Ernst and Peter Neufert Architects’ Data Third Edition Edited by Bousmaha Baiche DipArch, MPhil, PhD School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University and Nicholas Walliman DipArch, PhD, RIBA School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University b Blackwell Science‘This book provides architects and designers with a concise source of core information needed ta form a framework for the detailed planning of any building project. The objective is 10 save time for building designers during ther basic inves tigations. The information includes the principles of the design process, basic information on sting, servicing and consivucting buildings, as well as illustrations and descrip tions of a wide range of building types. Designers need to be Well informed about the requirements for all the constituent parts of new projects in order to ensure that their designs satisfy the requirements of the briefs and thatthe buildings conform to accepted standards and regulations ‘The extended contents list shows Now the book is orga rised and the order ofthe subjects discussed. To help read: fers to identify relevant background information easily, the Bibliography (page 588) and list of related British and intr rational standards (page 595) have been structured in a vay that mirrors the erganisation of the main sections of the book. To avoid repetition and keep the book to a manageable length, the different subjects are covered anly once in full Readers should therefore refer to several sections to glean all Of the information they require. For instance, a designer wanting to prepare a scheme for acollage will ned to eter to ‘other sections apart from that on colleges, such as — ‘draughting guidelines; mulistorey buildings: the various sections on services and environmental control restaurants for the catering facilities; hotels, hostels and flats for the student accommodation; office buildings for details on working environments; libraries: carparks; disabled access (in the housing and residential section indoor and outdoor sports facilities; gardens; as wellas details on doors, windows, ‘airs, and the section on construction management, ete, Readers should note that the majority of the material is from European contributors and this means that the detail ABOUT THIS BOOK ‘on, for example, climate and daylight is from the perspective ‘of a temperate climate in the northern hemisphere. The Conditions at the location of the proposed building will always have to be ascertained from specific information on the locality. A similar situation isto be seen in the section on roads, where the illustrations show traffic drving on the righthand side of the road. Again, local conditions must be taken into consideration for each individual case, The terminology and style of the texts UK English and this clearly will need to be taken into account by readers accu tomed to American English. These readers will need to be aware that, for example, ‘if has been used in place of ‘elevator’ and ‘ground floor’ ie used instead of fst floor (and “rst floor for ‘second’, et.) ‘The data and examples included in the text are drawn from 48 wide range of sources and as a result a combination of Conventions is used thoughout for dimensions. The mea: surements shown are all metric but a mixture of metres centimetres and milimetis is used and they are in the main ot identifies Readers will also find some superscript numbers asso: ciated with the measurements. Where these appear by dimensions in metres with centimetres, for instance, they represent the adaitional millimetre component of the mea! sure (e9. 1.26" denotes 11m, 260m, 5mm). Anybody faruliar with the metric system will not find this troublesome and those people wha are less comfortable with metric units ean use the Conversion Tables given on pages 611 to 627 t0 clarify any ambiguities, The plans and diagrams of bulldings do not have scales as the purpose here isto show the general layout and express relationships between different spaces, making exact sealing Unnecessary. However, al elevant dimensions are given on the detailed drawings and diagrams of installations, to assist in the design of specific spaces and constructions.‘The Publishers wish to thank, in particular, Dr Bousmaha Baiche, of the Postgraduate Research School, School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, far his enormous efforts and patience in overseeing the final English language fdition. Thay would alsa like to thank his colleague, Dr Nicholas Walliman, also of the Postgraduate Research School, for his valuable contribution on questions of content ‘and terminology. ‘The Publishers are also especially grateful to Paul Stringer for his efforts in managing the editorial and production work ‘on the new euition and for his exceptional attention to deta ‘They would alsa ike to thank Mark Straker of Vector for his work on the ilustrations and text, Richard Moore for proot reading, and the following for thelr work on the translation: Bantrans Services, Chris Charlesworth, Chiltern Language Services, Katharina Hesse, Jeff Howell, Keith Murray, Amy Newland and Wordswop, Finally, they would like to thank the following for con. ‘wibuting information and illustrations to this edition Martin Pugh, Trevor Fish, Group Property Services, Barclays Bank Pie Peter J. Clement, Group Property, NatWest Group Mary Heighway and members of staf, Public Relations, Environment Agency Pick Everard, Granam Brown, Andrew Robinson, Pick Ever: ‘ard (Architects, Surveyors, and Consulting Engineers) and 4. Sainsbury's Ple AsdalWCEC Architects Lesley Bailie, Office of Health Economies ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Simon Marshal, railway expert Stanley Partnership, Architects, Cheltenham ‘Malcom Lee, National Small-Bore Rifle Association (NSRA) British Stee! Strip Products Matthew Foreman, Katy Harris, Jo Olsen and members of staff, Foster and Partners, London LUza Kershaw and colleagues a RIBA Publications, the Royal Institute of the British Architects for permission to repro ‘duce forms on page 48 (copyright RIBA Publications 1999) Derek Wolferdale, Principal Track and Gauge Engineer at Railtrack, and members of staf of Railtrack Graeme Loudon, The Met. Office Pam Beckley (Copyright Administrator, the Controller, and members of staff of the Copyright Unit, HMSO for per mmission to reproduce illustrations (Fig 1, page S41 and Fig 8, page 542) from Health Building Note 36 (Crown copy Fight material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of Hor Majesty's Stationery Office) Addison Wesley Longman for permission to reproduce illustrations (Fig. 1, page 101 and Fig. 18 page 184) from The Climate ofthe British isles (Chandler & Gregory) Dr Ray Ogden, Professor Mike Jenks, Margaret Ackil, Postgraduate Research School, School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes University Chris Kendrick, School of Architecture, Oxford Brookes Uni versity ‘The illustrations on pages 134-7 are reproduced from The Building Regulations Explained and illustrated (Powell Smith & Billington), Blackwell Science Lid.Throughout history man has created things 10 be of service to him using measurements relating to his body. Until relatively recent times, the limbs of humans were the basis for all the unite of measurement. Even today many people would have a better understanding of the size of an object if they were told that it was so many men high, so many paces long, 80 many feet wider or so many heads bigger. These are concepts we have from birth, the sizes of which can be said to be in our nature. However, the introduction of metric dimensions put an end to that way of depicting our world Using the metric scale, architects have t0 try to create ‘8 mental pictute that is as accurate and as vivid as possible, Clients are doing the same when they measure rooms on a plan to envisage the dimensions in reality Architects should familiarise themselves with the size of rooms and the objects they contain so that they can Picture and convey the real size of yet-to-be designed furniture, zooms oF buildings in each line they draw and ‘each dimension they measure. We immediately have an accurate idea of the size of an jobject when we see a man (real or imaginary) next toi It is a sign of our times that pictures of buildings and rooms presented in our trade and professional journals are too fften shown without people present in them. From pictures alone, we often obtain a false idea of the size of these rooms and buildings and are surprised how different they appear in reality ~ frequently, they seem ‘much smaller than expected. One of the reasons for the failure of buildings 0 have cohesive relationships with ‘one another is because the designers have based their work an different arbiteary Seales and not on the only true Scale, namely that of human beings. If this is ever to be changed, architects and designers must be shown how these thoughtlessly accepted measurements have developed and how they can be avoided. They have to understand the relationship between the sizes of human limbs and what space a person requires in various postures and whilst moving around, They must also know the sizes of objects Utensils, clothing ete. in everyday use to be able to determine suitable dimensions for containers and furnitue. In addition, architects and designers have to know what space humans need between furniture ~ both in the hhome and in the workplace ~ as well as how the furniture ‘can best be positioned. Without this knowledge, they will be unable t@ create an environment in which no space is wasted and people can comfortably perform their duties ‘or enjoy relaxation time, Finally, architects and designers must know the ‘dimensions for minimum space requirements for people moving around in, for example, railways and vehicles, These minimum space requirements produce strongly fined impressions from which, often unconsciously, other dimensions of spaces are derived ‘Man is not simply a physical being, who needs room, Emotional response is no less important; the way people feel about any space depends crucially on how it is divided up, painted, lit, entered, and furnishes. ‘Starting ‘out from all these considerations and perceptions, Ernst Neufert began in 1926 to collect ‘methodically the experiences gained in a varied practice ‘and teaching activities. He developed a ‘theory of Planning’ based on the human being and provided a framework for assessing the dimensions of buildings and their constituent parts. The results were embodied in this INTRODUCTION book, Many questions of principle were examined. developed and weighed against one another for the fist Inthe current edition up-to-date technical options are neluded to the fullest extent and common standards are taken into consideration, Description is kept to the absolute minimum necessary and is augmented or Teplaced as far as possible by drawings. Creative building designers can thus obtain the necessary information for design in an orderly, briel, and coherent form, which otherwise they would have to collect together laboriously from many reference sources or obtain by detailed measurement of completed buildings. Importance has been attached to giving anly a summary: the fundamental data and experiences are compared with finished buildings only if it is necessary to provide a suitable example BY and large, apart from the requirements of pertinent standards, each project is different and so should be studied, approached and designed afresh by the architect. Only in this way can there be lively progress within the spirt of the times, However, executed projects lend themselves too readily to imitation, or establish Conventions fram which architects of similar projects may find difficulty in detaching themselves. If creative ‘architects are given only constituent parts, a8 is the intention here, they ate compelled to weave the components together into their own imaginative and Unified construction Finally, the component parts presented here have been systematically researched from the literature to provide the data necessary for individual building tasks, checked fut on well-known buildings of a similar type and, where necessary, determined from models and experiments. The objective of this is always that of saving practising building planners from having to carry out all of these basic investigations, thereby enabling them to devote themselves tothe important creative aspects of the taskFy H A A H M H 4 Fy H H H FH H UNITS AND SYMBOLS @ sibaae we © eramoler of deriving $1 wit © symets nd site: hn ond metre © summary of a ied oe ® Srl nd ste: sandUNITS AND SYMBOLS © Stand sattory unit or the consretionindontry Mathematical symbole reater than renter than or ea sum of nate tangent 4 ‘on average equals ‘dentcaly equa not equals roughly equate, about ‘aymptticaly equal {simian to intinty paral ‘equal and paral ‘ot identically equal to ‘rutin by vided by solid angle twonate same airocton, parallel ‘oppose direction, paral Greek alphabet ap 36 2, Hn (oatpne (bi beta (ahaa (ot epston leh 2ota fel Ia thet 1 tape 1 ames oy mw ovo wax {e} omeron (opi forme (3) some ora (uh upsion (0% phi (omens (pst psi (olomegsTiS i DOCUMENTATION AND DRAWINGS The format of documentation (whether in the form of plans, reports, letters, envelopes ete. has, apart fromm in the USA, generaily been standardised to conform to. the internationally accepted {ISO} series of paper sheet sizes in the ‘A,B, 'C’ and ‘’ ranges. These standard paper a formats are derived from a rectangular sheet with an area bert ‘of tm, Using the ‘golden square’ the lengths of the sides | a ‘are chosen as x = 0.841m and y = 1.189m such that: So = myn This forms the basis for the A series, Maintaining the same © -@ sno peer tomate ratio of length to width, the sheet sizes are worked out by progressively halving (or, the other way round, doubling) —] the sheet area, as would happen if the rectangular sheet [ewe = Sones =< ‘was repeatedly folded exactly in half =i) ° sone [worse [over ‘Additional ranges (8, C, and D} are provided for the 1 see | ree [wer associated products that require larger paper sizes, ie 2 ec posters, envelopes, loose-leaf file binders, folders ete. The > ae formats of range B are designed for posters and wall | charts. The formats in ranges C and D are the geometric + nove | aso5 [pase mean dimensions of ranges A and ® and are used to = were [vere [ea manufacture the envelopes and folders to take the A sizes. . vwostae | sre | es =: @ The extra size needed for loose-leat binders, folders 7 ess ws eeu ‘and box files will depend on the size and type of clamping ~ += a device employed. The strip or side margin formats are formed by halves, 2° em woe quarters, and eighths of the main formats (for envelopes, * ee aoe sions, drawings ete) ~ + 6 n we aoa Fads and duplicate books using carbonless paper also noe me have standard formats but may have @ perforated edge or J border, which means the resulting pages will be a © sree soe ‘corresponding amount smaller than the standard sheet size @. During book-binding a further trim is usually necessary, fos El ia siving pages somewhat smal than the standard format Lanconm Tore bere size, However, commercial printers use paper supplied in the RA or SRA sizes and this has an allowance for sear [vee [ 27 trimming, which allows the final page sizes to match the ocean ar [var | on ros standard formats © sen tomate -_ o © Format sips a Aa © Pate tnctaing carbonies na th ce * m © sound ond rimmed vets @-9See aS |] @ anaes a ____ (4 | I eee a es Th oa [eect ae @ tose a, 01-60 r= ==>) el vison gr quotes DOCUMENTATION AND DRAWINGS The use of standard drawing formats makes it easior for architects to lay out drawings for discussion in the design office oF on the building sit, and also facilitates posting and filing. The trimmed, anginal drawing or print must therefore conform to the formats of the ISO A series. - Q)-@) The box for written details should be the following distance from the edge of the drawing: for formats AO-A3 tomm {or formats At-AG 5mm For small drawings, a fling margin of up to 25mm can be Used, with the result that the usable area of the finished format will be smaller ‘AS an exception, narrow formats can be arrived at by stringing together a row of identical or adjacent formats out of the format range. From normal rol widths, the following sizes can be used to give formats in the A series: for drawing paper tracing paper 1500, 1860mm {derived from this 7250, 1250, 660, 900mm) for print paper £650, 900, 120mm If all the drawing formats up to AO are to be cut from a paper web, a roll width of at least 900mm will be necessary. ‘Drawings which are to be stored in AA box files should be folded a follows: + ®) (1)The weting box must always be uppermes, in the correct place and clearly visible (210n starting to fold, the wicth of 210 mm (fold 1) ‘must always be maintained, and itis useful to use a 210 x 297 mm template (@)Fold 2's a triangular fold started 297 mm up from the bottom leftthand corner, ¢0 that on the completely folded drawing only the left bottom field, indicated with @ cross, will be punched or clamped. (4) The drawing is next folded back parallel to side ‘a’ using a 185 x 298mm template. Any remaining area is concertina-folded so as to even out the sheet size and this leaves the writing box on the top surface. If itis not possible to have even folds throughout, the final fold should simply halve the area left (eg. At fold 5, AO fold 7). Any longer standard formats can be folded in similar way. (5) The resulting strip should be folded from side 'b’ to sive a final size of 210 » 297 mm. To reinforce holes and filing edges, piece of AS size cardboard (148 x 210 mm) can be glued to the back of the punched part of the drawing, @ mension and scheme or oldngDOCUMENTATION AND DRAWINGS Arrangement Leave a Sem wide blank strip down the left en hhand edge of the sheet for binding or stapling. The writing box on the extreme Fight + @ should contain the following Qa etait: (Dtype of drawing (sketch, protiminary ‘design, design etc) Q2)type of view or the part of the building illustrated (layout drawing, plan view, section, elevation, ete) (9) scale A A ES (4) dimensions, if necessary. (On drawings used for statutory approvals (and those used by supervisors during construction) it might also contain: (1) the clients name (and signature) {2}the building supervisor's name (and = a signature) seston (3) the main contractor's signature © Senantserangoment of «convection da SHH $f —— @ standert maa ‘diy shaped pln manraroments (4) the building supervisor's comments ‘about inspection and the building permit (if necessary on the back of the sheet A nonth-point must be shown on the ‘drawings for site layouts, plan views et. ; » ” Scales ‘The main scale of the drawing must be given in large type in the box for written details. Other scales must be in smaller type and these scales must be repeated next to their respective diagrams. All objects should be drawn to scale; where the drawing isnot to scale the dimensions must be underlined. As far as possible, use the following scales: for construction drawings: 1:1, 1:25, 15, 1:10, 120, 1:25, 60, 1100, 1:200, 1:250 for site layouts: 1:500, 11000, 1:2000, 1:2500, 1:5000, 110000, 1:25000, Inscriptions In continental Europe, for structural engineering and architectural drawings, dimensions under 11m are generally given in cm and those above 1 m in m. However, recently the trend has been to give all dimensions in mm, and this is standard practice in the UK, Chimney stack flues, pressurised gas pipes and air ducts are shown with their internal dimensions as fraction (width over length) and, assuming they are circular, by the use of the symbol @ for diameter. ‘Squared timber is also shown as @ fraction written as width over height. ‘The rise of stairs is shown along the course of the centre-ine, with the tread depth given underneath (+p. 12) ‘Window and door opening dimensions are shown, as with stats along the central axis. The width is shown above, and the internal height below, the line (»p. 13), Details of floor heights and other heights are measured from the finished floor level of the ground floor (FFL: zero height = 000), Room numbers are written inside a circle and surface area details, in m, are displayed in a square or a rectangle ~ @. Section lines in plan views are drawn in chain dot lines and are labelled with capital letters, usually in alphabetical order, 10 indicate where the section cuts through the building. As well a standard dimensional arrows») oblique arrows. ‘and extent marks.» @) + 7) are commonly used. The position of the dimensional figures must be such thatthe viewer, standing in front of the drawing, can read the dimensions 35 easily as possible, without having to turn the drawing round, and they must be printed in the same direction as the dimension lines, © —a#—- @ wey @rCONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS 1215 use drawings ond Unambiguous and. geometric (0d daveing skis tis simpler proposals and azo give chats 3 onvineing picture of how the QD Prvertrsanhing © rrrting or" Sonn pasert sine baper shouldbe used. This has Contimetes and fine rules for the. milimette divisions Different paper is used for ing. 10. mandard modular coordinated construction and engineering grids» Q. Use Suitable. sheet sizes for crawings can be cut straight @ racware standard formats limewood or poplar using rowing pins with conta points "(By Fst torn over 2em with eS es ‘anion can sed ae the Ing eae (Gee 8), forth its the Tquare title during ‘rowing bing sedge by the Teton) The deowing can be ® than tacts ia plastic Under Backing i sd The. Faquare ha tai ‘sod to. aw nes a vaya Stolen Toy oe provided ih divaions + "Din genera. however the T square ha boon fepleced by parallel motion tard) Other downy ie include ferent meesurog ® oorawing site @ @ Astor taterina © Sarge neo ttn find French curves =CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGSCONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS10 CAD application in architectural design The acronym CAD usually means either computer-aided design or computer aided draughting. CADD is sometimes Uused to mean computer-aided draughting and design Computer-aided design is a highly valued technique because it not only enables a substantial increase in productivity but ‘also helps to achieve neater and clearer drawings then those reduced using the conventional manual drafting techniques escribed in the preceding pages. Standard symbols or building elements can be compiled as a liprary of items, stored and used to create new designs. There is alsa a Possibility of minimising the repetition of tasks by linking CAD data directly with other computer systems. ie scheduling databases, bills of quantities etc. ‘Another advantage of CAD is that it minimises the need for storage space: electronic storage and retrieval of Graphic and data features clearly requires a fraction of the space needed fora paper-based system. Drawings currently being worked on may be stored in the CAD program memory whereas finished design drawings that are not immediately required may be archived in high-capacity electronic storage media, such as magnetic tapes oF compact disks A drawback relating to the sophisticated technology required for professional CAD has been the high expense of the software packages, many of which would only be un on large, costly computer systems. However, various cheap, ‘though still elatively powerful, packages are now available and these will run on a wide range of low-cost personal ‘computers CAD software A CAD software package consists of the CAD program, whieh contains the program files and accessories such os help files and interfaces with other programs, and an ‘extensive reference manual. In the past, the program files were stored on either 51/4" oF 343" floppy disks. The low storage capacity of the 51" floppy disks and their susceptibility to damage has rendered. them obsolete Besides thei higher storage density, 312" disks ae stronger ‘and easier to handle. Nowadays, the program files are usually stored on compact discs {CO-ROM) because of theit high capacity and the ever increasing size of programs: they are even capable of staring several programs When installing a CAD program onto the compute system, the program files must be copied onto the hard disk ‘of the computer. In the past, CAD was un on ‘microcomputers using the MS-DOS operating system only. ‘New versions of the CAD programs are run using MS-DOS andior Microsoft Windows operating systems CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS: CAD Hardware requirements Once the desired CAD software has been selected, it is important to ensure that the appropriate hardware equipment) needed to run the program isin place. A typi computer system usually includes the following hardware: Visual Display Unit (VOU): Also called a sereen or monitor, these are now always fullcalour displays. The level of resolution will dictate how clear and neat the design ‘appears on the screen. For intricate design work itis better to use @ large, high-resolution screen, The prices of such Graphic screens have fallen substantially in recent years ‘making them affordable to @ wide range of businesses and they are hence becoming commonplace. In the past. using CAD required two screens, one for text and the other for ‘graphics. This is not necessary now because some of the latest CAD programs have a ‘lip screen’ facility that allows the user to alternate between the graphics and text display. In addition, the Windows version of some CAD programs also has a resizable text display that may be viewed in parallel with the graphics display Disk drives and disks: The most usual combination of disk dives for desktop CAD systems initially was one hard drive and one 312" floppy drive. The storage capacity of hard disks increased rapidly throughout the 1990s, from early 40 MB (megabyte standard hard drives to capacities measured in gigabytes (GB) by the end of the decade. The storage capability of floppy disks is now generally far too restrictive and this has led to the universal addition of compact disc drives in new PCs. These can hold up to 850MB. This storage limitation has also led to the use of standalone zip drives and CD writers (or CD burners) to allow large files to be saved easily. Keyboard: Virtually every computer is supplied with @ standard alphanumeric keyboard. This is @ very common input device in CAD but it has an intrinsic drawback: it is @ felatively slow method of moving the cursor around the Screen and selecting draughting options. For maximum flexibility and speed, therefore, the support of other input devices is required ‘Mouse: The advantage of the mouse over the keyboard as {an input device in CAD is in speeding up the movement of the cursor around the screen. The mouse is fitted with a Dutton which allows point locations an the screen to be: specified and commands from screen menus (and icons in the Windows systom) to be selected. There are several types of mouse, but nowadays a standard CAD mouse has ‘wo buttons: one used for PICKing and the other for RETURNingGraphic tablet, digitising tablet (digitiser: A digitiser consists of a flat plate with a clear area in the centr, representing the screen area, the rest divided into smal ‘squares providing menu options. An electric pen (stylus) fr puck is used to insert paints on the sereen and to pick commands trom menus. The selection of a command is made by touching a command square on the menu with the stylus (or puck) and at a press of @ button the ‘command is carried aut. Data can be read from an overlay ‘menu of a document map or chart. The document should first be placed on the surface of the digitiser and its boundaries marked with the stylus or puck. The position of the puck on the digitiser may be directly related to the position of the cursor on the screen. ‘Most pucks have four buttons: they all have a PICK button for selecting the scveen cursor position and a RETURN button for completing commands but, in addition, they have two or more buttons for quick selection of frequently used commands. Printers: Hard-copy drawings from CAD software can be produced by using an appropriately configured printer Printers are usually simple and fast to operate, and may also be used for producing hard copies from other programs installed in the computer. There are several types of printer, principally: dot-matrix, inkjet, and laser printers, The graphic output of dot-matrix printers is not fof an acceptable standard, particularly when handling lines that diverge from the horizontal or vertical axes. Inkjet and laser printers are fast and quiet and allow the Production of high-quality monochrome and coloured @ Ese Mapai 8 montton ang a Oaor roken CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS: CAD graphic diagrams up to 3 size, Colour prints are also no longer a problem since there is now a wide range of printers that can produce high-quality colour graphic prints at a reasonably low cost. Plotters: Unlike printers, conventional plotters draw by sing smal ink pens of different colours and wiaths. Most pen plotters have up to eight pens or more. Usually the CAD software is programmed to enable the nomination of the pen for each element in the drawing Flatbed plotters hold the drawing paper tightly on @ bbed, and the pens move over the surface to create the desired drawing. Although they are slow, their availabilty in small sizes (some with a single pon, for instance! means that 8 good-quality output device can be installed at low cost Rotary (drum) plotters operate by rolling the drawing surface over a rotating eylinder, with the pens moving erpendicularly back and forth across the direction of the flow. They can achieve high plotting speeds. With large format dratting plotters, it is possible to produce ‘drawings on paper up to AO size. Depending on the plotter model, eutsize sheets or continuous rolls of paper ‘can be used ‘Modern printer technology has been used to develop electrostatic plotters, inkjet plotters and laser printer/plotters. These are more efficient and reliable, and produce higher line quality than pen plotters. As well as Srawing plans and line diagrams, they can also be used to create large colour plate of shaded and rendered 30 images that are close to photographie quality© Seances @ mrpaa ane 7-100 @® owning aie © verses oes so © omerae 20-08 @ ese tonoe 5-198 CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS: SYMBOLS. @ tise 00 | @ sain rate 10809 @ res earo0.190 @ wore carz0 Or @- QSiw.n @ rower sani @ Foes 100200Windows set in reveals CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS: SYMBOLS Windows without reveals 8 ® Mento tae satin neo © Tere creer rvete © singe tat aoe pas = ® dnb tnet door ® a= @ oovbieteat swing door ~ E @® evering dor hae tape @® Double tot tae ® ee D retho Windows are always drawn with the niche shown on the leftehand side but not on the right Revolving doors are often used in place of lobbies 10 give @ draughtree entrance. However, they restrict through-raffie 30 the arrangement should allow the door flaps to be folded away during peak times. ‘Woaden construction is suitable for single flights of stairs, whereas double tights generally require stone or In every plan view of a storay, the horizontal section through the stairease is displayed about Vs of the storey height above the floor The steps are to be numbered continuously from 30.00 upwards ond downwards. The numbers for the stops that ie below =0.00 are given the prefix ~ minus). The sumbers start on the fst step and finish on the landing, The cantee lina begins atthe star with acrcle and ends atthe ext wth an arrow (including for the basement 13CONSTRUCTION DRAWINGS: SYMBOLS. ST 0 ercisce suns core Tw 0 seeeegua Ts BERET foe [ove EGER [orion [oe © Sama Samar rn © Smo ad ctor in ln vows nd sconsMAN: THE UNIVERSAL STANDARD M ‘Man’s dimensional relationships ‘The oldest known code of dimensional relationships of man was found in a burial chamber of the pyramids near Memphis and are estimated to date back to roughly 3000 8c. Certainly since then, scientists and artists have been trying hard to refine human proportional relationships We know about the proportional systems of the Empire of the Pharaohs, of the time of Ptolemy, the Greeks and the Romans, and even the system of Polycletes, which for a Tong time was applied as the standard, the details given by Albert, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and the people of the Midile Ages. In particular, the work of Durer is known throughout the world. In all of these works, the calculations for a man’s body were based on the lengths of hheads, faces or feet, These were then subdivided and brought into relationship with each other, so that they were applicable throughout general life. Even within our own lifetimes, feet and ells have been in common use a3 measurements The details worked out by Diirer became @ common standard and were used extensively. He started with the height of man and expressed the subdivisions as fractions: Yah = the whole of the top half of the body, from the crotch upwards "Yah = leg lenath from the ankle to the ks chin to the navel length of foot hhead length from the hair parting to the bottom of the chin, distance between the nipples face height and width (including the ears), hand length to the west ‘ina h= face width atthe level of the bottom of the nose, leg width (above the ankle} and so on. ‘The sub-divisions go up to "oh. ‘and from the Yeh Yeh hob During the last century, A, Zeising, brought greater clarity with his investigations of the dimensional relationship of man's proportions. He made exact measurements and comparisons on the basis of the golden section. Unfortunately, this work did not receive the attention it deserved until recently, when a significant researcher in this field, E. Moessel, endorsed Zeising’s work by making thorough tests carried out following his methods. From 1945 onwards, Le Corbusier used forall his projects the sectional relationships in accordance with the ‘golden section, which he called ‘Le Modular’ ~ p. 30. 15we me © ® 5" Stel ANd ee il \ i i ih Lge ab D (ate i Se ee © wormat spacing] Choir © worina euewe @ we © cary peta ©MAN: SMALL SPACESMAN AND HIS HOUSING Spy maye nmponnne Ry ERE Te antag mronsnas EB, FEE ncn semewne BS PO rate tan, ioe, REN ame ety gs anes emeemes © retina 1 water vapour by buma © steving * ©-@ Pretesiono eron nite and to provide an environment that maintains his well-being. ‘The required inside atmosphore comprises gently moving Wve. ‘ot draughty), well oxygenated air pleasant warmth and a humidity and sufficient light. To provide these. conditions, important factors are the location and orientation of the housing in the landscape (~»p.272) as well asthe arrangement ot spaces inthe house and its type of construction, “Te prime requirements for promoting a lasting fooling of wellbeing are an insulated construction, with appropriately Sized windows placed correctly in relation to the room furnishings, sulficent heating and corresponding draught ree ventilation, roma AS Room humidity Room sir ie most pleasant with a relative aie hhumiaity of 50-80%: it should be maintained between limits 40% and 70%. Room air whieh is too moist promates germs, mould, Cold bridging, rot and condensation. = ‘The production of water vapour in human beings varies in accordance with the prevailing conditions and performs an Important cooling function. Production Increases with rising warmth of the room, particularly when the temperature goes fbove 37°C (blood temperature paguebenweuesreoenasese The need for air Fema [orn Man breathes in oxygen with the ar and expels carbon dioxide bei “teete nd water vapour when he exhale, These vary in unity bem eo—t depending on the indvicuats weight, food intake, activity and | Sishatanmy | on” | Saat surounding anvronment-« =. S| ie 3 It hae Been calculated that on average human beings is produce 0.020mih of carbon choxde and 4Ogh of water z | 8 vapour stramas| i "A carbon donde content between 1 and 2% can stimulate | Skea” | wv | a deeper breathing, $0 the air in the dweling should not, a fr as possible, contain more than Ye, This means, with a single {change af a per hour a requirement for an alr space of 32m? per fdultand 15m fr each child. However because the natural rate Of lr exchange in free-standing buildings, even with closea [ty moore Windows, reaches 1/2 to 2 times this amount, 16-24m is = Sufficient (depending an the design) as a normal at space for | S/H IP BH salman) * ‘adults and &- 12m for children, Exprested anther way, with a | sSoaanswsira es oom height =2.m, arom floor area of 84-8.6m% for each adut | *e9ra.noshra. sora ms Is adequate and 32-4 8m? fr each child. With a greater rte of | wanna sim 2080 ai exchange, (2. sleeping with a window open, or ventilation | cintina Yen soe 200 ‘ia ducting), the volume of space por person or ivng rooms can | ring a tirwh et be reduced to 75m? and for bedrooms to 10m? per bed. ‘ona ahaa 8 Where air quality is likely to deteriorate because of naked lights, vapours and ather pollutants [as in hospitals o factories) land in enclosed spaces (such as you in an auditorium), rato of ‘exchange of aie must be artificially boosted inorder to provide the lacking oxygen and remove the harmful substances. ‘Space heating ‘The room temperature for humans at rests tits most pleasant between 18° and 20°C, and for work between 15'and 18° depending on the level of activity. A human being produces ‘about 1.5kcel per kg of body weight. An adult weighing TOKg therefore generates 2520kcal of heat energy per day, although the quantity produced varies according to the ctcumatances For instance itineroases with & drop in room temperature just ‘as does with exercise ‘When neating 3 room, care must be taken to ensure that low temperature heat is used to warm the foom air on the cold side ofthe room. With surface temperatures above 70-80°C decom position can take place, which may irritate the mucous membrane, mouth and pharyen and make the air feel too dry Because ofthis, steam heating and iron stoves, with their high surface temperatures, are not suitable for use in block of ts. @ rarest seme ot intl uns © amen expenditure of eneray om © oom hominy 1920 Oss" @ Vented mate a ath fm ta | is 1 St heeie pe Perrprht © reise comtor @ tewetenn i © Find of como @ at ot comtor ROOM CLIMATE Inthe same way ae he earth has climate the insides of bing aso {emperture velactyofsierulation and eral sunshine’ ithe or st reited heat Eilon control of thee factors ead optima oom Comfort and cones to mane ovra heath an sbi To pevorm ‘shtever tats he ngagedm. Thermal comforts expert when ‘he thermal processes within the body are ntaance ve when the ay {sepia rom tha body corespands wth the equiva loss of hes {othe surounding ara), ‘Temperature regulation and heat loss from the body ‘Thehumon body en rae or wer he rate a which tues heat wing increuing the Blood crclation speed vase ° Test from the body in three main ways: conduction, convection and racation Condoeton et ‘one suraco to another surge whon thy ae in contac fag foe | ntact withthe Boor The rte ot heat anercopend on th roc rea in contact tho. temperture fern! andthe thermal ondetvtos ofthe materae involved. Coppe fr enampla, has a igh ‘ormalcondvetvty whl that sa low, raking ha porous ning ‘motor Convecton tthe proctes of body het bein oat a the shin ‘arms the rurrounding ava process gover bythe west of the ereining ain the room andthe tenpeatre fret between te clothod and uncathed areas ofthe body. Ai seuaton asa civen By conven: ar mame. tant by sonst wih hot objec og rats re, cool ff on the ealing and snk apn A crcl the aca dust ana flostng panics with Te quer the heating ‘medium Hows (ig water na Tosa th Quckar ete cavlapment Stctelaton All obacts needing th human body emt het radon In scordonce to tomperatur difarance betaoen tha Body ste and that of tne ambient area. ts proportional to th power of ofthe bodys Sbaoute tomporature and thretre 6 tmas es ngh fhe temperature Sos Thewaclnah he naan a changin wpe Sho‘ heat becomes vio reaction below this ht fale ina reainetracation ecione, potatos the Sir without neatng i and ie absorbed by for reflected of other sod bodies In ateobing the rciation tees aol bodes ncuding Maman bodesl se warmed This acre haat absorption by the body tego tie stoves is the most passant sonaston for humans for pila ‘avong and alee te mot heathy ‘Other heat swchange mechanisms used by the human body a evaporation of motor fom the sweat glade and breathing The ogy surface and vapour proarure dierent between the sn and Sutounding oeas are key factors hore Ana temptature of 20-244 or comfortable both in summer ang in Sint "he surrounding surface arons sould not ier by more tan compensated for by changing the suace tomer ‘xcassle movement ofa taves place The main cris! surfac 6 For comfort Neo conduction to the Noor vis the fot must be avoided lie. the floor temperature shouts be 17C or more. The surface Important to contol it movement and humiity 96 far 96 possibie Tha movenent canbe sensed ae draughts and this has the ‘ect fos coaing ote body Aca i pumisy of#0-50%' To maintain the quality ofthe ai, controll venation side The coz content ofthe st must be vopiaced by oxygen. 2 CO, content of 010% by volume should not be exceeded, an therefore in Iving ‘ooms and bedrooms provide fortwo to three at thangos per hour ‘The rsh ar equrement ot mamas comes to about 220m eo to aurenang ning roms shoud be 8 6-98 este oom vam Comparative relative hemiiy vals© eres tuipe 1803300 © (eet: moving Foes sched te Hehe BUILDING BIOLOGY For over a decade, medical doctors suich as Or Palm and Or Hartmann at the Research Forum for Geobiology, Eberbach. Woldbrunn'Waldkatzenbach, among others, have been researching the effects thatthe environment has on people: in Pantculr the effects of ihe ground, buildings, rooms, Busing Geological effects Stretched across the whole of the earth is 9 so-called ‘global net eonsisting of stationary waves, aught to be induced by the sun, Homover, its regularity, according to Hartmann, is seh that Sggeste an earthly radiation which emanates rom inside the farth and i effected by erystaline structures in the earth's rust tatieh orders itn such a network, The network le orientated ‘agneticaly n tips of about 200mm width, from the magic 1 spacing of about 250m. Atright angles a these are ether strips Turning in an easuwestdiection ata spacing of about 2m = ‘These stips have been revealed. through experience, 10 have psychologically detrimental effects, particulary whon ane is repeatedly a rest over a paint of intersacton for long periods (eg. when in bedi. Qu In addition to ths, rooms which ottespond to the right angles of the net do not display the ame pathogenic influences ‘These intersection points only become really pathogenic when they coincide with geological disturbances, suth as fouls fre the most infvontial «3. Hence, there isa cumulative etfct Involved s0 the best situation isto make use of the undisturbed tone or area of 180%230m between the global sips. - bed out of the disturbance ares, partcularly away fram the Imorsection pants 5 ‘According 10 Palm, the apparent global net of about 22.80m is made up of hat-distance lines. The actual network ‘would be, asa result a global nt with strips at Sm and 56m entees, running dead straight in the eastwest direction all ound the earth. Every Teh one of these net strips ported to be of a socalled 2nd order and have an influence mary times Greater than the others, Also based on seventh, Stronger disturbance zone has been dented as 90: fren This is at 9 spacing of about 250 and 300m respectively ‘The intersection paints here are also felt particularly strongly “Also according to Palm, in Europe there are deviations from the above norm of up f0 18% feam the nonhisouth and the fastest directions. Americans have abserved such strips with the aid of very sensitive cameras from aeroplanes fying at a height of Several thousand meters. In addition to this, the liagonsls also form their own global net, running north-east 10 South-west and from northwest to south-east 6 This 40, has its own pattern of strong sevenths, which are about one quarter as sttong again in ther effec. Teis stated that locating of the globslstips depends on the ‘elit ofthe compass, and thal modern building construction Can influence the needie of the compass. Thus vanations of 1-2 “tread rest n faulty location and ths signicant because the edges ofthe stips are particulary pathogenic. Careful detection ‘often needs several investigators to croae-check the resus, The disturbance zones are located. with divning rods or radio fequioment Just athe radiation potter is broken vertically atthe intersection between ground and ai ve. atthe earth's surface), Endros has demonstrated with madels that these breaks are also detectable on the solid floors of mulistorey buildings =P. He Underground stream» (8) and measured the strength of the ‘istrbances above a watercourse) “The main detrimental effect of such pathogenic zones is that of ‘devitasation" Tor example, tiredness, disturbances of the heart kidneys, culation, breathing, stomach and metabolism land could extend as far as serous chrome diseases such 36 ance In most cases, moving the bed to a disturbance-fee zone ‘ives relief within a short space of ume.» 5. The elect of $0 Eallod neutralising apparatus debatable, many of them having bbeen discovered to be a source of disturbance, Disturbance does not accu. seems, n tooms proportioned ta the golden section (eg. height Jem, width 4m, length Sim) and round houses oF 22) retell pee SWS aS @ Mesintion tom he gown) Atemie tract of extne ot pot. G) Aephatsneting diverts te sovhery nine rdiation ‘ey but emanations atthe bopnning of the net room ae ork grams or tone and roared cork sheets 28-3 © Wa eretngae on sneer cone ee 2 BUILDING BIOLOGY Physicist recognise that mato existsinthraephase’, depending on its temperature ond extomalprosoue. (a sod) guid and fel ‘eteous For example, with water, when under O° i exat 8. Sold Fa) namely ce at normal temperature» (b) = water! when over 100 ~[Ghsteam. Othor matrats change phase a ferent temperatures ‘ha alma oF moles that mae up the material ae in constant motion. In sold metas, for example: the some wate around Fed points in a erytaline sttctre (1. When heated, the movemant Becomes increasingly agitated uni the malting point rached this temperature. the bonds holding spore stoma together are broken ‘sown and mea iquetaton csi, enabling the atoms fo move more liely = Further heating causes more exctaton af the tors unt he Boing pont reached. Her, the mation so energete ta the som an escape al trom forces of atvarten and sporse to orm the ‘gassous sate) On the rverse side. al atome oF molecular ‘ovement stops completely at beck sro Okehin OK =-273 W810) "Those transtions in metals ave, however, not typical of al smateras The atomic or molecular arrangement of exch mate ‘ies tis own properties and ietates how treats to an aft te Surroundings, In the caee of glass for example, although tt ‘pporenty sold at room temperature, dose nat have a cystine Sucre, the atome being ins random, amorphous stat. Is {horefre, technically, 0 supercooled iqld. The density of vapour ‘molecules in aie depends onthe temperature £0 the wear molecules Giuse tothe cooler side Iwhere the densty ix lower. To roplace ‘hom air molecules diffusa to the inside, both movements being ‘indore by the ition restones ofthe wal constuction = Many years of research on bling msteras by Schroder Speck suggests hat organi materia absorb or breakup ration of nel frig. For instance, asphalt mating, wth 100mm stip edge overs i round plesed on concrete Noor varied he previously penetating ‘adatin. The adjacent room however, received bungled diverted rays.» ® ~D.lnon alteratve experiment. 9 granulated cor oot ‘Showod a capac to abso the adaton. Cork sheets 25 30-mm thee Int compressed and senlod,ongued and grooved al ound se also suitable = ‘lay i regarded asa “helt earth’ and bricks and rooting ties ‘ved ‘at_about 850°C give the optimum living conditions. Fot brielaying,aulphursras white lime i recommended, produced by Slaking burnt limo in slaking pit ond where fty limes produces {hough maturation. Hydraule lene should, however be used In walls subject to damp. Lime has wel know antiseptic qualities and ISeommony used asa ime wash in sabes and cow sheds Plaster is considered best when ii ied as ar below 200°C a5 possible. preferably with a constant humisty similar to. aim {oxtiloslesthay sil te). Sandutone ass natural me sandstone ‘eeeptable but should ot be used for complete walls “Tiber io light and warm and is the most vital of building materials. Timber preservation Westments should be derived fom the aistilation of wood teat (eg, se wood vinegar, wood il or Wood tar). Timber reacts wall to odours andi is therstore ‘commended that gnuina timber be used for mnteir cladding, hnocessary a8 plywood using natural gle. Waly, the old rules ‘Should be followed: timber Tella ony Io winter. during te waning ‘moon, then watered for one year in a clay pit before ti sow For inulation, natural building materials such as cork granules land cork sheets (including those with bitumen coating) are focommended. 8 well a8 all lant based matting (eg 200 grass Coconut fine ete), together with expanded cay and datomassous {ant fossil meal! Plostes, mineral ives, mineral woo, laser, Borate concrete, foamed concrete and corrugated aluminium fi {re not considered to be satisfactory Normal las fo lating or erytl gles counts asnevtral. Geter stil is quer glass fr bio-gassh, whieh ranamite 70-80% of the Stra silet ight Doubts exit about coloured glass, Glaning unte With glass welded edges are praterabe to those with metal or plastic ‘Scaled edges. One is seaptea about coloured ats, Metal i eaced by Palm for eter wai, a¢ wel 8 for vee on large areas, This includes copper for rots on dwelinge (but not On thorches. Generally te advice iso avoid the extensive ose of meta Coppa is tolerated the bast on rejected radiator, llegely cause disturbance na radius of tm) Zin alo oleate, aes nad Bronze too, is ecaptale 28% copper and sluinium i regarded 3s having 2 etre Asbestos should not be use. With parting is acommened that earl stay emace ofthe contents and hod of manufacture othe pant ia ord to prevent the troduction of damaging radiation Prasics are general regarded as having no harmful ade effec: Concrete particularly refored conereo. ls rejected in-labe and ‘thes Bt is, however permitted in foundations and calla~ Soest arene sstateat’ tory + ce ateurtahee, cede rong’ bmn fry eaten "2980 poauos ta Saban BUILDING BIOLOGY A difereniation should be made between concrete with clinker ‘ggregate and manmade plaster (which have extromely high radiation values) and ‘natural cement and plaster. Lightweight Conerete with expanded clay aggregate is tolerable. {All pipes for water (cold oF hot), sewage oF gas radiate t0 their surroundings and can influence the organs of living creatures as well as plants. Therefore, rooms that are occupied bby humans and animals for long periods of time (e.g. bedrooms ‘and living rooms) should be as far away a= possible from Pipework Consequently, it is recommended that all Installations are concentrated in the centre of the dwelling, in the kthen of bathroom, or collected together in a service wal (p.277 8). “There is a similar problem with electrical witing carrying aternating current. Even if eurtent does not flow, electrical fields with pathogenic effects are formed, and when current is being dravin the electromagnetic fields created are reputed to be even more harmful Dr Hartmann found an immediate cure in one ease of disturbed well-being by geting tho patient to pul fut the plug and theretore eliminate the current in the flex Wehich went around the head of his bed ~(D, In another case Similar symptoms were cured by moving a cable running between an electric heater and the thermostat from behind the head of the double bed to the other side of the room » Loose cables are particularly troublesome, as they produce a 50H? olternating. field syndrome. In adcition, clecrial equipment, such as heaters, washing machines, dish washer boilers and, particularly, microwave ovens with defective seals, situated next to or Beneath bedrooms send ut pathogenic fadiation through the walls and floors, 80 that the inhabitants fare often in an area of several ifiuences ~ @. Radiation can largely be avoided in new buildings by using wiring with “appropriate insulating sheathing, in exiting structures the only ‘olution isto re-lay the cables or switch off the current atthe ‘eter. For this purpose i is now possible to obtain automatic shutoff switches when no current is being consumed. In this fase, a separate ciccuit is required for appliances that run Constantly (eg freezers, refrigerators, boilers etc) ‘Additionally, harmful radition covers large areas around -ansformer stations (Schrader Speck measured radiation from 13 10-20000V station 3s far away as 30-80m to the north and 420-150m to the south), electric raliays and high-voltage power lines. Even the power earthing of many closely spaced houses can give tse to pathogenic effects, ‘The human metaboliem ie influenced by ions (eletically charged particles). A person in the open air is subjected to an flectrcal voltage of about 180V, although under very slight ‘current due to the lack of a charge cavie. There can Be up to several thousand ions in one cube metre of a depencing on seographicalIoestion and local conditions.» @). They vary in Sve and its the medium and small ons that have a biological ffect. A strong electrical force Feld is produced between the ‘mostly negatively charged surface of the earth and the postive charged air and this affects the body. The esearch of Techishewsti in the 1920s revesled the beneficial influence of negative ions on animsls and humans, and showed a progressive reduction inthe eleciical potential of humans with Increasing age In addition, the more negative ions there are in the ar the slower the rate at which humans age. Research in the last 50 years has also confirmed the beneficial elfects of ‘negative fons in the treatment of high blood pressure, asthma, Circulation problems and rheumatism. The positive ions are predominant in closed rooms, particulrly if they are dusty. fooms: but only negatively charged oxygenated air is biologically valuable. There f.8 large choice of devices which ‘ean be placed in work and utility rooms to artificially produce the negative ions (Le. which produce the desirable stead fel Such steady fields (continuous current fields) change the polarisation of undesirably charged fons to creste improved Foom air conditions, The devices are available in the form of Ceiling electrodes and table or floor mounted units. (SU is a measurement value: devved from Suhr, the home town of Schroder Speck! 2324 THE EYE: PERCEPTION 00 00 00 OO 00.00 00 00 00 0000 00<< aS Oe terarry © War itn pune © sein rt in THE EYE: PERCEPTION Interpretation ‘The activity ofthe eye is divided into seeing and observing. ‘Seeing fist of all serves our physical safety but observing takes over where seeing finishes: it leads to enjoyment of the ‘pictures’ registered through seeing. One can cifferentiate between a still and a scanned picture by the ‘way that the eye stays on an object or scans along it. The Sill picture is displayed in a segment of the area ofa circle, \whose diameter isthe same as the distance ofthe eye from the object. Inside this field of view the abjects appear to the aye ‘at 9 glance’ (3). The ideal stil picture is displayed in bolance. Balance is the first characteristic of architectural beauty. (Physiologists are working on a theory of the sixth sense -the sense of balance of static sense —that underpins the sense of beauty we feel with regard to symmetrical harmonious things and proportions (~ pp. 27-30) or when ‘we are faced with elements that are in balance Outside this framework, the eye receives its impressions by scanning the picture. The scanning eye works forward along the obstacles of resistance which it meets as it directs iteo away from us in width or depth. Obstacles of the same or recurring distances are detected by the eye as a beat” or 4 ‘ihythm which has the same appeal as the sounds received by the ear from music. ‘Architecture is Frozen Music. This effect occurs even when regarding @ still or scanned picture of an enclosed area ~ (and ‘A room whose top demarcation (the ceiling) we ecognise in the stil picture gives a feeling of security, but fon the other hand in long rooms it gives a feeling of ‘depression. With a high ceiling, which the eye can only recognise at first by scanning, the room appears free and ‘sublime, provided thatthe distance between the walls, and hence the general proportions, ae in harmony. Designers must be careful with this because the eye is susceptible to optical illusions. It estimates the extent of width more texactly than depths or heights, the later always appearing larger. Thus a tower seems much higher when seen from above rather than from below ~ p. 24 09 and B. Vertical fedges have the effect of overnanging at the top and horizontal ones of curving up in the middle = p. 24) - 9) 18, When taking these things into account, the designer should not resort to the other exteeme (Baroque! and, for example, reinforce the effect of perspective by inclined windows and cornices (St Peter's in Rome) or even by cornices and vaulting painted in perspective and the like ‘The decisive factor for the measurement of sie isthe size of the field of view and, if applicable, the field of vision @ and, for the exact differentiation of details, the size of the field of reading ~ @ and (). The distance of the latter dtermines the sizeof the details to be clferentiated ‘The Greeks complied exactly with this rule. The size of the smallest moulding under the cornice of the individual temples of varying height is so dimensioned that, at an angular distance of 27° @, it complies with the reading field of 0-7, From this also results the reading distances for books (which varies with the size of the letters) and the seating plans for auditoriums ete 25MAN AND COLOUR Colours have a power over humans, They can create feelings of well-being, unease, activity or passivity, for instance. Colouring in factories, offices or schools can enhance oF reduce performance; in hospitals it can have @ positive influence on patients’ health. This influence works indirectly through making rooms appear wider or narrower thereby giving an impression of space, which promotes a feeling of restriction or freedom + ()~( It also works directly through the physical reactions oF impulses evoked by the individual colours 2) and @ The strongest impulse effect comes from orange; then follow yellow, red, green, and purple. The weakest impulse effect comes fom blue, sn ge Sree {teeny blue and violet (i.e. cold and passive colours) ‘Stang vole vanishes Strong impulse colours are suitable only for small areas sour motion of the ene ina 100m. Conversely, low impulse colours can be used for ves sean large areas. Warm colours have an active and stimulating , con ‘ers effect, which in certain circumstances ean be exciting. Cold ” anor colours have a passive effect ~calming and spiritual. Green causes nervous tension. The effects produced by colour oe ton ve \nice 8150 depend on brightness and location, Warm and bright colours viewed overhead have @ spiritually stimulating effect; viewed from the side, 2 ‘yey warming, drawing closer effect; and, seen below, a Tightening, elevating effec. Warm and dark colours viewed above are enclosing or dignified; seen from the side, embracing; and, seen below, @ tement reyes) Tecturcres tg ‘RG sn om ie ie mb innate sr ra somes Cold and bright colours above brighten things up and meh are relaning: tom the ie hey wore elon aye and su rom the sie, aed Dursanaare,Geggi ase when bao Schiecetamwne” © Mstraarse —mainge @) [vtec ener ma in S © Wissen tects © Seeman es x ower atece tighter parsley hon Values between theoretical white (100%) and absolute black (0%) white paper 84 Tight brown approx.25 grass green approx. 20. asphalt, dry approx. 20 chalky white 80 pure beige approx 25 lime green,pastel approx. §0 asphalt, wet approx. 5 citron yellow 70° mid brown approx. 15 silver grey. approx. 5. oak, dark approx. 18 Ivory approx. 70 salmon pink approx 40 gray lime plaster approx. 42 oak light approx. 33 ‘cream approx 70 full scarlet 18 dry concrete, grey approx. 32 walnut approx. 18 ‘gold yellow, pure 60 catmine 10 plywood ‘approx 38 light spruce approx. 60 straw yellow 60 doep violet approx. yellow brick approx 32 aluminium foil 83 light ochre approx. 60 light biue 40-50 ted brick approx 18 galvanised iron sheet 16 pure chrome yellow 50 deep sky blue 30, darkelinker approx. 10 pure orange 25-30 turquoise blue, pure 15 mid stone colour 35