Class: XI -134- (Gh, 17 Advent of Modem Physics) Physics Notes Chapter # 17 Advent of Modern Physics Frames of Reference: The position of any object in space identified with respect to certain reference. A set of coordinate axis with respect to which measurements are made is called “Frame of Reference”. The most commonly used set of coordinates is the rectangular Cartesian system and is often called as frame of reference. The reference frame is mathematically expressed interns of a set of three mutually perpendicular lines called axis of the frame of reference as shown. In Fri Refer Z ¥ “an Inertial Frame of Reference is that lesen which is moving with constant or uniform ! velocity”. i OR 1 “An Inertial frame of reference is that in Zz Which Newton’s Laws.are valid”. P x Ail Inertial Frames are equivalent from the point of making measurements of physical phenomena. Different observers in different inertial frames may have different value of physical quantities, but the basic physical laws remain the same for all observers. An interfacial frame of reference'is non - accelerating frame of reference. Galilean Transformation: According to Newton’s all inertial frames of reference are equivalent from. ‘the paint view of making physical measurement. Consider two inertial frames of reference S and S'. Such that reference frame “S” at rest at time t = 0 and reference from “S” is moving with uniform velocity V with respect to the frame “S". Also assume that at origins of two frames are coincides at the initial time t = 0. The frame S' is moving along a-direction after time “t” it, will be at a distance “Vt” from the origin of the stationary frame of reference Suppose an experiment is made to measure F = ma in space.and time at same point (i.e.P).let-the coordinate of “p” tS? will (xy, 2°) and w.rt-S will be (x, y, z) at same time "t”. So, x =x-Vt ah eny a i eS = Zod and time is absolute (constant) Similarly if S' is moving along y ~ axis then the coordinates will be: ADAMJEE COACHING CENTREPhysics Notes (Ch 11- Advent of Modem Physics) ~135- Class: Xi mex y=Y-vt 22 Similar situation is true for Z - axis. From above equations, we have krans formed the co-ordinate (x’,y’,2’, t) of frame “S’” in terms of the co-ordinates (x, y, z, t) of frame “S”. this is called “Galilean Transformation of space time co-ordinates”. Similarly if the body is moving with certain velocity *V” with respect to frame °S", thus, X=x' + Vt or Soy IQRA COPY CENTER ae am Noth rch VeVi +V 0333-244" Where, Vx is the velocity measured in frame S’ and V! is the velocity of the body measured in “S'”, This is Galilean transformation law for addition of velocity. Now, measurement of acceleration of an object in an inertial frame of reference requires the measurement of time difference and, the difference of velocities. Such that: (A) Where, V; and Vp are the velocities in the frame of reference (S) According to law of addition of velocity, we have: M=Vi+V OR Vi =Vi-V W2=V;+V OR Vi =V2-V Where, V,and V; are the velocities of body measured in S', Hence acceleration (a') in S' will be: or or (B) It, comparing eq (A) and eq (B) a=a ‘Thus acceleration measured in moving frame of reference (S’) is exactly equal to that measured-in-the stationary-frame(S)--—__- Hence laws of physics are same in both frames. F=ma’,F=ma or PSF Prepared by: Prof. Asif Basheer ADAMJEE COACHING CENTREClass: Xi -136- __(Ch.1T- Advent oflladem Physics) Physics Notes This forces are equal in two frames and Newton’s law remain unaltered under Galilean transformation. Principl elativity: According to Albert Einstein, “A possible reference frames moving at uniform velocity relative to one another (inertial frames) are equivalent for the statement and description of physical laws”. This assumption is known as the principle of relativity. Theory of relativity also called relativistic mechanics is divided into two parts; General theory of relativity and special theory of relativity. Pe fi f jal Thi f Relativity: There are two postulates of theory are stated below: 1. There is no preferred or absolute inertial frame of reference. Such that all inertial frames are equivalent for the description of all physical laws (i.e. Newton's laws as well 2s the Maxwell's electromagnetic equations). 2. The speed of light in free space is the same for all observers in uniform translational -relative motion and is independent of the motion of observer and source Based on the above postulates Einstein's special theory of relativity gives the following results: i. | Mass Variations: Let “mo” is mass of a body when it is at rest relative to an observer, “ms” is called “Rest mass”. Let “m” is the mass observed by an observer moving with uniform velocity “V” with respect to the body’s frame where ‘m’ is called “relativistic mass or moving mass of the body”. It is given as ; (C = speed of light) The above equation shows that the mass of body changes with velocity and relativistic mass (m) is greater than the rest mass (mc) of the body. Let “L,” is the length of a rod when it is at rest relative to an observer then the length (L) measured by ani observer moving at -constant speed “V” relative to thé rod, paralle! to its length will be: = heey Al Hence the length of the rod is appears to be shorter when moving telative to observer at rest provided that speed. is comparable to light speed (C). ADAMJEE COACHING CENTREPhysics Notes (Ch.17- Adventof Modem Physics) -137- Class: Xi Time Dilation: Time in special theory of relativity is not an absolute quantity. Let Yto’ is the instant of time of an event as measured by an observer at rest. Then the time interval for the same event recorded by another observer moving with velocity "V" is given by: wl IQRA COPY CENTER This effect is known as “Time Dilation”. R318/4, 5C-3 North Karachi iv. Mass Energy Relation: 0333-2441879 Einstein showed that mass is a form of energy i.e. mass and energy are interconvert able. If a body in motion has a mass ‘m’ then the mass is equivalent to energy (E) given by equation: E=mC? _ ; (C = speed of light) Then energy is regarded as total energy and is given by: E=mC?+K.E or mC?=mC?+KE Hence the energy: of a body in motion is equal to the sum of kinetic energy and m.C?called (Rest mass energy). An ideal body that absorbs the entire radiation incident upon it, regardless of frequency. Such a body is called “Black Body”. The advantage of introducing the concept of black body is, we now disregard the precise nature of whatever is radiating in the discussion of thermal radiation because all black bodies behave identically. A black body can be approximated by a hollow object with a very fine hole leading to its interior as shown in fig(a). Any radiation striking the hole enters the cavity-where it is trapped by reflection back and forth until it absorbed. The cavity walls ~are constantly emitting and absorbing radiation. Just as a black body is nearly a perfect absorber, so the most effective emitter of radiation when healed radiation emitted from the cavity are known "Black Body Radiation”. Experimentally observe that black body radiates more when hot them when it is cold the spectrum of a hot black body has its'peak at a higher frequency than the peak in the spectrum of a cooler one as shown in figure below: Different attempts to have been made to explain. the experimental results from the black body. Prepared by: Prof. Asif Basheer ADAMJEE COACHING CENTREClass: XI -138-__h.fT-Adventot Modem Fhysts) Physics Notes . Wein’s Laws: ‘According to Wein’s displacent law: “The wavelength for maximum radiation is emitted is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the Black Body”. OR “The product of wavelength for maximum radiation emitted and absolute temperature of the black body remain constant”. If “am” is maximum wavelength of emitted radiation, then according to law, wavelength shifted shorter with the increase of temperature: Ae Constant T im T = constant i. Stephen's Law: According to Stephen’s law: “The total amount of energy radiated per second per unit aréa of a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. If “E” is the energy radiated per second per unit area and “T” is the temperature, than: Ea Tf E=o7* | where is called Stephen’s constant Rayleigh - Jean's Law: Rayleigh and Jeans consider that radiation inside a cavity of absolute temperature whose wall are perfect reflectors to be a series of standing electromagnetic waves and density of the standing waves in the cavity is independent of the shape of the cavity. The higher the frequency shorter the wavelength and greater the number of possible standing waves. Each standing wave (radiations) in cavity originates by an atomic charge oscillators and has an average energy of “KT”. According to Rayleigh ~ Jeans law: “The, energy associated with a particular wave length is inversely Proportional to the fourth power oF the wavelengtir*. ADAMJEE COACHING CENTRE am =Physics Notes (Ch 17- Advent of Modem Physics) -139- Class: Xil is the energy associated with radiation and “i.” is the wavelength Ea, this is known as “Rayleigh ~ Jeans law This law has been found to give a good agreement with experimental results at large values of wavelength (1). For wavelength of large values (values of max. wavelength) the ‘total energy tending to acquire infinite value. This is called “Ultra - Violet Catastrophe”. ‘ COPY CENTER Planks’s Law (Quantum ~ Theory): 319i, s¢-aNorth Karactl According to Plank’s hypothesis: 0333-2441879 Energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete amount or in the form of bundles of energy, each bundle is called quanta (plural quantum). The energy of each quanta is directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation Such that, E ov E =ho When h is a constant and it is known as Plank’s constant. Its value is 663x104 J - S. On the basis-of assumption that energy could be emitted or absorbed by atomic oscillators in discrete quanta. The Plank’s law would have the for. 4 E =nho;n=0,1,1,3,.... Results: Plank’s law successfully explain the Black body radiations both short and long wavelengths. Second and great success of law was that: According to-Plank’s theory such electromagnetic radiations.carries with it a minimum energy that is a function of ‘its frequency. Where es. according to classical theory of a wave. The energy of the wave is related to the amplitude; greater the wave amplitude greater will be the energy. Photoelectric Effect: When high frequency radiations (ultraviolet, X - rays, etc) fall on a metal surface, electrons are emitted. This phenomenon is known as “Photo electric field”. The electrons emitted are called “photo ~ electrons”. The phenomenon of photoelectric effect can be observed by the arrangement. Shown.on figure. An evacuated tube contains two electrodes connected. to a battery. Through a galvanometer, when light of high frequency falls on the negative plate. The galvanometer indicates current. This current is caused by photo ~ electron, which are emitted from cathode plate and absorbed by anode plate. Photoelectric effect was found to-depend upon the frequency of light, the nature of metals and the intensity of light. Prepared by: Prof. Asif Basheer ADAMJEE COACHING CENTREClass: Xil -140- [Ch 17 Advert ofMlodem Physics) Physics Notes Following observations were made during the emission of photo detectors: A strong light beam (high intensity) yields more photo electrons than a weak one of the same frequency, but the average kinetic energy of electrons is same. ‘A certain minimum frequency of light is necessary to cause photo- electric emission. This minimum frequency. called “threshold frequency” is different for different metals. Photoelectron energy depends upon the frequency of light employed. At frequencies below threshold frequency, no photoelectrons are emitted. Above threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases linearly with increasing frequency. 3 qv J ‘Attempts were made to explain these aspects of the photoelectric effect from the point of view of classical wave theory of light, but no successful explanation was obtained due to the following reason: 1. ‘According to classical wave theory, light of any frequency should cause photoelectric emission because the electrons may absorb coefficient amount of energy from light if it is made incident for appropriate time. Hence there'should be.no threshold frequency. According to wave theory, light of greater amplitude (greater intensity) posses greater. energy. . Hence. the energy, of photoelectrons should depends upon intensity of light rather than frequency. If we draw the photoelectric curves by plotting. the -phot current (I) verses the accelerating voltage (V)- the curves shown in figure. From these curves, it follow that there is’ a saturation current for different intensities I, II, III etc, and even when the potential is zero (V = 0) ; there is some photo current, when a retarding voitage is applied the current drops and become. ADAMJEE COACHING CENTREPhysics Notes (ch 17~ Adven' of Modern Physics) -141- Class: Xi zero for a certain voltage (Vo). te This voltage (Vc) is called stopping as potential and it determines. Fo Maximum K.E of photoelectrons 3 ine. K-Eim)= Veo #3 Or $y @V5= mvZ £3 o = Vite s3 ii. If light of same intensity but different frequencies are made incident on a metal the photoelectric current at zero voltage is found to be same. However when retarding voltage is applied, the stopping potential is of greater value for light of greater frequency. This i suggest that the greater the frequency of light, greater is the K.E of photoelectrons. iii. A graph between frequency of { incident light and the max. K.E of photoelectrons is straight line. KE The graph shows that there is a (eV) certain minimum values of frequency for what the eneray of photoelectrons is zero. This is called “Threshold frequency” (vo). vo Frequency(s) Einstein’s Explanation of Photoelectric Effect on Einstein explains the photoelectric effect by using Plank’s Quantum theory of radiation. ‘According to quantum theory radiations are emitted and absorbed discrete manner, in the form of packets of energy. The energy of each quantum is proportional to the frequency of radiation. Thus: E=ho {sh = Plank’s constant = 6.63x10*4 3-5] Einstein assumed that 2 beam of light conserves of quanta called photons. When light falls on a metal surface, the photons interact with the electrons present in the metal. The interaction between a photon and electron is treated as a collision in which energy is conserved. The photon transfers all its energy (or non of its energy) to the electron: The minimum energy required to overcome the attractive forces acting on an electron and to eject it from the metal is called “work function” when an energy of proton is larger than work function, emission of electrons take place instantaneously. Mathematically it is written as: Quantum energy = work required to + K.E of photoelectron of incident photon drag out electron from metal Prepared by: Prof. Asif Basheer ADAMJEE COACHING CENTREClass: Xt -142-_{Ch.1T-~Adventof Modem Physics) Physics Notes hw = bo + K.Emax ee Where “$o" is called work function of the metal. Its unit is Joule (3) or electron volt (eV). It is the characteristic of the surface of the metal used, If K.E of photoelectrons will zero, then 5 ="hvs where, ve is the threshold frequency of the metal. Than; Le ho = 0 + K.Emax ho = hve 2 This relation is called “Einstein’s photoelectric equation” . This equation can be written as: (K.E)max= hv - ¢0 where ‘io’ is called cut-off wavelength. Photo Cell: A simple photo cell based on the photoelectric effect in shown in figure below: The photo cell or photo tube consist of evacuated glass tube fitted with an anode plate and a concave metallic cathode of appropriate ‘surface. The material of the cathode can be chosen to respond to the frequency range over which the photocell operates. The response can be made proportional to the intensity of the light source. The photocell is connected in shown to operate for a particular use of the cell as a source of photoelectric emission. A photocell can be used in any situation’ where beam of light falling on a cell is interruption or broken. For example (uses): i. To count vehicles passing @ road or items running on a conveyer belt. ii. To open doors automatically in a building. iii, To operate burgiar alarms. ADAMJEE COACHING CENTREPhysics Notes (Ch.17- Adventof Modem Physics) 3143. Class: Xil Com, ‘ect Compton effect in an interaction between a photon of electromagnetic radiations (X - rays in this case) and a free electron (or other charged particles) in which some of the energy of the photon is transferred to the particle. Compton effect provided a solid support for photon theory of light since the results were elegantly described by assigning the photon an energy (hu) and momentum (2). = It is sufficient to analyze the scattering process in a single frame of reference as shown in fig(a). Figure shows a collision in which an X - ray photon strikes an electron which is initially treated at rest. The photons approaches toward the electron with a frequency _ (v) and scattered out at an angle (8) ~ 2 with a lower frequency (v'). = The photon energies before and after collision are hu and hv’ respectfully. — During the scattering electron receive impulse and begins to move. The gain in K.E of the electron (e) is the loss in the eneray of photon. Let “E” and “P” be the energy and momentum of the recoiled electron respectively In an elastic collision energy and momentum both are conserved. (Schematic diagram of Compton Effect) Conservation of Energy: t Total initial energy = total final energy ho + moC? = hu’ + mc? OR hv - ho! = mC? - meC? (i) where Mo C? = rest mass energy of electron mC? = relativistic energy of the scattered electron. Along X - axis: Along the line of impact 9 a cosh + Pcosd ; P= tv (for electron) (it) ¢ e Prepared by: Prof. Asif Basheer ADAMJEE COACHING CENTREClass: Xi -144- __{Ch.4T- Aaventof adem Physics) Physics Notes Along Y axis: Across the line of impact o+0=™ sing-Psing € ho sing: Pgin@-c i) These three equations can be solved and the following equation is obtained. 1 1, cos) Seay vo me wavelength (1-Cosé) —Cos®) (1-Cos6) sett Cos) Ai. is called Compton shift in wavelength and quantity ) is called “Compton wavelength (i2). Ab. = he (1 - c0s8) F he = oe Pair Production: A photon may lose its energy, when it interacts with nucleus of.an atom. In this interaction photon disintegrates (or disappear) and-an electron- positron pair is created. This process is known as pair production. The schematic diagram is shown below. Positron is a positively charged particle, its charge and mass are equal to ‘the charge and mass of an electron. That's why it is called positive e-. it is an anti particle of electron. The role of the nucleus in this process is just to share some energy and momentum in order to conserve the two quantities. According to mass energy relation, E = mC?, Energy of ‘2m,C?’ is needed to create an electron-positron pair. Thus a photon with energy (hv) greater than (2moC?) is required for the pair production to take place. Thus the photon energy (hv) in this process is equal to the sum of the (2m.C?) and Kinetic Energies of electron and positron such that: by = 2moC? + (K.E)e + (K.E)er ADAMJEE COACHING CENTREPhysics Notes (Ch. 1 Advent of Moder Physis) -145- Class: Xi Due to large mass of the nucleus, recoil kinetic energy of the nucleus is neglected. This process is also known as “MATERIALIZATION OF ENERGY.” Debroglie Hypothesis:(wave nature of particle) Debroglie in 1924 put forth a novel idea called Debroglie’s Hypothesis. According te Debraulle Hipedieeis: If electromagnetic waves can have particle behaviours then material particles such as electrons, protons etc can aiso behave in a wave like manner. Hence momentum (P) of a particle in terms of wavelength (2) associated with it is given by: P=mv=2 We know that P= 1 Using equation E = E= c= 2 Ee E 3 In the process of pair production eneray (the photon) is converted into mass (electron and positron). The reverse of this process is also 3 reality. That is an electron and positron when combined together they annihilate each other and the mass of these particles appears as the energy of two. photons. Each photon will have energy equal to the rest mass energy of the electron (moC%). Prepared by: Prof. Asif Basheer ADAMJEE COACHING CENTREClass: Xil -146-__(Ch.1T-Adventof Moder Physks| Physics Notes Diagram represents annihilation of electron-positron and the appearance of two photon moving into the opposite direction. Each proton will have the energy (0.51Mev). P=mv mv= h % mV Where *m” and “V" are relativistic mass and velocity, “h” is the Plank’s constant. This relation is known as DE Broglie’s Relation. This wave associated with particles are called “DE Broglie’s wave.” Theoretical prediction of DE Broglie’s hypothesis was confirmed by the famous experiment conduct by Davission and Gevner. They were investigating the scattering of an electron beam by the metallic crystal of Nickel. Heisenberg uncertainty principle state that: “It is in principle impossible to measure with accuracy both momentum and corresponding position of a particle simultaneously.” Thus, if AP2 is the uncertainty in the measured value of the component of momentum and *4,’ is the uncertainty in corresponding coordinate of ‘the positron. ‘Then according to the principle, the product of these uncertainties must satisfy the inequality Ap anz = AP,AX= Qe Where*h’ is the Plank’s constant: fare Similar relations follow for the other y and Z direction. APyAy 2h AP2AZ =? ADAMJEE COACHING CENTREPhysics Notes (Ch1T-AdventofMosemPhysks)__-147- Class: Xi Similarly to the uncertainty relation above, there is another principle of uncertainty which limits. The accuracy in the measurement of time and energy. If AE is the energy uncertainty in time ‘at’ then we have the relation. h AEAt > AEAt=—(h) Qa The effects of the uncertainty principle are not apparent with large systems because of the small value of ‘h’, however the principle is of fundamental importance in behavior of system on the atomic scale. 2 Pret Com, 0%, 3.8 ig eh rg hiey ee Prepared by: Prof. Asif Basheer ADAMJEE COACHING CENTRE