> ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES & ELECTRONICS (Semi-Conductor) Chapter - 16 BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS In solids large numbers of atoms are close to each other. The electrons are influenced strongly by the nuclei, the valence electrons overlap. The discrete energy levels then broaden it in to continuous bands of energy. Thus a group of overlapped sublevels is called enetgy bands. They contain allowable energy levels very close to each other. The valence orbital’s of the atoms combine to form two sets of energy levels. These are called the valence bandyand conduction band. The valence band has the lower enemy level electron in a partially filled conduction band can move rapidly throughout the crystal. KINDS OF BANDS: Valence band The lowest available energy band is called valence band. It corresponds to ground state. Normally valance electrons reside in this band,end are not free to gain energy from an applied field. This band may be completely or partially filled: Conduction band: The energy band having next, higher permitted energy band i.e. next to the valence band is called conduction band, This band is occupied by conduction electron or free electrons. Itis upper most bands of the atoms. Forbidden band: ‘The region, in which’électrons cannot occupy is called forbidden energy gap. This band lies in between the valence band and the conduction band and contain no available energy levele Em | Fashion Gop LZTYPES OF SOLIDS: There are three types of solids i. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTO! . conductors, insulators and semi conductors. Conductors: In conductors valence band and conduction band overlap. The electrons in the overlapping region are conduction electrons. There are no forbidden bands. In metals the valence band is filled with electrons and the conduction band is partially filled. The electrons from valence band can easily cross to conduction band. When electric field. is applied electron in partially filled band will gain energy and move to empty band. The resistivity of conductors is small however the resistance increases with temperature. Insulator: In insulator the valence band is completely filled with electrons but Conduction band empty. In between valence band and conduction band. The resistance also remains high with the increase of temperature. Semiconductors: In semiconductors forbidden band is of very smalhwidth)between the valence band and the conduction band. The energy gap is low. A few/electrons can be transferred easily from the valence band to the conduction,band. Thus slight electric conduction is possible with the rise of temperature more electronare excited in to the conduction band and the conductivity increases rapidly Semicondluctars{have resistivity in between conductors and insulators. The resistance decreasesiwith the rise of temperature. The substances that have intertfiediate) resistivity 100 are called intrinsic semiconductors or simply semiconductors e.g.silicon and germanium. They posses narrow forbidden, band between valence and conduction) bands. They have four valence electrons, thus there are four covalent bonds per atom when an electron escapes from the bond it leaves a vacant place. This is equivalent to a +ve Charge of electron called hole. The process of entering electrons in the holes is called recombination. In pure crystallineystate the semiconductors have very low conductivity due to very small numberiof electrons and holes. PREPARATION OF SEMICONDUCTORS (DOPING): ‘The process of addition of impurity i.e. adding externally the small amount of penta or trivalent ‘substance to a pure intrinsic semiconductor is called doping. EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR: Doped semiconductor materials are called extrinsic semiconductors. They are of two types i.e. n- type and p-type semiconductors.ADANIEECOACHING.BLOGSPOT.COM N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR: (DONOR DOPING) When small amount of pentavalent substance such as arsenic, antimony and phosphorous are added to germanium or silicon crystal n-type semiconductor is formed. The process of doping is called donor doping. Each atom of the doping material form covalent bond with four Neighboring atoms. The filth electron is the surplus electron and it is free in the lattice. The impurity atoms are called donor because they donates electrons. When electric field is applied, the free electrons are excited and jump in to the conduction Band from the valence band. Thus in addition to electrons and holes we have conduction, electrons. Infect in n-type semiconductors majority charge carriers rue electrons. P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS: (ACCEPTOR DOPING) When small amount of trivalent substance such\as\bofon, gallium, indium and aluminum ete. are added to germanium or silicon p-type serticonductor is formed. The process of doping is called acceptor doping. Each atom of the doping materialiforms covalent bond with the four neighboring atoms. The covalent bond with the fourth,atom)remains ‘incomplete. The vacant place of the electron is called hole. When a neafby electron jumps over to fill the hole it creates another hole at its place. Thus holes are able)to, move about in the crystal, thus the impurity atoms are called accepter since they accept electrons. When an electric field is applied the holes are migrated to add to conductivity'so the’current is carried through the holes. Thus In p-type semiconductors majority charge catriersare holes. ‘Tue P - NJuNCTION (SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE): Whenip-typeland N-type semiconductors are joined together then p ~ n junction or junction diode is formed. This is achieved by a process called thermo compression process. Initially there are holes in p-type and electrons in n-type semiconductors. A diffusion of holes and electrons takes place across the junction, the electrons move across the junction from n- type to p-type and a +ve charge is developed on the n-side of the junction, at the same time holes move from p-type to n-type and a -ye charge is developed on the p-side of the junction. A potential is set up at the junction. Itis called potential barrier or junction barrier (Vo).‘The potential barrier give rise to the electric field which prevents the respective majority charge carriers from crossing the barrier region. It contains no charge carriers. FUNCTION OF JUNCTION OR DIODE: ‘A p-n junction consist of two regions of low resistivity separated bya region of high resistivity i.e. depletion region. It has the property of one way conduction. Itallowsithe current to flow in one direction and the flow of the current is practically zero in.oppasité direction .Thus it acts as diode. The p-type end is referred as anode and n-type.as)cathode. Anode is represented by arrow and cathode by bar. Biasing: ‘The application of electric potential across the semiconductor diode is called biasing. There are two types of biasing. i. Forward Biasing: If a junction diode is connected.to’a battery with it’s +ve terminal to p-type and -ye terminal to n type of the junction. It is said to be forward biased. This forward potential establishes an electric field, which is opposite to the field due to the potential barrier. This reduces the potential barrier at the junction. Thus the junction resistance is decreased and a low resistancetpath is established tor the charge carriers and current flows through the circuit. Forward Bias depletion zoneReverse Biasing: If a junction diode is connected to a battery with its -ye terminal to p-type and +ve terminal n-type of the junction It is said to be reverse biased. The applied reverse potential establishes an electric barrier. The resultant field becomes strong. This increases the potential barrier at the junction. This increased potential barrier prevents the flow of majority charge carriers. The junction resistance becomes high. Thus a high resistance path is established. However a very small reveres current\flow across the junction due to the minority charge carriers. Reverse Bias swronetina depletion zone TRANSISTOR: ‘Transistor means transfer or resistance. Iisa three terminal device. It consists of three layers of doped semiconductors. The middle thin Jayer is base and the other two layers are called emitter and collector. The emitter suppliesifreé charges i.e. electrons or holes. Base controls the flow of charges where as collector tollects the charges, There are two kinds of tran’ N-P-N TRANSISTOR: It is the transistor with p-type material sandwiched between two n - type materials. Thus emitter is n-typé base is p-type and collector is n-type. In this transistor electrons are majority charge carriers, They always flow in opposite direction of the arrow for the emitter. NPN Transistor Construction Collector Emitter Collector Base Base Emitter‘ADAMIEECOACHING.BLOGSPOT.COM P= pep transistor TRANSISTOR AS AM AMPLIFIER: The device that raises the strength of a weak signal is known as amplifier The process used to convert low voltage or current signal to a high voltage or currént.is|known as ampli Transistor is basically a current amplifier. For More Notes, Meas, ONLINE Quizzes ADAMJEECOACHING.BLoGsPoT.Com