Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

Question 1
Vision-based Mobile Robot Localization and
Mapping Using the PLOT Features
Rui Lin, Zhenhua Wang, Rongchuan Sun and Lining Sun

Abstract - Accurate localization and mapping play a pivotal role in mobile robot navigation. In this
paper, we present a novel algorithm for mobile robot localization and mapping based on stereo vision.
First a novel method is proposed to extract distinctive invariant image features, which is coined
PLOT (Polynomial Local Orientation Tensor). The stability of these features to image translation,
scaling, rotation and illumination changes makes them suitable landmarks for mobile robot
localization and map building. The visual landmarks relative to the robot can be established by
matching the PLOT features. Mobile robot localization is achieved by matching these distinctive
landmarks in the current frame to the database map. RANSAC algorithm is employed for mobile
robot pose estimate due to its efficiency. Meanwhile, the visual landmarks in the database map are
updated correspondingly. Experimental results show that the proposed method based on the PLOT
features achieves localization and mapping for mobile robot with higher precision.

1. Introduction
In mobile robot applications, localization and mapping is a fundamental and important ability to
localize itself accurately and build a map of the environment. It is a challenging research topic in
mobile robot which has received much attention over the last few years. Localization is the most
important behaviors for autonomous navigation of mobile robots, for which robustness and precision
are required. However, mobile robot localization is based on the map of its environment. In contrast,
the map building of the environment depends on the accurate localization of the mobile robot. In
unknown environments this is a conflicting but correlated process. Therefore, Simultaneous
Localization and Mapping (SLAM) play a pivotal role in mobile robot navigation.
Most of the existing SLAM algorithms are based on sonar sensors, laser range finders or visions.
Leonard and Durrant Whyte developed an algorithm for model-based localization in a known
environment that relies on the concept of a geometric beacon observed in sonar measurements. The
algorithm was based on the extended Kalman filter. Triebel and Burgard constructed highly accurate
3D models of the environment based on the edge features extracted from a single 3D laser scan using
the global constraints. Davison and Murray proposed an approach for simultaneous localization and
map building using active vision. By comparison, vision systems are much more informative and of
high resolution. Moreover, the 3D coordinates of the points from the scene can be obtained when
using stereo cameras. Therefore, vision-based approaches using stable visual landmarks in
unmodified environments are highly desirable for SLAM, denoted as visual SLAM.
Page 1 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

To achieve visual SLAM, the distinctive image features are extracted as visual landmarks, which
depend on techniques used like Harris, SURF, and SIFT. Harris's 3D vision system DROID
determined both the camera motions and the 3D positions of the features by using Kalman filter to
track the Harris features. Stephen Se et.al proposed a vision based mobile robot localization and
mapping algorithm based on SIFT features with their Triclops stereo vision system. In [14], the local
maps built by the robots consisted of the 3D coordinates of the Harris points detected and their
correspondent descriptor U-SURF.
It is absolutely necessary that the images are analyzed to obtain distinctive features of the scene
for vision based localization and mapping in the unmodified environments. Local features should be
robust to changes of viewing conditions in order to allow for correspondences and they should also be
invariant to serious changes in color and intensity that may exist between views. PLOT features
presented in the paper are suitable landmarks for mobile robot visual SLAM. Then the features
matching based on the nearest neighbor ratio is implemented to find correspondences for each frame
between the left and right images of the same scene. After finally matching PLOT features, we would
like to maintain a database map containing the PLOT features extracted and to use this database of
landmarks to match features found in subsequence views. The task of localization is to find the robot
pose in the global coordinate system. RANSAC algorithm is used to match the landmarks obtained in
the current frame with the pre-built visual landmark database in the previous frames to compute
mobile robot pose. To enhance the performance of RANSAC for applications, Least-Square
Minimization is also used for an accurate pose estimate and hence better global localization. The
database of landmarks is also incrementally updated over subsequent frames and adaptive to dynamic
environment as the mobile robot moves in the scene.
This paper is organized as follows. Section introduces the PLOT features extracting algorithm.
Then the PLOT features and SIFT features are evaluated on real images base on recall-1-precision
graphs. In Section, stereo matching strategies are presented to find the right correspondences between
the two images of the same scene. RANSAC Algorithm is used to estimate the mobile robot pose in
Section IV. Section V describes the database of the visual landmarks. Section VI shows the
experimental results and Section VII concludes the paper.

Page 2 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

2. EXTRACTING STEREO IMAGE FEATURES

PLOT (Polynomial Local Orientation Tensor) is proposed to extract scale and rotation
invariant features as the stable visual landmarks. It represents the orientation tensor estimation
based on the polynomial expansion in detection of local image features. The features are localized
based on the small eigenvalues of the normalized local orientation tensor by local maximum
search in the eight neighborhoods. Then each feature is assigned an orientation and described by a
descriptor based on the local image region.

i.

Detecting the Key points

Tensor is a useful tool in image analysis for the detection of low-level features such as edges,
lines, corners, and junctions. It can describe local image properties in a way that is invariant
under Euclidean transformations of the space. Orientation tensor is a powerful representation of
local signal energy and orientation. A second order polynomial approximation of the image
structure is expressed as

where A is a symmetric matrix, b a vector and c a scalar. x is a pixel coordinate [x,y] in an image.
f (x) is gray value of a pixel x in the polynomial local image model. f(x) can be computed as filter
responses where the filters are given by dual basis functions relative to the polynomial basis. The
polynomial expansion is to approximate a neighborhood of each pixel with a second order
polynomial, as assumed that the polynomial coefficients capture sufficient information about the
signal. Then the local DC level (constant gray value) is expressed by the constant term c , the odd
part of the image signal by the linear term b , and the even part by the quadratic term A.
Furthermore, the normalized local orientation tensor T can be defined in.

where is the character scale. We also obtain the corresponding smoothed images L ( ) x by
convoluting the image with Gaussian function (x, ) . By the Maclaurin expansion, A and b can
be expressed as

hd

h xy

where,
.
is the derivative computed in the direction,
is
the second-order partial derivative in the corresponding direction. A multi-scale strategy is
applied to adapt the scale changes of scene images as

o n= 0

, where

is the initial

scale and is the scale factor between successive levels. n can be set to a small constant (n=3) to
accelerate the computation.
Page 3 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

The normalized local orientation tensor T represents signal energy and orientation. T is a
symmetric definite matrix. Let

t y be the element of T. Then the two non-negative eigenvalues

of T are computed by

which encode the magnitudes of the quantity of interest in the directions given by the
corresponding orthogonal eigenvectors

1 and 2 .

T can be decomposed into intrinsically 1D(edge) and 2D(junction) parts as follows:

1 2

can be interpreted as an edge strength, and

rotationally invariant.

2 2

2 2

as a junction strength. They are

represents junction strength of the image signal based on

polynomial expansion. A local maximum search by comparing its eight neighbors to localize the
features is then carried out to determine if

assumes local maximum in its neighborhoods.

In order to reduce the computational cost, thresholding can be applied in advance.

ii.

Computing the Descriptor

The key points of the PLOT features are characterized by the descriptors used in SIFT (Scale
Invariant Feature Transform) features. In order to achieve invariance to image rotation, the
descriptors should be represented relative to the dominant orientation. Firstly, for each keypoint
x , the gradient magnitude m(x) , and orientation (x) are computed based on the corresponding
Gaussian smoothed image L(x) by

Then an orientation histogram with 36 bins covering the 360 degree range of orientations is
formed from the gradient orientations of sample points within a region around the keypoint.
Peaks in the orientation histogram correspond to dominant directions of local gradients.
The descriptor is created by first computing the gradient magnitude and dominant orientation
at each image sample feature in a region around its location. Then it is weighted by a Gaussian
window, and then accumulated into orientation histograms summarizing the contents over 44
sample regions. Each sample region has 8 directions for each orientation histogram. In the paper,
a 128 element vector for each feature is used.
Page 4 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

iii.

PLOT VS SIFT
SIFT localizes key points at regions and scales of high variation by the detecting the local
maxima and minima of the difference-of-Gaussian function. At each feature location, an
orientation is selected by determining the peak of a histogram of local image gradient
orientations. Then each key point descriptor is created by first computing the gradient magnitude
and orientation at each image sample point in a region around the key point. SIFT features are
invariant to image scale and rotation, and are partially invariant to illumination changes and
affine or 3D projection.
The features are tested using the image sequences provided by Mikolajczyk. These are
images of real textured and structured scenes. Due to the space limitation, we selected the two
representative images with different changes in imaging conditions: zoom and rotation (Boat) and
lighting changes (Leuven). For each evaluation, we use the first (reference) and the fourth image
of the sequence. We compare PLOT with SIFT using a criterion called recall vs. 1-precision
graphs used in [10, 15, 21]. It is based on the number of correct matches and false matches
obtained for an image pair. Recall and 1-precision can be expressed by

where, if the Euclidean distance between the descriptors for a particular pair of features falls
below the chosen threshold e, this pair is termed a match. A correct-positive is a match where the
two interest points correspond to the same physical location. A false-positive is a match where the
two interest points come from different physical locations. Then e is varied to obtain the curves,
for example, from 0.15 to 0.7.

Page 5 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

Fig.1 shows the key points of PLOT features detected in the first and the fourth images of
the selected image sequences. There are 1865(a) and 1068(b), 1000(c) and 385(d), key points
detected in the image sequences, respectively. Fig.2 shows the recall-1-precision graphs of PLOT
and SIFT. The SIFT program is downloaded from the David Lowes main page [22]. PLOT
program is written by us based on Matlab 7.1. The matching technique is based on the nearest
neighbor ratio. As we know, a perfect descriptor would give a recall equal to 1 for any distance.
In practice, recall increases for an increasing distance threshold as noise which is introduced by
image transformations and region detection increases the distance between similar descriptors. As
to the same image pair, PLOT is superior to SIFT in a systematic and significant way, with
sometimes more than 20% improvement in recall for the same level of 1-precision.

3. STEREO MATCHING
In the binocular vision system, we have two images at each frame. Stereo matching aims to
find correspondences between left and right images of the same scene. The initial matching
strategy is based on the Euclidean distance ratio between the first and the second nearest
neighbors, also called the nearest neighbor ratio. Thus the descriptors are matched if
, where

DB

is the first and

DC

is the second nearest neighbor to

D A . t is set equal to 0.65 in the paper. Besides, The finial matching should satisfy the
following criteria: epipolar and disparity constraint: the epipolar geometry should be considered
to search for corresponding points in stereo matching; orientation and scale constraint: the
difference of the two orientations and the ratio of the two scales should be within a certain
threshold; continuation constraint: a appropriate feature match in the current frame should be
within a region of some matching PLOT feature in the previous frame, which can be taken as a
prediction procedure based on the odometry. The final number of the matches after this constraint
is also used to judge whether the robot is kidnapped or the scene has changed significantly.

Page 6 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

Once the features are matched, we can get the 3D positions of matches relative to the mobile
robot from their image coordinates. The projection matrix

PL and

PR

of the left and right

camera are known by camera calibration. The 3D position relative to the mobile robot can be
computed by the formulation below:

L, i
u L,i , v

where

and

[u R , i , v R , i]

are the image coordinates of the matches; PL i, and PR i,

are the i th row of the projection matrix

pL ,i

and

PR . i . This problem has the form Ax = 0

and can be easily solved by least-squares or singular value decomposition. It is possible to show
that

xi

is the eigenvector corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue of

we compute

A T =USV T

then

xi

A T A , therefore if

is equivalent to the last column of V . Finally, we

normalize this eigenvector by the last element to obtain the 3D visual landmarks relative to the
robot. These 3D landmarks and their corresponding 2D points and feature descriptors are then
stored together.
Fig.3 shows the final matching results for slightly different views where each matched SIFT
feature is marked in the left image. The green crosses indicate the PLOT features extracted in the
image and the green squares indicate the PLOT features in the right image, with the green lines
showing the disparities between the images. It can be seen that all the matches found are correct
and consistent. Table shows the number of matches and corresponding run time.

Page 7 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

4. RANSAC ALGORITHM
The task of global localization is to find the robot pose [p, q, ] in the global coordinate
system. p and q are the sideways and forward translation in X and Z directions, and is the
orientation rotation. Given a set of current features and a set of landmarks in the database, it
considers global localization as model parameters estimation problem. There are many
representative algorithms to estimate the mobile robot pose, such as RANSAC, Least-Squares
Minimization, and Hough Transform. RANSAC treats global localization as a hypotheses testing
problem, that is to say, multiple pose hypotheses are considered and the best one corresponds to
the pose which can match the most features in the current frame to the database. As claimed in
[13], RANSAC is much more efficient for matching distinctive features than the Hough
Transform. So we will describe RANSCA algorithms developed for global localization in this
section.

Page 8 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

5. Hypotheses Matching
We can obtain the corresponding relation between the final matches in the current frame and
the landmarks obtained in the previous frame by continuation constraint. The mobile robot has 3DoF [p, q, ] for a general motion in the scene. We randomly select two tentative matches to
compute the 3D position of the landmark relative to the robot. Then we can obtain the pose
estimate [p, q, ] by equating

where (

X i , Y i , Zi

is the landmark coordinate in the previous frame and

(X 'i , Y 'i , Z'i )

are

the feature 3D position relative to the robot. The two tentative matches should satisfy the
constraints.

6. Hypotheses Evaluation
We obtain the robot pose estimate by the tentative matches selected randomly. Now we check
other final matches which support this pose estimate [p, q, ].

Firstly, we compute the position

}]
X }k , {Y} rsub {k} rsup { , Z k

which is in the same references system as

[ Xi, Y i , Zi]

pose estimate:

Page 9 of 20

in the global coordinate system,

for each final match k by the robot

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

Then we compute the Euclidean distance between

}]
X }k , {Y} rsub {k} rsup { , Z k

and

[ Xi, Y i , Zi]

by

If d is the minimum and

d <d threshold , the match k supports this robot pose estimate. As a

result, we will have a set of matches that support the corresponding pose estimation. The pose
estimate with the highest number of supports is our candidate hypothesis. Typically, the model
parameters estimated by RANSAC are not very precise. Therefore, the estimated model
parameters are recomputed to get the best estimate. We then proceed with Least-Squares
Minimization for the correct

7. Discussions
The probability of a good sample for RANSAC[13, 24] is given by:

where is the contamination ratio, p is the sample size and m is the number of samples required.
is also the ratio of false matches to total matches. The computation time of RANSAC increases
very rapidly as grows higher.
If there are not sufficient features after continuation constraint, the robot may be
kidnapped or the scene has changed significantly. Then the tentative matches should be extended
from the features in the current frame to the landmarks in the whole database. For each feature in
the current frame, we find a landmark in the whole database following the constraints. The
contamination ratio may grow larger. The number of seeking steps should be selected largely
correspondingly. While the robot is not kidnapped, the contamination ratio is very small, near to
zero. We can obtain a better pose estimate although m is small. We currently set a minimum of 15
matches for a reliable estimation. If there are insufficient matches due to occlusion for instance,
the odometry will be used as the pose estimate for the mobile robot in the current frame. The
mobile robot can regain a reliable pose estimate from the following consecutive frames.

Page 10 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

Page 11 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

Question 2
LittleDog System

1. Introduction
LittleDog is a small quadruped robot for research applications. LittleDog was designed to explore
the fundamental relationships among motor learning, dynamic control, perception of the environment,
and rough terrain locomotion. LittleDog has four legs, each powered by three electric motors. The
legs have a large range of motion and workspace. The motors are strong enough for dynamic
locomotion, including climbing. There is an onboard computer that performs sensing, actuator control
and communications tasks. LittleDog's sensors measure joint angles, body orientation and
foot/ground contact. Onboard lithium polymer batteries allow for approximately 30 minutes of
continuous operation without recharging. Tethered power operation is available to extend operation
time during development. LittleDog comes with a set of software control utilities that are accessed
through the LittleDog API. User developed control programs run on the Host computer and
communicate with the robot over a wireless link to support remote operation and analysis. A motion
tracking system provides real-time measurement of the robots body and limb locations in the test
environment. The motion tracking system is based on a high precision Vicon motion capture (MoCap)
system. The MoCap system uses specialized cameras, special light sources and retroreflective
markers on the robot to report accurate positions of the robot and terrain. This information is then
processed into parameters such as joint angles, body posture and terrain location and made available
to the user through the Robot API

Page 12 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

2. System Overview
The LittleDog System is comprised of a LittleDog Robot, a Host Computer, a MoCap
Computer and a Vicon MoCap System. Figure 1 illustrates how these components are connected
together. This manual describes how to set up the LittleDog Robot system and how to get started
using it. The LittleDog system comes pre-configured with regard to communications. The robot
communicates with the Host computer over a private wireless Ethernet network. The Vicon
motion capture system communicates with the Host computer via a wired connection. The Host
computer has a second wired Ethernet port that can be used to connect the Host computer to the
outside world. Getting all that networking to perform correctly at high rates is a challenge. We
encourage you to leave the network settings as pre-configured, with the exception of the Host
computers external network interface, which you can set as you please. Robot control
applications run on the Host computer and communicate with both the robot and motion capture
system at 100Hz, collecting a current snapshot of the system state and issuing commands to the
robot every 10ms. Joint level servo controllers are provided on the LittleDog robot and operate at
a sampling frequency of 500Hz. A complete log of all robot state, motion capture data, and robot
commands is collected on the Host computer whenever an experimental trial is performed with
the LittleDog system.

Page 13 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

3. Platform Specification
i. Mechanical Overview
-

ii.

Body Dimensions: 340 x 180 x 143 mm

Ground Clearance: 120 mm
Leg Length: 180 mm
Total Weight: 3 kg
LittleDog has twelve actuated degrees of freedom, each powered by an electric motor with
position sensing encoder. Each leg also has a single axis force sensor in the lower leg, capable
of detecting touchdown events and measuring approximate lower leg axial forces

Electrical Overview
-

LittleDogs electronics includes the following:

x86 architecture, 266 MHz CPU with 128MB RAM
Mini-PCI bus, hosting onboard 802.11b wireless Ethernet card
Platform I/O Support
a. Power
b. MEMS IMU (angles, rates, linear accelerations)
c. Proximity Sensor
Power Source: 2.1 Ah @ 14.8V LiPol (4 cells in series)
a. Optional external tethered power

4. Kinematics: Definitions and Coordinate Conventions

Page 14 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

i.

ii.

Body Coordinates

Hip and Leg Coordinate Frames

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UIipbi0cAVE (LittleDog video)

Page 15 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

Question

Navigation of Mobile Robot Using Global Positioning

System (GPS) and Obstacle Avoidance System with
Commanded Loop Daisy Chaining Application
Method
MHA Hamid, AH Adom, NA Rahim, MHF Rahiman

1. What is the robot designed to do?

This project used low cost equipment and instrumentation. Remote control truck with skid
steer application is used as a test bed for GPS navigation and obstacle avoidance. This remote
control truck is suitable on semi-rugged terrain such a football field and outdoor application. The
system was designed as a prototype for small vehicle and it can be implemented to larger vehicle
for various type of application.

2.

How is the robot constructed?

Mobile robot for this experiment utilized the use of remote control (RC) truck with the
dimension of 50 cm in length, 25 cm in width and 15 cm in height. The RC truck equipped with
four independent motor that can actuated individually which can skid steer to turn the mobile
robot in immediate 360 degree turn. Equipped with seal lead acid battery, mobile robot increases
the capability to move in longer time. Figure show mobile robot structures integrated with GPS
and sonar sensor.

Page 16 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

3.

How does it sense its environment?

Global Positioning System (GPS) is widely use in navigation and localization. Nowadays
many vehicles are equipped with GPS for navigation from desire route. From the GPS user can
determine which direction they should follow with time and other data such as bearing etc. This
project will benefit the use of data transmit from satellite to GPS module. Autonomous mobile
robot for this application will use Garmin E-trex Vista for GPS module. Many considerations
have been made for this application. The main factor for the consideration is the 12 channel GPS
receiver designed to operate with L1 frequency and GPS receiver continuously tracks and uses
the signal to compute and update position. Small sizes make it light and easy to handle and also
can be use in rugged terrain because of water proofing. Due to minimum power requirement
which is 3v it is suitable for autonomous mobile robot that needs longer power for localization
and navigation. With proper calibration the accuracy will be 2 with 5 degrees extreme northern
and southern latitudes and 1 degree resolution. The experiment has been conducted and the data
that from the GPS that suitable for navigation and localization is $GPRMC, $GPRMB, $
$GPGGA and HCHDG. GPS data being utilized in this project include latitude and longitude and
also bearing. Specified waypoint can be pre determine and the autonomous mobile robot will
follow waypoint accordingly. All the data will be read as ASCII code that need to be parse to
various type of information. Usually the accuracy of the GPS module can up to 9 meter.

Page 17 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

4.

How does it move about within its environment?

Along the navigation from the first waypoint to final waypoint sonar sensor will detect the
obstacle within range. Basic principle of movement of mobile robot is avoid the obstacle and
after successfully avoid the particular obstacle mobile robot will correct the waypoint from the
current position. This paper focused on the LV-MAX Sonar for obstacle avoidance system. The
selection of sonar sensor is base on the specification of the LV-MAX Sonar. The advantages of
the LV-MAX Sonar are very low cost sonar sensor with reliable and stable range data and also
very fast measurement cycle.
On the mobile robot four sonar sensors implemented in front of mobile robot for obstacle
avoidance system. For each left and right the position of the sensor are 20 cm in between with 45
angle and two sonar sensor in the middle of left and right sonar sensor with 10 cm between both
sensor.
The left and right sensor will detect the obstacle on each side and the centre sensor will detect
the opposite obstacle of mobile robot. The system did not include back sensor because mobile
robot only avoid obstacle by moving left and right only. From this experiment output data from
the sonar sensor using pulse width output. Pulse data can be converted to centimeter or inches
from equation (1) and (2).

Page 18 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

Question

A New Method of Inverse Kinematics Solution for

Industrial 7DOF Robot
HUANG Liang-song1, JIANG Ru-kang1

1.

What task is the system designed to perform?

At present, the most commonly used are 6DOF robots or robots with less six degrees of
freedom in industrial application. As the work environment and task more complex, it sets higher
demands for the performance of new generation of industrial robots such as Flexibility,
Reliability and Adaptability. Redundant 7DOF robot has more posture comparing with 6DOF
robot, which it is easy to solve the problem of robot singularity, and to avoid limit of joint angles,
and to sheer off obstacle. So, the advantage of redundant 7DOF robot can better meet the some
special requirements of environment, task and technology in advanced manufacturing industry
and other special industry, the redundant 7DOF robot is the future development trend

2.

What limitations does the system place on its operational

environment?
Adding a degree of freedom, there are infinite numbers of the inverse kinematic solutions of
7DOF robot, which is much more difficult to solve the inverse kinematic solution than the 6DOF
robot. Many solutions for the inverse kinematic problem of 7DOF have been presented, Dubey
proposed an optimized algorithm based on gradient projection methods which avoids to solve the
pseudo Jacobian matrix. But there are cumulative errors during the calculation process. Chan
proposed an algorithm adopting the weighted least norms method to solve the inverse kinematic
solution, which can keep out of joint limit and get the optimal solution. However, the formulation
of solving includes the pseudo Jacobian matrix; it is very difficult to solve it. Lee and Bejczy
proposed and approach to deriving a closed-form inverse kinematic solution for redundant robot
Page 19 of 20

Assignment 1 Mobile Robot

based on a joint parametrization technique. Although their method may be applicable to any DOF
manipulator, selection of the joint parameters is not simple and applying the method to joint limit
analysis will be quite difficult.

3.

What level of human operator interaction is required?

According to the 7DOF industrial robot in the laboratory, this paper presents an algorithm to
solve the inverse kinematic problem, which combines the method of separation of position and
posture and method of algebraic iterative, transforming the inverse kinematic problem of 7DOF
robot to the position redundant problem of 4DOF robot. This algorithm reduces the computation
complexity and meets the requirement of robot real-time control.

Reference
-

http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.lib1.library.unikl.edu.my/stamp/stamp.jsp?
tp=&arnumber=5069211
http://www-clmc.usc.edu/~cs599_mlr/LittleDog_User_Guide_V1.0.2.pdf
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.lib1.library.unikl.edu.my/stamp/stamp.jsp?
tp=&arnumber=6285115

Page 20 of 20