INTRODUCTION

Communication is broadly defined as interaction of thoughts, exchange of ideas and

building proper motivation between two binary polar that is sender and receiver, speaker
and listener and establishes proper understanding between them. Etymologically
speaking, the word communication derives its original meaning from the Greek word
'communis' which means to express or build up a group negotiation. In this regard
communication is perceived as an umbrella term that consists of complicated networks of
human relationship. The fundamental objective of communication is to build up
negotiation, integrity and harmony amidst the heterogeneous mass of people.
Communication is broadly classified into two categories, phatic communion and business
communication. Phatic communion is a branch of communication that comprises of
conventional expressions perceived in the form of social etiquettes. Literally the
expression of phatic communion hardly comprises any serious purpose instead these
terms are used to build up intimacy and sound relationship between speaker and listener.
The commonly used expressions are how do you do, Good morning, excuse me, Fine
thanks, nice to meet you etc.
Business communication refers to the process of communication through which
behaviour is modified, change is effected, productivity of relationship is enhanced and
goal is achieved. Business communication is typically directed to specific purpose and
contains the complicated network of human relations. Unlike phatic communion, it has an
objective approach which aims to establish broader publicity, mutual understanding and
bridge the relation in and outside the society.
Business is a static concept that exists in pyramidal structure with the interrelationship
between people carrying different hierarchic status.

DEFINITION
Communication is the activity of conveying meaningful information. Communication
requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be
present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication;
thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and space. Communication
requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative commonality.
The communication process is complete once the receiver has understood the message of
the sender. Two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not
only exchange (encode-decode) information but also create and share meaning. See also
communications.
Business communication refers to the process of communication
through which behavior is modified, change is effected, productivity of relationship is
enhanced and goal is achieved. Business communication is typically directed to specific
purpose and contains the complicated network of human relations. Unlike phatic
communion, it has an objective approach which aims to establish broader publicity,
mutual understanding and bridge the relation in and outside the society.
Business is a static concept that exists in pyramidal structure with the interrelationship
between people carrying different hierarchic status.

What is Communication and the Format

Starting with the sender, there is the complexity of human language itself. The message
must be formatted correctly, with proper grammar, syntax, noun sequencing, and even
pronunciation. If the encoder of the message speaks too rapidly, too slowly, mixes up
words, has garbled speech, and so on; these can all affect how clearly the message is first
delivered into the communication sequence. People afflicted with schizophrenia appear to
speak clearly, but the speech is incoherent, what is referred to as word salad. Thus the
origin of the message is already faulty.
Understandable & Coherent
The message itself must be understandable and coherent. Just linking random words
together does not comprise an intelligent message. The complexity of the message is also
a factor. For example, The day is dark is a different complexity level from
nanotechnological advances will accelerate the transition to transhuman and cyborg
evolutionary jumps. It may be difficult for a neuro-scientist to deliver an intelligible
message to a kindergartener. The knowledge and intelligence level of both sender and
receiver must be factored into the message linking process.
The medium by which the message is transmitted can be faulty. For example, passing a
written paper to someone isnt going to effectively communicate the message if the ink or
words on the paper are blurred. A video transmission can be shaky or unclear. The audio
sequence could be distorted. Simple noise can interfere with audio, as well as visual
communication. There are environmental distractions, such as a cold or hot room, loud
sounds or music, or someone talking loudly can all detract from the message medium.
Video is particularly susceptible to various forms of interference.

Receiver & Decoder

Finally there is the receiver, or decoder of the message. To clearly answer what is
communication must also factor in the psychological, physical, and even physiological
condition of the message recipient. If the receiver/decoder is hungry, physically sick,
mentally ill or disoriented, all these can factor into whether a message/communication
was received clearly. As mentioned previously, someone with a low level of education is
not going to understand a message delivered from a higher order of complexity. It would
be difficult to deliver a message on, say, celestial mechanics, to someone who never
completed the eighth grade! The message recipient must be fully focused, attentive, and
concentrating of whatever communication is being sent their way. There are many
different ways for a communication sequence to be intentionally disrupted, such as
propaganda techniques, misinformation, and even disinformation. The question of what is
communication should be addressed depending on the intended recipients and medium
used to deliver the messages.

The Importance of Communication

Communication is easily overlooked, but the ability to communicate effectively is
necessary to carry out the thoughts and visions of an organization to the people. The

importance of speech and words whether through a paper or a voice is a communication

medium to convey directions and provide synchronization. Without communication, there
is no way to express thoughts, ideas and feelings.
There are many ways to provide communication from the organization to the people of
your community. Whether through a phone, fax, email, letter, website, instant message
softwares, social networking websites (facebook, twitter, myspace) and etc you are
able to communicate your organization to the world. Things can be expressed, ideas can
be shared, and thoughts can be joined.
The ability and the importance of communication become much more crucial when you
are on a mission or need to fulfill a goal. Without a means to communicate, your
organization will become isolated. The ability to effectively communicate is very
important when it is usually underestimated and overlooked.
Communication is a necessity as we use it to network, spread ideas, and promote.
Communicate effectively through well known mediums and convey it simply and
precisely. The importance of communication is crucial to the success of your organization
because you need to reach out in order to fulfill your mission.

OBJECTIVES OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Information- The main objective of a business is to pass on information and making

people more informed, E.g.- all the advertisement activity that we see around as are
an attempt to inform and pass the information on to others, and in case of business
houses this information is mostly about the product or services that they have to offer.
But the mode of communication may be verbal, written, visual or any other.
All business houses flourish on information relevant to their business activity. They
must have good knowledge about the market, their competition, the government
rules, the kind of credit that they can benefit from; the current economic position etc.
Relevant information is the key to successful business.
But now in the modern times due to the advent of the World Wide Web, there has
been a sudden explosion in the volume of information that is available to a business
house and it is becoming increasingly difficult for a business house to find
information that is reliable, complete updated and fresh. And it has become vital for
any business to obtain that information. And this demand for accurate information
has given birth to a new group of people called the infomederies, who do not deal
with any kind of goods but deal in information.
Now a business house not only takes information but also give information, for e.g.It has to give out information regarding profitability, the quality of products, the
facilities that they provide to the worker or the services that they render towards the
community.
Motivation- communication in business is also necessary to increase the motivation
in the workers. So if the communication is done properly and is successful in
motivating the workers and workers are motivated enough the work gets done easily,
efficiently and they will work independently and with out supervision.

Communication should be used to create a right working environment. So that there

is a healthy competitive environment among the workers and also that they can be
recognized and rewarded for their achievements.
Employees working at a lower level in the hierarchy of the organization should be
encouraged to provide suggestion and inputs on how to improve the working of an
organization, this type of communication creates a sense of participation and
belonging, it also develops more loyalty towards the company.
Raising Morale - Another very important objective of business communication
(internal) is to keep the moral of the workers high so that they work with vigor and
confidence as a team. This is a major factor that can have very serious impact on the
success of a business house.
But as morale is a psychological factor the state of high morale is not a permanent
factor. An organization may have a high morale among the workers for a quarter but
may find that the employees have lost their morale in the next quarter. So to keep the
moral of employees high an organization has to put continuous effort in that
direction. It can be done by maintaining an open door policy, keeping an eye on the
grapevine and not allowing harmful rumors to spread.
Order and instructions An order is an oral or written command directing the start,
end or modifying an activity. This form of communication is internal and is carried
out within a business house. Order may be written or verbal. Written orders are given
when the nature of work is very important or the person who would perform the task
is far away. We should always be careful while handing out written orders and should
always keep a copy of the order so that follow up action can be taken.

Communication Barriers
Communication is the key factor in the success of any organization. When it comes to
effective communication, there are certain barriers that every organization faces. People
often feel that communication is as easy and simple as it sounds. No doubt, but what
makes it complex, difficult and frustrating are the barriers that come in its way.
Here are a few of the most commonly-found barriers in communication in an
organization:
1. Perceptual Barriers: The most common problem faced these days is that of the
difference in opinion between two people. The varied perceptions of every
individual give rise to a need for effective communication.
2. Emotional Barriers: Another main barrier is the fear and mistrust that form the
roots of our emotional barrier which stop us from communicating effectively with
our co-workers.
3. Language Barriers: Language that describes what we would want to express and
communicate to others, may at times, serve as a barrier to them. In todays global
scenario, the greatest compliment we can pay to another person is by speaking and
effectively communicating to them in their local language. We need to understand
that the native language of employees can be different from anyone elses.
4. Cultural Barriers: The world is made up of diverse cultures. A cultural barrier
arises when two individuals in an organization belong to different religions, states
or countries.

5. Physical Barriers: Research shows that one of the key factors in building strong
and integrated teams is proximity. Most offices have closed doors and cabins for
those at higher levels of the organizational ladder while the large working areas are
physically placed far apart. This kind of barrier forbids team members from
effective interaction with each another.
The only way one can improve effective organizational communication is by changing
ones thoughts and feelings with ones colleague. In this way, we dont just break down
communication barriers, but also build relationships that work successfully for long.
If every individual in an organization takes personal responsibility to make sure he works
in complete effectiveness with his or her co-worker, no matter how many barriers come
in the way, a responsible employee will always know how to overcome them.

Types of communication
The types of communication we use are diverse and complex. Communication is simply
the exchange of information; that information can be encoded in multifaceted and varied
ways. As examples of this diversity in communication, compare the use of smoke signals,
jungle drums, or flashing mirrors, to that of modern communication systems involving
digital signals, microwave compressed bursts, laser beams (fiber optic), and radioastronomy! All these methods communicate information, yet disparate encoding and
decoding mechanisms are utilized, not to mention the communication medium itself (e.g.,
light, electrons, electricity, and radio waves). For simplicities sake, and brevity of time
and space, just a handful of varied types of communication will be briefly discussed.

Verbal
The first types of communication is the one used most by people of all cultures across the
planet, that of verbal communication. As it applies to the business world, the business
executive or manager will encounter people from different age groups, races, cultures,
and gender. Distinct verbal skills may be required for each category or group. Any native
speaker of American English who has encountered a British person knows that there are
actually fairly large and distinct differences between U.K. English and American English.
As a consequence, one of the key concepts in verbal communication is always knowing
and being aware of who your target audience is; some forms of argot, slang, idiom,
vernacular, and dialect are specific to only one audience group. There can also be
differences between interpersonal communication and public speaking.

Written

Every single day, most of us engage in the second types of communication, such as is
being presented here, that of written communication. The ubiquitous nature of the cell
phone has made it possible for near instantaneous communication with just about
anywhere on the globe, thanks to communications satellites. How many billions of texts
(written) messages are sent every hour of every day? Not only do we have the pervasive
use of social networking sites, where many millions of words are written, but also in a
business setting with emails, memos, reports, articles, ad infinitum. Although many
people communicate through auditory methods (speaking on the phone), good writing are
skills are still a sine qua non of any employment situation. Even a high school graduate
has to take a written test!

Non-Verbal
A third types of communication is one that is sometimes neglected, or that many are
simply uninformed on the nature of and that is non-verbal communication. All of us
unconsciously use these types of communication by our eye movements, gestures, body
posture, hand movements, and even with what we wear and accessories, such as jewelry.
There is an entire field of communication theory called Neuro linguistic Programming
(NLP) that focuses exclusively on eye movements as communicating thoughts, intents,
desires, and even if someone is lying! We also use types of communication with visual
signals, although this may crossover into non-verbal. This is more the area of
photography, topography, signs, symbols and designs. It is really visual display in the
form of TV and video signals. A good understanding of all the diverse types of
communication will result in a superior communicator.

Human Communication
Human spoken and picture languages can be described as a system of symbols
(sometimes known as lexemes) and the grammars (rules) by which the symbols are
manipulated. The word "language" also refers to common properties of languages.
Language learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood. Most of
the thousands of human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which
enable communication with others around them. Languages seem to share certain
properties, although many of these include exceptions. There is no defined line between a
language and a dialect. Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming
languages, and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the
properties shared by human languages.
A variety of verbal and non-verbal means of communicating exists such as body
language, eye contact, sign language, paralanguage, haptic communication, chronemics,
and media such as pictures, graphics, sound, and writing.
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities also defines the communication to
include the display of text, Braille, tactile communication, large print, accessible
multimedia, as well as written and plain language, human reader, and accessible
information and communication technology.

Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying meaning in the form of
non-word messages. Research shows that the majority of our communication is non
verbal, also known as body language. Some of non verbal communication includes
chronemics,haptics,proxemics, gesture, body language or posture; facial expression and
eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles, architecture, symbols info
graphics, and tone of voice as well as through an aggregate of the above. Non-verbal

communication is also called silent language and plays a key role in human day to day
life from employment relations to romantic engagements.
Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as para-language. These include voice
lesson quality, emotion and speaking style as well as prosodic features such as rhythm,
intonation and stress. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as
handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey
emotional expressions in pictorial form.

Oral communication
Oral communication, while primarily referring to spoken verbal communication,
typically relies on both words, visual aids and non-verbal elements to support the
conveyance of the meaning. Oral communication includes discussion, speeches,
presentations, interpersonal communication and many other varieties. In face to face
communication the body language and voice tonality plays a significant role and may
have a greater impact on the listener than the intended content of the spoken words.
A great presenter must capture the attention of the audience and connect with them. For
example, out of two persons telling the same joke one may greatly amuse the audience
due to his body language and tone of voice while the second person, using exactly the
same words, bores and irritates the audience. [citation needed] Visual aid can help to facilitate
effective communication and is almost always used in presentation for an audience.
A widely cited and widely misinterpreted figure used to emphasize the importance of
delivery states that "communication comprise 55% body language, 38% tone of voice,
7% content of words", the so-called "7%-38%-55% rule". This is not however what the
cited research shows rather, when conveying emotion, if body language, tone of voice,
and words disagree, then body language and tone of voice will be believed more than
words. For example, a person saying "I'm delighted to meet you" while mumbling,

hunched over, and looking away will be interpreted as insincere. (Further discussion at
Albert Mehrabian: Three elements of communication.

Written communication and its historical development

Over time the forms of and ideas about communication have evolved through progression
of technology. Advances include communications psychology and media psychology; an
emerging field of study. Researchers divides the progression of written communication
into three revolutionary stages called "Information Communication Revolutions" (Source
needed).
During the 1st stage written communication first emerged through the use of
pictographs. The pictograms were made in stone, hence written communication
was not yet mobile.
During the 2nd stage writing began to appear on paper, papyrus, clay, wax, etc.
Common alphabets were introduced and allowed for the uniformity of language
across large distances. A leap in technology occurred when the Gutenberg printingpress was invented in the 15th century.
The 3rd stage is characterised by the transfer of information through controlled
waves and electronic signals.
Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in
an attempt to create shared understanding. This process, which requires a vast
repertoire of skills in interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking,
questioning, analyzing, gestures, and evaluating enables collaboration and
cooperation.
Misunderstandings can be anticipated and solved through formulations, questions and
answers, paraphrasing, examples, and stories of strategic talk. Written communication

can be clear by planning follow-up talk on critical written communication as part of the
normal way of doing business.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

No matter how good the communication system in an organization is, unfortunately
barriers can and do often occur. This may be caused by a number of factors which can
usually be summarized as being due to physical barriers, system design faults or
additional barriers.

Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the

environment. Thus, for example, the natural barrier which
exists, if staff are located in different buildings or on different
sites. Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the
failure of management to introduce new technology, may also
cause problems.
Staff shortages are another factor which frequently causes
communication difficulties for an organisation. Whilst
distractions like background noise, poor lighting or an
environment which is too hot or cold can all affect people's
morale and concentration, which in turn interfere with
effective communication.

System design faults refer to problems with the structures

or systems in place in an organisation.Examples might include
an organizational structure which is unclear and therefore
makes it confusing to know who to communicate with.
Other examples could be inefficient or inappropriate
information systems, a lack of supervision or training, and a
lack of clarity in roles and responsibilities which can lead to

staff being uncertain about what is expected of them.

Attitudinal barriers come about as a result of problems

with staff in an organization. These may be brought about, for
example, by such factors as poor management, lack of
consultation with employees, personality conflicts which can
result in people delaying or refusing to communicate, the
personal attitudes of individual employees which may be due
to lack of motivation or dissatisfaction at work.

Principles of communication
When you learn the principles of communication you can fully understand and appreciate
why communication is so important. It is the fundamental method that humans use to
interact with each other since the beginning of time.
When communicating with others, it is important to consider some of the general
principles of communication. These principles exist for all human beings no matter what
ethnicity or culture they may be a part of. By learning about these principles and
understanding them, you will make your efforts more effective which will help you
overcome barriers to communication.

Communication is Constant
You are always in a state of communication. Many times, we think that our
communication ceases when we stop talking. But we often forget that our non-verbal
communication is always displaying signs and cues that often reflect what we are feeling
or thinking on the inside. Though we cease our verbal communication, our facial
expressions, gestures, time management and even the clothing choice or the music we
listen to all provide non-verbal messages that others are left to perceive and interpret.
When we do communicate verbally, our tone of voice, pitch, volume, how fast were

speaking and all the ums and ahs that were using can convey what were thinking
and feeling underneath the words that are spoken.

We have all heard and witnes

sed stories of how one word of encouragement, one

word of apology, one gentle touch or one smile can improve a relationship, change a life
or further a job. People that have done this create something new and exciting in their
lives, which bring unity, harmony and joy not only into their own lives but into other
peoples lives as well as. The kind of person that you become has largely to do with the
way that you communicate and interact with the people around you. There is no greater
area in your life that determines the nature of your relationships and the quality of life
that you have than the development and learning of communication skills.

Why Managers Need Communication Skill ?

This allows camaraderie, cooperation and effective corporate communications that help
in working towards a common goal or prize. A good manager knows this principle and
tries to create ways and avenues where people within the company can develop good
working relationships with one another. Sometimes, it is not enough to hire the right
people. They might have the right skills for the job, but lack the social skills to get along
with the other employees. When this happens, conflict resolution strategies need to be
employed and the whole dynamics of the group changes. As a leader in the organization,
it must start from you.
Here are some ways on how you can foster good relationships among your team:

Establish Trust While Building Relationships

Being trustworthy is a hard thing to prove. Trust is earned and therefore you need to
make sure that you exhibit the right qualities as a manager in order for your people to
trust you. This means that you would have to be proactive in ensuring that you uphold the
confidence of your people and not let them down when they need you the most. This is

tough, but once you have earned their trust through building relationships with them, it is
easy for them to confide in you and to follow your orders. It also soothes the tension,
allowing a more harmonious environment to take place.

Be Sincere and Kind

Some managers are harsh to their employees, while some might appear to be kind but
show lack of sincerity in other ways. In order to have effective business communication
in your team and be building relationships that are strong, there should be a balance of
both. You must learn to listen and watch out for verbal cues that would lead you to the
right conclusions. You must also learn to respond in a manner that respects your
employees and show concern for their overall welfare. When you correct do it privately
and when you praise them for their efforts do it publicly.

Commit to Excellence
Do not immediately go to the conclusion that some employees are merely poor
performers while others are the star of your team. Take the time to assess where they are
and what their concerns are. Study their habits and deal with them individually. Train and
motivate employees to perform so that everyone has the same standard of excellence and
working towards a common goal. It helps to hold meetings for the purpose of building
relationships that would show them the vision of the company and motivate them to make
it a mission to reach the given targets.

Adventure Activities
Effective business communication is not only seen in the office. It can also be seen in
doing other activities such as a teambuilding adventure. As a manager, you can organize a
retreat or unwinding activities that will promote a good work-life balance as well as a
time of bonding for all members of your team or department. This will certainly take off
the edge and allow members to relax and be themselves among their co-workers and boss
through building relationships exercises.

Communication Skills
The ability to communicate is the primary factor that distinguishes human beings
from animals. And it is the ability to communicate well that distinguishes one
individual from another.
The fact, is that apart from the basic necessities, one needs to be equipped with
habits for good communication skills, as this is what will make them a happy and
successful social being.
In order to develop these habits, one needs to first acknowledge the fact that they
need to improve communication skills from time to time. They need to take stock
of the way they interact and the direction in which their work and personal
relations are going. The only constant in life is change, and the more one accepts
one's strengths and works towards dealing with their shortcomings, especially in
the area of communication skills, the better will be their interactions and the more
their social popularity.

Types Of Communication Skills

Intra-personal communication skills : This implies individual reflection,
contemplation and meditation. One example of this is transcendental mediation.
According to the experts this type of communication encompasses communicating
with the divine and with spirits in the form of prayers and rites and rituals.
Interpersonal communication skills : This is direct, face-to-face communication
that occurs between two persons. It is essentially a dialogue or a conversation
between two or more people.It is personal, direct, as well as intimate and permits
maximum interaction through words and gestures. Interpersonal communications
maybe:
Focused Interactions : This primarily results from an actual encounter between
two persons. This implies that the two persons involved are completely aware of
the communication happening between them.
Unfocused interactions : This occurs when one simply observes or listens to
persons with whom one is not conversing. This usually occurs at stations and bus
stops, as well as on the street, at restaurants, etc.

Classification of communication terms and services

Communication and telecommunication
The word communication contains common and that means common information about
facts, sensations, actions etc. Usually there is an interchange of information. For that
purpose the communication partners change their roles and there is therefore a form of
dialogue between them.
Our definition includes the special case of one-sided communication (monologue). One
example for a one-sided information is television broadcasting, but in this case there is no
interchange and thus it sometimes might be useful to restrict the term communication on
dialogues or the communication between more than two persons.
If people communicate directly, it is referred to as face-to-face communication. This is,
without any doubt, the richest and most complex form of communication because it is
based not only on speech and hearing but includes gestures, touches, smell etc. But faceto-face communication is much more than these components. It generates multiple
synergies and gives a feeling of presence that also exists when the persons have sensory
defects (e.g. hard of hearing, blindness).
If the human speech and sensory organs (eyes, ears) cannot bridge the distance between
communication partners, we need the aid of a technical system and we then call it
telecommunication. The most important form of (tele)communication is of course speech.

As a matter of fact, telecommunication cannot substitute face-to-face communication.

Even when a wideband channel with high-quality audio and video is used, there is not the
same feeling of presence. There might be, in the future and after substantial
improvements of virtual reality techniques, a kind of telepresence which comes close to
reality but up to now the technology is still not available and, maybe more importantly,
psychological knowledge about the factors which determine presence is still lacking.
Next, the term service has to be defined. A service provider (public or private) makes a
service, in our case a telecommunication service, available to the user. Obviously, a
service is far more than the transmission of information. It also contains interfaces,
networks, technical and quality features and, in some cases, maintenance. Usually, a
provider offers a basic service which has only the required features to run the service and
extended versions with additional features. In the case of telephony, an extended service
might be a voice mailbox.
Concerning communication (including telecommunication), various classifications are
possible. A very important one is related to the communication form. Figure 5.1 gives an
overview.
Classification of communication forms

Apart from voice and non-voice, a communication can be stationary or fluent. Text,
graphics, still pictures and data are stationary. For example, a text is displayed on the
screen and it is up to the reader to perceive the text quickly, slowly or several times while

speech, sounds and video are characterised by an information flow, which the user is
normally forced to follow in real time (exception: the user requires a slow motion video
or a reduced speaking rate). Many experts agree that a multimedia communication
consists of both, stationary and fluent components.
Another possible classification is cable-based and wireless communication which can be
further sub-classified
Classification of transmission medium

Cable-based communication
We prefer the term cable-based instead of wired (which might be, at a first sight, more
adequate as counterpart to wireless) because cable-based is more general and includes
also glass fibres that are gaining in importance. Cable-based networks are media for both,
narrowband and wideband communication and they have enough capacity to transmit all
kinds of multimedia information including video.
The cable-based medium can be characterised by the range (Figure 5-3). For in-house
communication or within a factory area there is the Local Area Network (LAN). In
general, this network belongs to the owner of the building or factory and there is no need
to follow any standard or other restrictions as long as the communication takes place
within the in-house area. However, in most cases, the communication has to be extended
to the outer world and then the common standards and regulations have to be fulfiled.
Two alternatives exist: either the LAN follows the regular (public) standards or the

messages for external participants are modified (transcoded, adapted etc.) before they are
transmitted. Although the second solution is more complicated (and more expensive), it
has crucial advantages. For example, the LAN can be a wideband network with high bit
rates, a typical representative is the Fast Ethernet with up to 100 Mbit/s, and for the
external communication the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) with its two 64
kbit/s channels might be sufficient. In this case, a special interface, called bridge, is used
which converts the different standards and transmission rates.
The next type of network is the Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). It covers an area of a
large city and more (about 50 km). MANs act sometimes as playgrounds for network
developers since MANs mostly have a prototype status and they serve as test beds.
Several modern concepts for high-speed networking were developed with the use of
MANs, for example the Fibre Distributed Dual Interface (FDDI) network. It is based on a
fibre optic medium and a double token ring structure and it runs with about 150 Mbit/s.
Another representative is the Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) network which is
based on well-known principles of the data queue theory and has also a bit rate of about
150 Mbit/s.
Finally, there is the Wide Area Network (WAN). It serves as the backbone for public
telecommunication with national or international extensions and it normally belongs to
public telecommunication authorities. Typical representatives of the WAN are the old
analog telephone network, the ISDN and the Asynchronous Transfer Network (ATM).

Classes of networks

Wireless communication
Wireless communication can be terrestrial or satellite-based. The satellite-based version
is mainly used for global communication, the transmission and distribution of television
and radio programmers or for communication in areas that do not have a terrestrial or
cable-based technical infrastructure (deserts, sea etc.). The terms fixed and mobile in
figure 5-2 characterize the terrestrial transmitter and receiver stations. In this sense, a
broadcast station is (usually) fixed and a satellite-based handy is mobile.
Since terrestrial systems are more important, these will now be discussed in detail. In the
seventies, the first generation of mobile telephones, based on analog modulation,
appeared. In 1982 a working group (GSM=Grouped Special Mobile) was founded which
defined an international standard for digital telephony. GSM stands now for "Global
System for Mobile Communication". This GSM standard, which became the second
generation of mobile communication, was a real success story.
For 2000, the total number of telephone subscribers worldwide is in the order of 700
millions. Probably more surprising is the number of mobile telephone subscribers. It is in
2000 in the same range, namely about 600 millions. In 2001 the number of mobile
telephones will overtake those of landline telephony and in 2003 probably the 1 billion
mark will be exceeded (figure 5-4) [ASKELF, J. et al.].

The world of fixed and mobile communication (fixed corresponds to cable-based and
mobile to wireless) [ERICSSON]
Thus, mobile telephony is one of the key factors. A look at the development of this
service shows four main trends [DOWDEN, D.C. et al], [MAASS, H]:
a move from analog to digital technology (which is quite obvious and well known),
a trend to multimedia services and higher bit rates,
strong standardization efforts to a universal mobile network and
a joining together of mobile communication and the Internet.
Surprisingly, the main focus in the technical development is in the "non-voice" services.
As an example, the WAP (wireless application protocol) service can be mentioned, which
is mainly designed for the Internet access [RALPH, D]. GPRS (General Packet Data
Radio Service) does not explicitly foresee a speech transmission (possibly the providers
expect that each subscriber has a GSM handset anyway). GPRS is one of the so-called
2.5th -generation services, the number 2.5 expresses the transition to the 3rd generation
which will be represented by UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems).
Obviously the pressure of the user on further developments was too strong and nobody
was willing to wait until the introduction of UMTS.

Mobile communication and Bluetooth

Bluetooth was primarily developed to replace cable connections between electronic
components (for example the PC mainframe and the printer or the mouse) by a radio
connection. For this purpose and with the aim of low cost components (the aim is 5 per
component) , Bluetooth bridges distances of about 10 m, and the maximum bit rate in
both directions is about 1 Mbit/s.

Transmitter and receiver

Wireless connection of the mobile phone and the headphone (source: Ericsson)

In an extended version, Bluetooth has a transmission range of about 100 m. The radio
power is very small, (1 mW) thus only a small power supply for transmitter and receiver
(fig. 5) is needed. As a matter of fact, Bluetooth is no competitor for the radio systems
mentioned before, but it can be used for very important applications, above all in the
office environment or in smart homes. With Bluetooth it is possible to establish in a short
time ad-hoc networks between devices of different manufacturers. For three reasons, the
security of Bluetooth is very high. Firstly, the radio data are transmitted with a special
frequency hopping procedure (1600 hops per second), secondly the transmission distance
is very small and finally, any device may be authentified with a 128 bit private user key
[FRODICH], [AUGUST, K.G. et al.]. Since the specification of Bluetooth is very
flexible, it can be used for the transmission of data and speech and for mobile and
stationary links. One Bluetooth application (among many) is a wireless headphone for
mobile telephony as shown in figure 5-6.

UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems)

UMTS was intended to solve the problems of former generations, above all the relatively
low bit rate and the many incompatible standards. The outcome of UMTS should be the
development of small and light handheld devices with the same frequencies and
numbering worldwide, international roaming, integration into the fixed network and into
satellite communication. The aim of any service, anywhere at any time should be
reached, albeit with some delay on initial predictions. In view of the fast growth in
mobile communications and the substantial investments made, many countries had a
vested interest in keeping their own systems. In November 2000 the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) proposed a compromise, the so-called IMT 2000
specification.

Communication process
Communication can best be summarized as the transmission of a message from a sender
to a receiver in an understandable manner. The importance of effective communication is
immeasurable in the world of business and in personal life. From a business perspective,
effective communication is an absolute must, because it commonly accounts for the
difference between success and failure or profit and loss. It has become clear that
effective business communication is critical to the successful operation of modern
enterprise. Every business person needs to understand the fundamentals of effective
communication.
Currently, companies in the United States and abroad are working toward the realization
of total quality management. Effective communication is the most critical component of
total quality management. The manner in which individuals perceive and talk to each

other at work about different issues is a major determinant of the business success. It has
proven been proven that poor communication reduces quality, weakens productivity, and
eventually leads to anger and a lack of trust among individuals within the organization.
The communication process is the guide toward realizing effective communication. It is
through the communication process that the sharing of a common meaning between the
sender and the receiver takes place. Individuals that follow the communication process
will have the opportunity to become more productive in every aspect of their profession.
Effective communication leads to understanding.
The communication process is made up of four key components. Those components
include encoding, medium of transmission, decoding, and feedback. There are also two
other factors in the process, and those two factors are present in the form of the sender
and the receiver. The communication process begins with the sender and ends with the
receiver.
The sender is an individual, group, or organization who initiates the communication. This
source is initially responsible for the success of the message. The sender's experiences,
attitudes, knowledge, skill, perceptions, and culture influence the message. "The written
words, spoken words, and nonverbal language selected are paramount in ensuring the
receiver interprets the message as intended by the sender" (Burnett & Dollar, 1989). All
communication begins with the sender.
The first step the sender is faced with involves the encoding process. In order to
convey meaning, the sender must begin encoding, which means translating
information into a message in the form of symbols that represent ideas or concepts.
This process translates the ideas or concepts into the coded message that will be
communicated. The symbols can take on numerous forms such as, languages, words,
or gestures. These symbols are used to encode ideas into messages that others can
understand.

 When encoding a message, the sender has to begin by deciding what he/she wants to
transmit. This decision by the sender is based on what he/she believes about the
receivers knowledge and assumptions, along with what additional information he/she
wants the receiver to have. It is important for the sender to use symbols that are
familiar to the intended receiver. A good way for the sender to improve encoding their
message, is to mentally visualize the communication from the receiver's point of view.
To begin transmitting the message, the sender uses some kind of channel (also called a
medium). The channel is the means used to convey the message. Most channels are
either oral or written, but currently visual channels are becoming more common as
technology expands. Common channels include the telephone and a variety of written
forms such as memos, letters, and reports. The effectiveness of the various channels
fluctuates depending on the characteristics of the communication. For example, when
immediate feedback is necessary, oral communication channels are more effective
because any uncertainties can be cleared up on the spot. In a situation where the
message must be delivered to more than a small group of people, written channels are
often more effective. Although in many cases, both oral and written channels should
be used because one supplements the other.
If a sender relays a message through an inappropriate channel, its message may not
reach the right receivers. That is why senders need to keep in mind that selecting the
appropriate channel will greatly assist in the effectiveness of the receiver's
understanding. The sender's decision to utilize either an oral or a written channel for
communicating a message is influenced by several factors. The sender should ask him
or herself different questions, so that they can select the appropriate channel. Is the
message urgent? Is immediate feedback needed? Is documentation or a permanent
record required? Is the content complicated, controversial, or private? Is the message
going to someone inside or outside the organization? What oral and written

communication skills does the receiver possess? Once the sender has answered all of
these questions, they will be able to choose an effective channel.
After the appropriate channel or channels are selected, the message enters the
decoding stage of the communication process. Decoding is conducted by the receiver.
Once the message is received and examined, the stimulus is sent to the brain for
interpreting, in order to assign some type of meaning to it. It is this processing stage
that constitutes decoding. The receiver begins to interpret the symbols sent by the
sender, translating the message to their own set of experiences in order to make the
symbols meaningful. Successful communication takes place when the receiver
correctly interprets the sender's message.
The receiver is the individual or individuals to whom the message is directed. The
extent to which this person comprehends the message will depend on a number of
factors, which include the following: how much the individual or individuals know
about the topic, their receptivity to the message, and the relationship and trust that
exists between sender and receiver. All interpretations by the receiver are influenced
by their experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skills, perceptions, and culture. It is similar
to the sender's relationship with encoding.
Feedback is the final link in the chain of the communication process. After receiving a
message, the receiver responds in some way and signals that response to the sender.
The signal may take the form of a spoken comment, a long sigh, a written message, a
smile, or some other action. "Even a lack of response, is in a sense, a form of
response" (Bovee & Thill, 1992). Without feedback, the sender cannot confirm that
the receiver has interpreted the message correctly.
Feedback is a key component in the communication process because it allows the
sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the message. Feedback ultimately provides an
opportunity for the sender to take corrective action to clarify a misunderstood

message. "Feedback plays an important role by indicating significant communication

barriers: differences in background, different interpretations of words, and differing
emotional reactions" (Bovee & Thill, 1992).
The communication process is the perfect guide toward achieving effective
communication. When followed properly, the process can usually assure that the
sender's message will be understood by the receiver. Although the communication
process seems simple, it in essence is not. Certain barriers present themselves
throughout the process. Those barriers are factors that have a negative impact on the
communication process. Some common barriers include the use of an inappropriate
medium (channel), incorrect grammar, inflammatory words, words that conflict with
body language, and technical jargon. Noise is also another common barrier. Noise can
occur during any stage of the process. Noise essentially is anything that distorts a
message by interfering with the communication process. Noise can take many forms,
including a radio playing in the background, another person trying to enter your
conversation, and any other distractions that prevent the receiver from paying
attention.
Successful and effective communication within an organization stems from the
implementation of the communication process. All members within an organization
will improve their communication skills if they follow the communication process,
and stay away from the different barriers. It has been proven that individuals that
understand the communication process will blossom into more effective
communicators, and effective communicators have a greater opportunity for becoming
a success.

Derivative Models of the Communication Process

One of these shortcomings is addressed in Figure 2's intermediary model of
communication (sometimes referred to as the gatekeeper model or two-step flow (Katz,
1957)). This model, which is frequently depicted in introductory texts in mass
communication, focuses on the important role that intermediaries often play in the
communication process. Mass communication texts frequently specifically associate
editors, who decide what stories will fit in a newspaper or news broadcast, with this

intermediary or gatekeeper role. There are, however, many intermediary roles (Foulger,
2002a) associated with communication. Many of these intermediaries have the ability to
decide what messages others see, the context in which they are seen, and when they see
them. They often have the ability, moreover, to change messages or to prevent them from
reaching an audience (destination). In extreme variations we refer to such gatekeepers as
censors. Under the more normal conditions of mass media, in which publications choose
some content in preference to other potential content based on an editorial policy, we
refer to them as editors (most mass media), moderators (Internet discussion groups),
reviewers (peer-reviewed publications), or aggregators (clipping services), among other
titles . Delivery workers (a postal delivery worker, for instance) also act as
intermediaries, and have the ability to act as gatekeepers, but are generally restricted from
doing so as a matter of ethics and/or law.

Variations of Figure 3's gatekeeper model are also used in teaching organizational
communication, where gatekeepers, in the form of bridges and liaisons, have some ability
to shape the organization through their selective sharing of information. These variations
are generally more complex in depiction and often take the form of social network
diagrams that depict the interaction relationships of dozens of people. They network
diagrams often presume, or at least allow, bi-directional arrows such that they are more
consistent with the notion that communication is most often bidirectional.
The bidirectionality of communication is commonly addressed in interpersonal
communication text with two elaborations of Shannon's model (which is often
labeled as the action model of communication): the interactive model and the
transactive model. The interactive model, a variant of which is shown in Figure 4,

elaborates Shannon's model with the cybernetic concept of feedback (Weiner,

1948, 1986), often (as is the case in Figure 4) without changing any other element
of Shannon's model. The key concept associated with this elaboration is that
destinations provide feedback on the messages they receive such that the
information sources can adapt their messages, in real time. This is an important
elaboration, and as generally depicted, a radically oversimplified one. Feedback is
a message (or a set of messages). The source of feedback is an information source.
The consumer of feedback is a destination. Feedback is transmitted, received, and
potentially disrupt able via noise sources. None of this is visible in the typical
depiction of the interactive model. This doesn't diminish the importance of
feedback or the usefulness of elaborating Shannon's model to include it. People
really do adapt their messages based on the feedback they receive. It is useful,
however, to notice that the interactive model depicts feedback at a much higher
level of abstraction than it does messages.

This difference in the level of abstraction is addressed in the transactional model of

communication, a variant of which is shown in Figure 5. This model acknowledges
neither creators nor consumers of messages, preferring to label the people associated with
the model as communicators who both create and consume messages. The model
presumes additional symmetries as well, with each participant creating messages that are
received by the other communicator. This is, in many ways, an excellent model of the

face-to-face interactive process which extends readily to any interactive medium that
provides users with symmetrical interfaces for creation and consumption of messages,
including notes, letters, C.B. Radio, electronic mail, and the radio. It is, however, a
distinctly interpersonal model that implies an equality between communicators that often
doesn't exist, even in interpersonal contexts. The caller in most telephone conversations
has the initial upper hand in setting the direction and tone of a a telephone callr than the
receiver of the call (Hopper, 1992).In face-to-face head-complement interactions, the
boss (head) has considerably more freedom (in terms of message choice, media choice,
ability to frame meaning, ability to set the rules of interaction) and power to allocate
message bandwidth than does the employee (complement). The model certainly does not
apply in mass media contexts.

The "mass personal" (xxxxx, 199x) media of the Internet through this implied
symmetry into even greater relief. Most Internet media grant everyone symmetrical
creation and consumption interfaces. Anyone with Internet access can create a web
site and participate as an equal partner in e-mail, instant messaging, chat rooms,
computer conferences, collaborative composition sites, blogs, interactive games,
MUDs, MOOs, and other media. It remains, however, that users have very different

preferences in their message consumption and creation. Some people are very
comfortable creating messages for others online. Others prefer to "lurk"; to freely
browse the messages of others without adding anything of their own. Adding
comments to a computer conference is rarely more difficult than sending an e-mail,
but most Internet discussion groups have many more lurkers (consumers of messages
that never post) than they have contributors (people who both create and consume
messages). Oddly, the lurkers sometimes feel more integrated with the community
than the contributors do (Baym, 2000).

A New Model of the Communication Process

Existing models of the communication process don't provide a reasonable basis for
understanding such effects. Indeed, there are many things that we routinely teach
undergraduates in introductory communication courses that are missing from, or outright
inconsistent with, these models. Consider that:
we now routinely teach students that "receivers" of messages really "consume"
messages. People usually have a rich menu of potential messages to choose from
and they select the messages they want to hear in much the same way that diners
select entrees from a restaurant menu. We teach students that most "noise" is
generated within the listener, that we engage messages through "selective
attention", that one of the most important things we can do to improve our
communication is to learn how to listen, that mass media audiences have choices,
and that we need to be "literate" in our media choices, even in (and perhaps
especially in) our choice of television messages. Yet all of these models suggest an
"injection model" in which message reception is automatic.
we spend a large portion of our introductory courses teaching students about
language, including written, verbal, and non-verbal languages, yet language is all

but ignored in these models (the use of the term in Figure 5 is not the usual practice
in depictions of the transactive model).
we spend large portions of our introductory courses teaching students about the
importance of perception, attribution, and relationships to our interpretation of
messages; of the importance of communication to the perceptions that others have
of us, the perceptions we have of ourselves, and the creation and maintenence of
the relationships we have with others. These models say nothing about the role of
perception and relationship to the way we interpret messages or our willingness to
consume messages from different people.
we spend large portions of our introductory courses teaching students about the
socially constructed aspects of languages, messages, and media use. Intercultural
communication presumes both social construction and the presumption that people
schooled in one set of conventions will almost certainly violate the expectations of
people schooled in a different set of expectations. Discussions of the effects of
media on culture presume that communication within the same medium may be
very different in different cultures, but that the effects of the medium on various
cultures will be more uniform. Existing general models provide little in the way of
a platform from which these effects can be discussed.
when we use these models in teaching courses in both interpersonal and mass
communication; in teaching students about very different kinds of media. With the
exception of the Shannon model, we tend to use these models selectively in
describing those media, and without any strong indication of where the medium
begins or ends; without any indication of how media interrelate with languages,
messages, or the people who create and consume messages.without addressing the
ways in which they are . while these media describe, in a generalized way, media,

The ecological model of communication, shown in Figure 6, attempts to provide a

platform on which these issues can be explored. It asserts that communication occurs in
the intersection of four fundamental constructs: communication between people (creators
and consumers) is mediated by messages which are created using language within media;
consumed from media and interpreted using language.This model is, in many ways, a
more detailed elaboration of Lasswell's (1948) classic outline of the study of
communication: "Who ... says what ... in which channel ... to whom ... with what effect".
In the ecological model , the "who" are the creators of messages, the "says what" are the
messages, the "in which channel" is elaborated into languages (which are the content of
channels) and media (which channels are a component of), the "to whom" are the
consumers of messages, and the effects are found in various relationships between the
primitives, including relationships, perspectives, attributions, interpretations, and the
continuing evolution of languages and media.

A number of relationships are described in this model:

1. Messages are created and consumed using language

2. Language occurs within the context of media
3. Messages are constructed and consumed within the context of media
4. The roles of consumer and creator are reflexive. People become creators when they
reply or supply feedback to other people. Creators become consumers when they
make use of feedback to adapt their messages to message consumers. People learn
how to create messages through the act of consuming other peoples messages.
5. The roles of consumer and creator are introspective. Creators of messages create
messages within the context of their perspectives of and relationships with
anticipated consumers of messages. Creators optimize their messages to their target
audiences. Consumers of messages interpret those messages within the context of
their perspectives of, and relationships with, creators of messages. Consumers
make attributions of meaning based on their opinion of the message creator. People
form these perspectives and relationships as a function of their communication.
6. The messages creators of messages construct are necessarily imperfect
representations of the meaning they imagine. Messages are created within the
expressive limitations of the medium selected and the meaning representation
space provided by the language used. The message created is almost always a
partial and imperfect representation of what the creator would like to say.
7. A consumers interpretation of a messages necessarily attributes meaning
imperfectly. Consumers interpret messages within the limits of the languages used
and the media those languages are used in. A consumers interpretation of a
message may be very different than what the creator of a message imagined.
8. People learn language by through the experience of encountering language being
used within media. The languages they learn will almost always be the languages

when communicating with people who already know and use those languages. That
communication always occurs within a medium that enables those languages.
9. People learn media by using media. The media they learn will necessarily be the
media used by the people they communicate with.
10.People invent and evolve languages. While some behavior expressions (a baby's
cry) occur naturally and some aspects of language structure may mirror the ways in
which the brain structures ideas, language does not occur naturally. People invent
new language when there is no language that they can be socialized into. People
evolve language when they need to communicate ideas that existing language is
not sufficient to.
11.People invent and evolve media While some of the modalities and channels
associated with communication are naturally occurring, the media we use to
communicate are not.
A medium of communication is, in short, the product of a set of complex interactions
between its primary constituents: messages, people (acting as creators of messages,
consumers of messages, and in other roles), languages, and media. Three of these
constituents are themselves complex systems and the subject of entire fields of study,
including psychology, sociology, anthropology (all three of which study people),
linguistics (language), media ecology (media), and communication (messages, language,
and media). Even messages can be regarded as complex entities, but its complexities can
be described entirely within the scope of languages, media, and the people who use them.
This ecological model of communication is, in its most fundamental reading, a compact
theory of messages and the systems that enable them. Messages are the central feature of
the model and the most fundamental product of the interaction of people, language, and
media. But there are other products of the model that build up from that base of

messages, including (in a rough ordering to increased complexity) observation, learning,

interpretation, socialization, attribution, perspectives, and relationships.

Conclusion
Whether one considers communication about health policy, looks at how medicine is
covered in the media, thinks about the potential for communication technology to
facilitate education and diagnosis, or assesses communication between physicians and
patients, there is little question that high-quality communication is a prerequisite for highquality health care. This year's series of presentations positions the Annenberg Health
Communication Forum as an essential area for exploring communication in the health
context. From general practice in England to the need for general practitioners in the
United States, the forum provoked questions, provided answers, and generated productive
dialogue. From interactive video that allows patients to access information on a desktop
computer to telemedicine technology that allows physicians to see patients in other
towns, states, and countries, the forum provided examples of what communication
technology can do, as well as a sense of the barriers to its delivery and access.
The Annenberg Health Communication Forum will continue to examine the interplay
between policy, interpersonal communication, and communication technology. In
December 1994, physician-sociologist Howard Waitzkin will visit Northwestern
University Medical School for a forum entitled "Communicating about Social Problems
in Medical Encounters." Dr. Waitzkin's presentation will address how physicians' focus
on physical symptoms often fails to address patients' underlying concerns and reinforces
the societal problems that cause or aggravate these maladies. In May 1995, the Forum
will revisit the topic of telemedicine, this time convening a roundtable on the implications
of emerging regulatory policies for communication technology in medicine.

Bibliography
1. Personal communication. During Schein's visit, he joined a number of us on a
management development workshop we were running outside Warwick, in
Brisbane's hinterland.
2. This document is based on a communication skills paper I wrote. That in turn was
modified from one prepared as part of a conciliation workshop for a tertiary
institution. That was based on material from my book Learning to communicate:
activities, skills, techniques, models, St Lucia: Interchange and University of
Queensland Bookshop, 1986, and available only from the University of
Queensland Bookshop, St Lucia Q 4067 (and perhaps no longer available from
there).
3. The evidence for this is most apparent in the voluminous work of Chris Argyris,
alone or with Donald Schon. A readable introduction -- Argyrols, C.
(1990) Overcoming organizational defenses: facilitating organizational learning.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
4. Evidence suggests that provided both people listen, conflict is more likely to
enhance than to destroy a relationship. See for example P. Middlebrook
(1980), Social psychology and modern life, second edition, New York: Knopf.
5. An implication of the preceding paragraph is that the approach used here is
intended for use by normal people. A few people have marked deficits in their
nonverbal expression. More specialised remedial work may be necessary for such
people before the approaches described here will be completely effective.
6. To avoid the clumsiness of unisex pronouns I use feminine gender throughout.