STRUCTURE

FOR PURE METALS:

At the mould walls, metal cools rapidly. Produces
solidified skin or shell (thickness depends on composition, mould
temperature, mould size and shape etc)

These are of equiaxed structure.

Grains grow opposite to heat transfer through the mould
These are columnar grains
Driving force of the heat transfer is reduced away from
the mould walls and blocking at the axis prevents further
growth

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PURE METALSHave clearly defined melting/freezing point,

solidifies at a constant temperature.
Eg: Al - 6600C,
Fe - 15370C,
and W- 34100C.
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Size and distribution of the overall grain structure throughout

a casting depends on rate & direction of heat flow
(Grain size influences strength, ductility, properties along
different directions etc.)
CONVECTION- TEMPERATURE GRADIENTS DUE TO
DIFFERNCES IN THE DENSITY OF MOLTEN METAL AT DIFFERENT
TEMPERATURES WITHIN THE FLUID - STRONGLY EFFECTS

THE GRAIN SIZE.

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FOR ALLOYS:
Alloys solidify over a range of temperatures
Begins when temp. drops below liquidous, completed
when it reaches solidous.
Within this temperature range, mushy or pasty state
(Structure as in figure)
Inner zone can be extended throughout by adding a
catalyst.- sodium, bismuth, tellurium, Mg
(or by eliminating thermal gradient, i.e. eliminating
convection. (Expts in space to see the effect of lack of
gravity in eliminating convection)

(refresh dendritic growth- branches of tree, interlock, each

dendrite develops uniform composition, etc)
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SOLIDIFICATION TIME
During solidification, thin solidified
skin begins to form at the cool mould
walls.
Thickness increases with time.

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CHVORINOVS RULE
solidification time (t) is a function of volume of
the casting and its surface area

t = C ( volume/ surface area )2

C is a constant [depends on mould material, metal
properties including latent heat, temperature]
A large sphere solidifies and cools at a much slower rate
than a small diameter sphere. (Eg- potatoes, one big and

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Solidification time for various shapes :

Eg: Three pieces cast with the SAME volume, but different shapes.
(i)Sphere, (ii)Cube, (iii)Cylinder with height = diameter.
Which piece solidifies the fastest?
Solution: Solidification time = C (volume/surface area)2
Let volume = unity. As volume is same, t = C/ surface area2.

Sphere: V= 4/3 ( r3); i.e. r = (3/4 )1/3

A= 4 r2 = 4 (3/4 )1/3 = 4.84
Cube: V = a3; ie a = 1; A = 6 a2 = 6.
Cylinder: V = r2h = 2 r3; ie, r = (1/2 ) 1/3
A = 2 r2 + 2rh = 6 r2 = 5.54.
Then, t cube = 0.028C ; t cylinder = 0.033C ; t sphere= 0.043C
Metal poured to cube shaped mould solidifies the fastest.

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SHRINKAGE AND POROSITY

METALS SHRINK(CONTRACT) DURING
SOLIDIFICATION
- CAUSES DIMENSIONAL CHANGES
LEADING TO CENTRE LINE SHRINKAGE, POROSITY,
CRACKING TOO
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SHRINKAGE DUE TO:

(1).CONTRACTION OF
MOLTEN METAL AS IT
COOLS PRIOR TO
SOLIDIFICATION

(2) CONTRACTION OF
SOLIDIFYING METAL,
LATENT HEAT OF
FUSION

2
T
3

(3) CONTRACTION OF
SOLIDIFIED METAL
DURING DROP TO
AMBIENT TEMP

Time
OUT OF THESE, LARGEST SHRINKAGE DURING
COOLING OF CASTING (ITEM 3) eg:pure metal

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SOLIDIFICATION CONTRACTION FOR VARIOUS METALS

METAL Volumetric Solidification Contraction

Al
6.6
Grey cast Iron
Expansion 2.5
Carbon Steel
2.5 to 3
Copper
4.9
Magnesium
4.2
Zinc
6.5

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 POROSITY DUE TO SHRINKAGE OF GASES

AND METAL TOO.
RELATED TO DUCTILITY
AND SURFACE FINISH
(DUCTILITY V/S POROSITY CURVES FOR
DIFFERENT METALS)
- ELIMINATION BY VARIOUS MEANS
(ADEQUATE SUPPLY OF LIQUID METAL, USE OF
CHILLS, NARROWING MUSHY ZONE- CASTING
SUBJECTED TO ISOSTATIC PRESSING

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POROSITY BY GASES
LIQUID METALS HAVE HIGH SOLUBILITY FOR
GASES
DISSOLVED GASES EXPELLED FROM
SOLUTION DURING SOLIDIFICATION

(Hydrogen, Nitrogen mainly)

ACCUMULATE IN REGIONS OF EXISTING
POROSITY OR

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Ductility

Effect of microporosity on the ductility of quenched and

tempered cast steel Porosity affects the pressure tightness of
cast pressure vessel

Elongation

Reduction of area

10

Porosity(%)

15

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FLOW OF MOLTEN METAL IN MOULDS

Important: pouring basin, mould cavity & riser
GATING SYSTEM Design -fluid flow, heat transfer, influence of temperature gradient,
FLUID FLOW
Without turbulence
or with minimized turbulence
HEAT FLOW INFLUENCED BY MANY FACTORS
FLUIDITY-A characteristic related to viscosity.
TEST OF FLUIDITY - USING A SPIRAL MOULD.Fluidity

Index

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TEST FOR
FLUIDITY
USING A SPIRAL
MOULD.
FLUIDITY INDEX IS
THE LENGTH OF
THE SOLIDIFIED
METAL IN THE
SPIRAL PASSAGE.
GREATER THE
LENGTH, GREATER
THE FLUIDITY
INDEX.

PATTERN
Model of a casting constructed such that it
forms an impression in moulding sand

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PATTERN
1st step- Prepare model (pattern)
Differs from the casting
Differences Pattern Allowances.
To compensate for metal shrinkage,
Provide sufficient metal for machining
Easiness in moulding
As Shrinkage allowance, Draft allowance, Finishing allowance,
Distortion or camber allowance,
Shaking or rapping allowance

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MATERIAL
1. WOOD.
2. METAL
Al, CI, Brass,
3. For special casting processes, Polystyrene which leaves mould as gas when heated also used.
Types- many

Simple-Identical patterns;
Complex, intricate- with number of pieces.
Single or loose piece; Split; gated; Match Plate;
Sweep; Segmental; Skeleton(frame, ribbed), skell;
Boxed Up; Odd shaped etc. Sketches--

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Material
1. WOOD.
(+) Cheap, easily available, light, easiness in surfacing, preserving (by shellac coating), workable, ease in joining, fabrication
(-) Moisture effects, wear by sand abrasion, warp during forming, not for rough use.
Must be properly dried/ seasoned,
free from knots, straight grained
Egs. Burma teak, pine wood, mahogany, Sal, Deodar, Shisham, Walnut, Apple tree

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2. METAL:
For durability, strength
Egs: Al alloys, Brass, Mg alloys, Steel, cast Iron for
mass production
(first, wooden pattern is made, then cast in the metal)
Type of material depends on shape, size, number of
castings required, method of moulding etc.

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TYPES OF PATTERNS

NIT CALICUT

1. SINGLE PIECE PATTERN.

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NIT CALICUT

2. SPLIT PATTERN (TWO PIECE )

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NIT CALICUT

2. a, THREE PIECE SPLIT PATTERN

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NIT CALICUT

3. LOOSE PIECE PATTERN

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4. COPE AND DRAG PATTERN

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COPE AND DRAG PARTS OF THE PATTERN

MOUNTED ON SEPARATE PLATES.
COPE HALF AND DRAG HALF MADE BY
WORKING ON DIFFERENT MOULDING
MACHINES.
THIS REDUCES THE SEPARATE COPE AND DRAG
PLATE PREPARATION.
GENERALLY FOR HIGH SPEED MECHANISED
MOULDING.

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5. MATCH PLATE PATTERN

Pattern generally of metal and plate making

NIT CALICUT

parting line metal/wood.

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6. FOLLOW BOARD PATTERN.

For thin sections.

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THIN PATTERN

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7. GATED PATTERN

NIT CALICUT

Gating system is a part of the pattern.

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8. SWEEP PATTERN

For large size castings in small numbers. Template of

NIT CALICUT

wood attached to a sweep used.

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9. SEGMENTAL PATTERN

NIT CALICUT

For rings, wheel rims, large size gears.

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10. SKELETON PATTERN.Stickle board used to scrape the excess sand.

Eg. Oil pipes, water pipes, pipe bends, boxes, valve bodies etc.

NIT CALICUT

Stickle board

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NIT CALICUT

11. SHELL PATTERN

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12. BUILT UP PATTERN

Also called lagged up patterns- For barrels, pipes,

NIT CALICUT

columns etc

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13. LEFT AND RIGHT PATTERN

NIT CALICUT

For parts to be made in pairs.

Eg: legs of sewing machine, wood working lathe,
garden benches, J hangers for shafts, brackets for
luggage racks etc.

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NIT CALICUT

Type of pattern depends on:

Shape and size of casting,
number of castings required,
method of moulding employed,
easiness or difficulties of the moulding
operations,
other factors peculiar to the casting.

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Pattern,

Finish Allowance,

and Wall Thickness

Min
Wall
mm

Metal

Pattern
Oversize Factor
(each direction)

Finish Allowance
(smaller number
for larger sizes)

Aluminum

1.08 - 1.12

0.5 to 1.0 %

4.75

Copper alloys

1.05 - 1.06

0.5 to 1.0 %

2.3

Gray Cast Iron

1.10

0.4 to 1.6 %

3.0

Nickel alloys

1.05

0.5 to 1.0 %

N/A

Steel

1.05 - 1.10

0.5 to 2 %

Magnesium
alloys

1.07 - 1.10

0.5 to 1.0 %

4.0

Malleable
Irons

1.06 - 1.19

0.6 to 1.6 %

3.0

CHARACTERISTICS OF
PATTERN MATERIALS
CHARACTERISTIC

RATING
WOOD

MACHINABILITY
WEAR RESISTANCE
STRENGTH
WEIGHT
REPAIRABILITY
RESISTANCE TO:

AL

STEEL

PLASTIC CAST IRON

E
P
E
E
E

G
G
G
G
P

F
E
E
P
G

G
F
G
G
F

G
E
G
P
G

CORROSION (by water) E

SWELLING
P

E
E

P
E

E
E

P
E

E- Excellent; G- Good; F-fair, P- Poor

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Functions of pattern

Moulding the Gating system;

Establishing a parting Line,
Making Cores,
Minimising casting Defects,
Providing Economy in moulding
Others, as needed