Friction and

Lubrication
By Shan Rana

Tribology
The science of friction and lubrication is called tribology.
Tribology is an interdisciplinary approach that involves a scientific basis
to understand surfaces in contact and the lubrication needs of a given
tribological system.
Applied Tribology, or tribo-technology, primarily deals with the
maintenance of machines and the minimization of wear and energy
losses due to friction.
Friction creates heat, promotes wear, and wastes power, so the reduction
of friction, by any means, is vital. It is estimated, that from 1/3 to 1/2 of
the total energy produced in the world is consumed by friction. It is also
estimated that the cost of wear in the U .S. is equivalent to 2/3 the cost
of energy. If we add these two together, we see that the cost of friction
and wear in the U .S. is equivalent to the cost of energy.

Friction
We need to understand friction, and its types, to get the basic concept of lubricant
function and overcoming undesired friction with the help of lubrication.
Friction:
Friction is the force that hinders or resists the relative motion of the two
contacting bodies and, depending on the application, high friction may either be
desirable or undesirable.
Friction originates from complex molecular and mechanical interactions between
the contacting surfaces.
Friction causes wear and generates heat which can lead to premature failure of
the functioning machine parts.
Friction between two solids is independent of the materials and
dependent upon:
The size of the contact zone
Surface roughness, asperities
Load or pressure on surfaces

Types of Friction
Solid Friction
Two bodies in direct contact with each other experience dry or solid friction.
Fluid Friction
When they are separated by a solid, liquid, or gaseous medium, they experience fluid friction.
Mixed Friction
Between solid and fluid friction, the situation in which some parts of the two bodies are in
direct contact while the others are separated by a fluid film is known as mixed friction.
Internal Friction
The friction may even involve a single body, in which case it is related to the dissipation of
the internal energy within the body and is called internal friction.
In lubricant-related applications, we are concerned with all three types of friction, that is,
solid friction, fluid friction, and the internal friction.
The major function of a lubricant is to minimize solid friction which it achieves by forming a
fluid film between the two contacting metal surfaces.
Usually, a fluids internal friction is not of any major consequence except at very low
temperatures. At these temperatures the lubricant gains viscosity which can interfere with the
smooth operation of the equipment. Internal friction is important while dealing with a
lubricants intrinsic properties, such as viscosity and pour point.

Cases of Friction
Friction is also related to the type of motion of the two contacting
bodies.
Rolling friction and sliding friction are two general cases
of friction.
When force is applied to slide a steel block sitting on a steel
table, both will experience sliding friction. If a weight, or load,
is placed on top of the metal block, the force necessary to cause
sliding will increases significantly.
When a metal cylinder is made to roll on the surface of metal
table, the cylinder will experience rolling friction, or the rolling
resistance.
Experience shows that in general less force is required to roll an
object than to slide or drag it.

Friction Coefficient
Frictional force is proportional to the load, therefore

F(Force) = P(Load)
Friction is commonly represented by the friction coefficient . The
coefficient of friction is a unit-less ratio, where F represents the
frictional force experienced by the two contacting bodies in motion, and
P represents the
normal force pressing the same two bodies together.
The value of the coefficient of friction typically ranges from 0 to 1; the
higher the value, the higher the frictional force or the resistance of the
contacting bodies towards motion. Under boundary lubrication
conditions, usually approaches 1.
The frictional properties of some very hard materials such as diamonds
and certain very soft materials such as Dupont's Teflon do not obey the
first law. For these special materials, friction is not proportional to the
load; instead it is proportional to some reduced value of the load.

Metal Surfaces
In the context of lubricants we will deal only metal surfaces.
All metal surfaces, irrespective of their finish, contain ridges, peaks,
and valleys, They stick out of the surface forming peaks and valleys
at a microscopic level. These peaks are called asperities.
When two metal surfaces come in contact, solid friction, sometimes
called static or adhesive friction, ensues and the surfaces
undergo adhesion and cold welding. The strength of such an
association depends upon the hardness of the materials, the
cleanliness of the surfaces, and the electronic structure of the metals
as related to their tendency to form metal-metal solutions, or alloys.
When surfaces start to move, kinetic friction comes into play. Kinetic
friction results from plowing of the asperities of the one surface
across the other surface, plastic deformation or elastic hysteresis,
and wear debris getting lodged between the moving surfaces.

Friction Summary
A positive relationship exists between the coefficient friction and
wear; that is, the higher the coefficient of friction, the higher the
wear.
Solid or dry friction is more severe than the mixed friction, which
in turn is more severe than the fluid friction.
Sliding friction is higher than the rolling friction, which is primarily
a consequence of the larger contact zone of the sliding surfaces.

Lubrication

Lubrication
Lubrication is fundamental to the operation of all engineering machines.
Applications that encounter metal-to-metal contact involve either no lubrication
dry, solid lubrication, or liquid lubrication.
Dry lubrication (Solid lubrication):
Dry lubricantsorsolid lubricantsare materials which despite being in the solid
phase, are able to reducefrictionbetween two surfaces sliding against each
other without the need for a liquid medium.
Solid lubrication is common where liquid lubrication is unwanted or is difficult
because of the equipment design or extremely high operating temperatures.
Solid lubricants, exemplified by graphite and molybdenum disulfide, have multilayered structures with low shear strength in some directions.
Agricultural plows and certain parts of ore handling machines are
examples of such equipment.
These lubricants are applied to equipment in a number of ways, such as
bonded dry films, sputtered films (metal deposit on a surface by using fast ions
to eject particles of it from a target), and loose flakes.

Liquid Lubrication
When we talk about lubrication, we usually imply liquid lubrication, that is by the use of
lubricating oil, which is normally a blend of oil and additives that perform various
functions.
Lubrication efficiency of an oil depends not only upon its properties, such as
composition, consistency, flow properties, and surface activity, but also on the needs of
the tribological system.

Lubrication Regimes:
Tribological parameters that usually define a lubrication environment are:
Friction
Lubricant viscosity
The equipment speed
Load
Bearing Characteristic Number:
Viscosity x velocity/unit load = a dimensionless number ZN/P = C
C is known as the Bearing Characteristic Number

Lubrication Regimes
The relationship of the coefficient of friction
and the oil film thickness to lubricant
viscosity Z, equipment speed N, and
equipment load, or pressure P, are
graphically presented by the Stribeck curve
as shown in Fig.
The ratio of ZN/P is related directly to the oil
film thickness but inversely to the coefficient
of friction .
This implies that high lubricant viscosity Z,
high equipment speed N, and low equipment
load P will allow the formation of a thick
lubricant film, and hence the equipment will
encounter little or no friction.

Lubrication Regimes
Depending upon the lubricating environment, lubrication regimes can be divided
into fluid-film, boundary, mixed-film, and hydrostatic types.

Fluid-Film Lubrication
Fluid-film lubrication, also known as hydrodynamic lubrication, is the most
desirable type. This type of lubrication depends upon the viscosity of the
lubricant and is effective only when the load in the contact zone is low.
Under these circumstances, the sliding or the rolling surfaces are separated by a
lubricant film several times the thickness of the surface roughness (asperities).
The film thickness in this lubrication regime is estimated to be 2100 micro(m).
Lubrication of the thrust bearings, journal bearings, and most of the internal
combustion engine parts experience fluid-film lubrication.
Elastohydrodynamic lubrication is similar but occurs when the surfaces are in
a rolling motion (relative to each other). The film layer in elastohydrodynamic
conditions is much thinner than that of hydrodynamic lubrication, and the
pressure on the film is greater. It is called elastohydrodynamic because the film
elastically deforms the rolling surface to lubricate it.

Lubrication Regimes
Boundary Lubrication
Boundary lubrication represents the opposite extreme of the lubrication
environment spectrum. Under this kind of lubrication, high loads and very slow
speeds produce extreme pressures that can lead to the lack of effective lubrication.
The film thickness in this regime is in the order of 0.02.0 micro(m) only, and hence
maximum metal-to-metal contact occurs. If not controlled, the resulting dry metallic
friction will cause catastrophic wear, and ultimately will lead to total seizure.
Boundary lubrication is found where there are frequent starts and stops, and where
shock-loading conditions are present. Examples of equipment that rely exclusively
on boundary lubrication include reciprocating parts of an engine and compressor
pistons, slow-moving equipment such as turbine wicket gates, and gears.
Reactive chemicals called anti-wear and extreme pressure agents provide
protection in this kind of lubrication environment.
It is important to note that the anti-wear agents are effective only up to a maximum
temperature of about 250C, above which they essentially become ineffective.

Lubrication Regimes
Mixed-film Lubrication
Mixed-film lubrication falls
between the two extremes
mentioned above and contains
characteristics of both the fluid
film and the boundary lubrication.
There are regions of no metal-tometal contact and of extensive
metal-to-metal contact.

While the bulk of the surfaces

are separated by a lubricating
layer, the asperities still make
contact with each other.

Lubrication Regimes
Hydrostatic Lubrication
Unlike the other types of lubrication discussed above,
hydrostatic lubrication has the advantage of not depending
upon the motion of the surfaces. Hence, this type of lubrication
is invaluable (helpful) in applications that involve little or no
surface movement.
This lubrication regime is characterized by the lack of wear,
low friction, high load capacity, and the ability to dampen
vibration.
Examples of hydrostatic lubrication include lubrication of some
type of bearings, such as hydrostatic bearings, and certain
metal-forming equipment involving simple pressure.
This type of lubrication allows complete separation of the
surfaces by the static film of the lubricant.

Conclusion of Lubrication
Regime Process
With a better understanding of this process, it should be easier to
define what lubrication actually is.
It is a process of either separating surfaces or protecting them in
a manner to reduce friction, heat, wear and energy consumption.
This can be accomplished by using oils, greases, gases or other
fluids.
Therefore, next time you change the oil in your car or grease a
bearing, realize there is more going on than meets the eye.

Lubrication Methods

 A lubricant can be a solid, liquid, or gas, and lubrication is its

primary function.
The usual objective of the lubrication is to lubricate surfaces to
minimize direct metal-to-metal contact and, hence, reduce
friction and wear.
Examples include power and heat transmission fluids, hydraulic
fluids, dielectric fluids, process oils, and the others.

Lubricant Functions

A lubricant performs many diverse functions, which help protect and

prolong the life of the equipment.
1. Lubrication (reduce friction and wear) by introducing a lubricating film
between mechanical moving parts, minimizes the metal-to-metal
contact and thereby reducing wear and saving energy.
2. Cooling (heat transfer)
3. Cleaning and SuspendingLubricant facilitates smooth operation of
the equipment by removing and suspending potentially harmful
products, such as carbon, sludge, and varnish, (oxidation products) and
the other materials, such as dirt and wear debris.
4. ProtectionLubricant prevents metal damage due to oxidation
products, corrosion, and wear.
5. Transfer PowerLubricant is used as a power transfer medium in
some applications, for example, in hydraulic systems.