = MM =
0,2 0,7 0,2 0,7
0,8 0,8 0,3 0,2 0,8 0,3 0,3 0.7 0,70 0,45
=
.
M2 =
0,2 0,8 0,7 0,2 0,2 0,3 0,7 0,7 0,30 0,55
M3 = M2M, M4 = M3M, ..., Mn = Mn-1M, n = 1, 2, 3, ... .
, n- (n = 1, 2, 3, ...), :
xn = 0,8xn-1 + 0,3yn-1,
yn = 0,2xn-1 + 0,7yn-1.
0,8 0,3 x n x n1
, MXn-1 = Xn, MnX = Xn.

:
0,2 0,7 y n y n 1
19.1.9.

11 3

5 3 2
2 5 12
, B 8 17 , C
.
1. A
4 7 6
13 1 4
9 1

2B, A + C, 3A 2C, A B, B A.
2. .
:
a 21 b 4b 5c
.

5
1 a b
c
3.
2 3 7 a 2b 4b 5c
;


) x
8
5 5 9a 3a 0
1 1 2 4 3 3 6 18
.


x
) x 2
2 1 2 5 5 6 7 30
1 2
A A = A2, A2 A = A3 A3 A = A4.
4. A
4
1

2n
3
0
n .
A 2 n
2n
0
3

1 0
1 0
A n
, n .
5. A
1 1
n 1

6.

136

. : I
6. 19.1.7.
P1 P2 a b , , a
b 3 2 ?
7. , 1, 2 3.
10 1, 7 2 3 3. 4 1, 8 2 10
3. 4 1, 7 2 8 3. 1, 2
3 4, 5 6 ,
.
[ = 93, 116, 99]
8. A, B C P, Q R.
:
P
Q
R
2
3
1
A
4
2
5
B
2
4
2
C
, :
) 100
;
) , P, Q
R 5, 10 5 ;
) 200
.
[(800, 900, 800); (45, 65, 60); 34000]

19.2.
.
, . A = ||ajk|| () mn
m = n An. ,
a11 a12 ... a1n

a11 a12
a 21 a 22 ... a 2 n
,
(a11),
... ... ... ... ,
a 21 a 22

a
...
a
n2
nn
n1
1, 2, 3, ... , n.
aii (i = 1, 2, ..., n).

a12

a 21
a
31

a12
a 22
a32

a13

a 23 , ...,
a33

A B ,
. AB BA
.
I
, .
I = ||jk||,

6.

137

. : I
1,
jk =
0,

jk
j k.

1 0
. ,
, : I 2
0 1
A I

AI = IA = A.
n X
AX = XA = In X
A-1.
a b
1 d b
A 1
.

19.2.1. A
ad bc c a
c d
0
1 a b d b
1 ad bc
=
= I.

ad bc
ad bc c d c a ad bc 0
0
1 d b a b
1 ad bc
=
= I.

A 1 A
ad bc
ad bc c a c d ad bc 0

: AA 1

A det A. ,
(19.2.1.)
det A =

a b
ad bc ,
c d

. . , det A = 0 A-1
( )
; det A 0
(19.2.1.).
19.2.2. :
2x y 7

5 x 3 y 6.
: AX = B, .
2 1
3 1
2 1 x 7
.
. det A =

= 1, A-1 =
5 3
5 2
5 3 y 6
A-1 A-1(AX) = A-1B, (A-1A)X =
A-1B, IX = A-1B, . X = A-1B. ,
x 3 1 7 21 6 27
= .
=
X = =
y 5 2 6 35 12 47
, x = 27, y = 47.

6.

138

. : I
: 227 47 = 7 (), -527 + 347 = 6 (!).
.
2. 3. 3. 2. .

1 4 7
1 2 3

4 5 6 2 5 8 .
3 6 9
7 8 9

, A = ||ajk|| mn, B = ||bjk|| nm,

bjk = akj (j = 1, 2, ..., n; k = 1, 2, ..., m)
T, A.

( 16.2.4.). A = ||ajk|| n
ajk Ajk = (-1)j+kDjk, Djk det A
j- k- . ||Ajk||T n
adj A.
19.2.3. det A 0, A 1

adj A
.
det A

19.2.4.
1. :
)
)
)
3 1
4 2
;
;

5 2
5 3
2. ?
)
)
)
3
k
m 5 2
;
;

m
2 k 1
3

2 6
.

1 3

1
n
.

1 n 1

3. :
)
)
)
4x 5y =2
7x + 3y = 10
-9x + 6y = 15
3x + y = 6;
6x 5y = 4;
6x 4y = -10;
x 1
2x
, x R. :
4. A( x)
2(1 x) 2 x 1
ii. A2(a);
i. A(a)A(b);
iii. An(a), n N.

5. X :
1 2 2 1
3 4
.

X

1 3 3 4
5 1
6.

139

. : I

1 5
1 2
.
X
6. X :
1 5
1 2
2a 1 2b 5
, a b ]
[
b
a

7. .
a b 2
, a = -bc]
[
c a

8. :
)
)

10
x
9
z
19

x y z 1

8 x y 10
x y z 1
y 12 z 10;
x y z 1.

[(1, -2, -1);

( 1)(1,1,1)
]
( 1)( 2)

9. :
1. AX = B, 2. XA = B, 3. AX = BA-1B, 4. XA = BA-1B,
1 2 1
1 1 1

A 1 1 0 , B 0 0 0 .
2 0 1
0 0 0

10. 1, 2 3
1, 2 3.
, .
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
2
1
1
2
3
3
2
1
29, 13
16 .
[ : 2, 3 4]

19.3.
( R),
,
, R.
,
.
19.3.1. A B mn , R,
( + )A = A + A,
(A + B) = A + B,

6.

140

. : I

()A = (A),
1A = A.

(18.2.4.)
A1, A2, ..., Ak (mn)
k

1 A1 2 A2 ... k Ak r Ar ,
r 1

1, 2, ..., k R.
mn.
.
,
1 2 3 1 7 1
3 1 1 2 4 5
,
.

1 1 2 1 1 2
2 1 1 1 1 5
, In = (jk)n
; ,
. , , .
A, B, C (AB)C A(BC) ,
.
19.3.2. A = (ajk)m,n , B = (bjk)n,p , C = (cjk)p,q R.
(AB)C = A(BC).
: (AB)C = (djk)m,pC =

a
k 1

i 1

b c kr =

ji ik

a
k 1 i 1

ji

b jk c kr =

a
i 1 k 1

ji

b jk c kr =

p
a

ji
b jk c kr = A(ejr)n,q = A(BC).
i 1

k 1
n

19.3.1. , .
19.3.3. A, B, C, D, R mn R,

C(A + B) = CA + CB,
(A + B)C = AC + BC,
(AB) = (A)B = A(B).
n. A0 = In, A1 = A,
A2 = AA, A3 = AA2, A4 = AA3, . As+1 = AAs, s .
(5.1.2.) .
19.3.4. r s :
1. ArAs = Ar+s,
2. (Ar)s = Ars.
19.3.5. P(A) = I Q(A) =
A2 + A + I.

6.

141

. : I

: P(A)Q(A) = (A I)(A2 + A + I) = A3 + A2 + A A2 A I = A3 I.
, .
, . ,
, ():
1. ab = ba;
2. ab = 0 a = 0 b = 0;
3. (ab = ac a 0) b = c.
19.3.5.
.
1 1 1 1 0 0
.

:
1 1 1 1 0 0

3. , .

1 2 0
1 2 3
1 2 3

A 1 1 0 , B 1 1 1 , C 1 1 1 ,
1 4 0
2 2 2
1 1 1

3 4 1

AB AC 2 3 2 . , AB = AC A 0 B = C.
3 2 7

, .
19.3.6. AB ,
BTAT (AB)T = BTAT.
: (AB)m,p A = (ajk) B = (bjk) mn
np . (AB)T pm, BT je pn, AT nm,
BTAT pm. , (AB)T BTAT
.
(AB)j,k , .

a
i 1

ji ik

(k, j)

(AB)T. (k, j) BTAT

b
i 1

ik

a ji , .

a
i 1

b .

ji ik

19.3.7.
a b
A2 (a + d)A + (ad bc)I = 0.
1. A
c d
i. A2 = 0.
ii. Ak = 0 (k N) A2 = 0.

6.

142

. : I

f n 1
f
1 1
, fn
n
2.
1 0
f n1 f n 2
f-1 = 0, f0 = 1, fn = fn-1 + fn-2.

4
1 1
7
2 1
, B
, C
, AC = CB.
3. A
0 1
9 5
3 2
Bn, n .
[ B = C-1AC B2 = C-1A2C, Bn = C-1AnC]
a b
x
. X
4. A
c d
u
2
2
2
i. AX = XA. AX = XA = 0, (A + X) = A + X ?

y
, :
v

ii. AX = XAT. AkX = X(AT)k?

[(ii) b = c = 0, a = d X ; b 0
x
y
b
ad

y v y

c
d a ; c 0 X
; a d
X
c
c
y

x
y
y
v
b
b

b
c

x
v
x

ad
a d . , .]
X
c x b v

ad
ad

1 0 0

5. A 1 0 1 An = An-2 + A2 + I, n N.
0 1 0

6. A I + A + A2 + ... + Ak = 0,
A-1 = Ak.
[ Ak+1 = I, .]
7. k , Ak = 0
(I A)-1 = I + A + A2 + ... + Ak-1.
[ (Ak Ik) = (A I)(Ak-1 + Ak-2 + ... + A + I).]

6.

143

. : I

VI ............................................................................................................123
18. .........................................................................................123
18.1. ................................................................................123
18.2. ..........................................................................126
18.3. ....................................................................................129
19. .......................................................................................................132
19.1. ...............................................................................132
19.2. ................................................................................137
19.3. ...................................................................140

6.

144