3 HEAT CONDUCTION 3.1 Introduction Heat conduction is the process of heat transfer across a stationary medium, either solid or fluid, The distinction between conduction and convection is that there is no bulk motion of heat transfer media in conduction, Heat conduction is an atomic or molecular activity that transfers thermal energy from a region with higher temperature to a region with lower temperature, The mechanism of heat conduction is different for different substances. Foran electrically nonconducting solid, conduction is atributed to atomie act the form of lattice vibrational ‘waves (or phonons). The mechanism of conduction in an electrically conducting the molecules, where q” is the internal heat source (Wim') that can be caused by electrical heating, chemical reaction heat, blood perfusion (for bioheat transfer), or coupling between eleetron and phonon (for ultrafast heat transfer in metal). For most engineering problems, the heat transfer rate is related to the temperature gradient by Fourier’s law: q’=-kVT G2) ‘where the negative sign on the right-hand side means thatthe heat fax vector 4" is in the opposite dircetion of the temperature gradient, V7, For anisotropic ‘material, the thermal conductivity is a tensor of the second order that has nine components ha hy hy kalh hy hy 63) k k where k,=kyoke=k,.andk,. =, according t0 the reciprocity relation derived from the Onsagats principle of thermodynamics of irreversible processes (Orisk, 1993). The dot product of a second order tensor, k, and a vector, VT", ‘Chapter 3 Heat Conduction 213,results in a vector, q” The energy equation for an anisotropic material ean be ‘obiained by substituting eg, (3.2) into eq. 3.1), ie, po Dav vryeg 64) In a Cartesian coondinate sytem, eq, (34) becomes ar_a(, ar, oF a (12 + S(.% mn c Hi ae, a ‘heat conduction becomes 122s, Heat conduction in an orthotropic material is much easier to compute than that for the anisotropic material because cross-derivatives of the space variables are absent If the thermal condueti jer 6 jes in the three directions are the same Gy -k), the material becomes isotropic and the thermal conductivity becomes a scalar; Fourier’s law for an isotropic material is q’=-kVT BD and the energy equation (3.1) and (3.6) are simplified as G8) Jee 69) While eqs. (3.5), (3.6) and (3.9) are given in the Cartesian coordinate system, the corresponding equations in the cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems can be obtained by using the V_ operator in these coordinate systems (see Appendix G, and Problem 3.2 and 3.3). Peo Ox‘Thermal conductivity is a very important thermophysieal property of a ‘material because the heat flux increases with inereasing thermal conductivity Under a prescribed temperature gradient. Since the interaction between molecules in the solid is strongest among the three phases, the thermal conductivity for the usually higher than that in the liquid, For the same reason, the thermal ty for the gas is usually lowest among the three phases. The thermal conductivity for the metal is higher than that for a non-conducting solid because Of the additional carrier ~ free electrons — of heat in metal. The typical ranges of thermal conductivities for various materials are shown in Fig. 3.1. It ean be seen that the thermal conductivities for different materials can cross four orders of 214 Advanced Heat and Mass TransferFa i Figure 3.1 Typical range of thermal eondctvitios (Ozisik, 1993) magnitude. Thermal conductivity is usually a funetion of temperature. The thermal conductivity for metal increases with increasing temperature, but it decreases with increasing temperature for gases. The thermal conductivities for some materials can be found in Appendix B-D. “The energy equation or the boundary condition is said to be linear if there are ro products of unknown variable (temperature) or its derivative in the energy equation or boundary condition. For example, eg. (3.8) of (3.9) is nonlinear because product of k — a function of temperature — and the derivative of temperature appeared. When the thermal conductivity is independent from temperature, oq. (3.8) and (3.9) become (3.10) Gib wherat G.12) Pe, is the thermal diffusivity — another thermophysical property. Equations (3.10) and (3.11) are linear, because they do not contain products of T or its derivative, Furthermore, a linear energy equation of boundary condition is said to be hhomogencous if the temperature T can be replaced by CT, where Cis nonzero constant, and the equation is sil satisfied. Thus, 6. G.10) oF (3.11) is none homogeneous due to the presence of the internal heat generation term, They become linear homogeneous when there is no internal heat genera ‘Chapter Heat Conduction 215This chapter presents a number of prototypical problems of heat conduction ‘based on different models; its goal isto establish the physies of heat conduction and to demonstrate the variety of tools available for its solution, Seetions 3.2 and 3.3 respectively discuss the classical heat conduction under steady and unsteady conditions, while numerical solution of heat conduction will be addressed in Section 3.4, Heat conduction with phase change — melting and sol ‘ill be discussed in detail in Section 3.5. This chapter closes with a discussion on ‘microscale heat conduction (Section 3.6), which includes pure conduction as well as melting and solidification. 3.2 Steady State Heat Conduction Under steady state conditions, the energy equation for classical heat conduction eq, (3.8) is redueed to Vv) +g"=0 G13) further si plified to vret TL-0 3.14 . Gla) Analytical solutions of one-dimensional and multidimensional heat conduction under various physical conditions and geometrical configurations will be discussed. 3.2.1 One Dimensional Systems (One-dimensional heat conduction for the eases without heat generation, with heat zgeneration, and heat conduetion from extended surfaces will be discussed in this subsection. Without Heat GenerationOne-dimensional heat conduction can occur in different geometric urations. Figure 3.2 shows heat conduction in a plane wall and in a hollow cylinder or sphere. The energy equation (3.13) in different geometric configurations can be expressed as (See Appendix G): S(ef)- 1. plane wall (y, <<) G15) rors tA find) o,innotow inderej, ‘one obtains ce Hi ba -T). G31) 832) 4 =-kMs,) = AlE,-T). Under steady state condition, “he heat ans ate obtained fram eqs. (3.26), (3.31) and (3.32) are identical, By eliminating 7; and 7; from these equations, the following expression for heat transfer rate is obtained:33) ‘Chapter 3 Heat Conduction 218fare convective thermal resistances between inner fluid and inner wall and between outer fluid and outer wall, respectively. Equation (3.33) can be viewed as a system with three thermal resistances connected in series. Equation (3.33) can also be written as 4=U,AMT,-T,) 6.36) where U, is the overall- coefficient of heat transfer based on the outer surface area. Comparing eqs. (3.33) and (3.36) yields RERGR, 37) 2.38 Uae ah eae For the heat conduction in three different coordinates as shown in egs. (3.15) — (3.17), the overall coefficients for heat transfer are plane wall 639) Set, mwas 1]+4, hollow sphere 41) he . I the conducting wall shown in Fig, 3.2 has multiple layers and each layer has different thermal conductivity, there will be multiple conduction thermal resistances between two conveetion thermal resistances. If the number of layers is represented by N, the overall coefficient o heat transfer will be expressed as 1A, ol dude St Ta ela whore; and ty ae the areas of the inner and outer surfaces, respectively and {isthe thermal conductivity ofthe # layer (5, <<). The hea transfer rate 62)becomes 6.43) G44) [Ay TE) T, a Tp ds Bde ALS) WA Example 3.1 Steam flows through a 10-m-long carbon steel (k= 50 W/m-K) pipe with an outer diameter of 100 mm and a thickness of Smm, The paper faced glass fiber with thermal conductivity wrapped on the steam pipe as 220 Advanced Heat and Mass Transfer ‘of 0.038 Wim-K is lation material (see Fig. 3.5). TheFigure 3.5 Heat condition in a steam pipe steam temperature is 100 °C and the inner surface temperature of the steam pipe is assumed 0 be equal to the steam temperature, The outer surface temperature of the insulation material is 20°C. The heat loss per nth of the pipe must be less than 1000 W. Find the required thickness of the insulation material and the temperature at the interface between the carbon steel and glass fiber Solution: The thermal conductivite lass fiber are A, =50 Wim-K and ‘of the carbon steel and paper faced 038 Wim-K,, respectively. The neters of the carbon steel tube are; =0.045 m and ner and outer dia 5 =0.050m Since the temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces are known, the convective thermal resistances in eg, (344) do not need to be included and the heat transfer rate becomes o-—— _ ee} se) Tin) Tom hich can be rarangsd es 2b LUT Te) _ q2 0.038% 10% (100-20) oust, (2 os) 1000 50. 0.045 1.2104 Thus, the outer radius of the glass fiber is r;=0.060Sm, and the thickness of the glass fiber is 3 =r, —75 = 0.0105 m=10,5 mm If we take the steel tube only, the heat transfer rate is ‘Chapter 3 Heat Conduction 221 aan] ‘which ean be rearranged to 2.) 199-0 (2080 i Be x10%50 | 0.048 /=99.97°C In arriving at eq. (3.42), it is assumed that different layers are in perfect ‘contact so that the temperatures across the interfaces between different layers are continuous. When two rough surfaces are in contact, there may be a temperature drop, AT, aeross the interface between different materials (see Fig. 3.6). The heat flux and this temperature drop is related by AT = ¢ G45) where RY is contact thermal resistance (m’-K/W). Heat transfer across. an imperfect eontact imterface is due to combined effeets of conduction at the actual contact area, convection of the air entrapped in the gap, and radiation between the wo surfaces that are notin direct contact. The contact thermal resistance can be reduced by applying pressure inthe direction perpendicular to the interface, or applying conduction grease at the interface. More information about contact thermal resistance ean be found in Fletcher (1988). When contact thermal resistances are present, eq. (3-44) can be modified as, G46)Figure 8.6 Conia thermal resistance 1222 Advanced Heat and Mass TransferWith internal Heat Generation The I-D steady-state heat conductions that we discussed so far are limited to the ease without intemal heat generation, Heat conduction with internal heat generation can be encountered in many applications such as electrical heating, chemical reaction, o nuclear reaction inthe conduction medium. Let us consider the generalized I-D heat conduction problem shown in Fig, 3.3. With uniform intemal heat souree, g”, the energy equation is (see Problem 33) df yy), o anal oa) \where the thermal conductivity is assumed to be independent from temperature Equation (3.47) is subject to boundary conditions specified by eqs. (3.22) and (3.23), Multiplying eq. (3.47) by 4(s) and integrating the resultant equation in the interval of (5), 5) yields at 8 aisyas+ 4 Ay Cf atx 4 3.48) ds sieves, G47) Dividing o4. G.48) by 4G) and integrating the resultant equation in the interval of (1,9), we have efor a pa Apacer, fast eas Pl aal ao ]aesa] ages em ‘where the temperature gradient at $= s, i still unknown, Equation (3.49) already satisfies 6q, (3.22) but not eg. (3.23). Substituting eq. (3.49) into eg. (3.23), one obtains . a [foe ‘Therefore, the temperature profile becomes£f |B faa err (=m) +2") Ef ators fats (50) mem llaLanele 5 poe Ay aS) ‘The heat transfer rate can be obtained by Fourier’s law ‘Chapter 3 Heat Conduction 223gata ash Substituting eq, (3.48) into eq. (3.51), the a transfer rate becomes Paes ats) 652) whe vol La Aes | als y= (3.53) as iy As) is the heat transfer rate at $ = 5, It is evident from eq. (3.52) that the heat transfer rate is no longer independent from s when there is intemal heat generation. It should be pointed out that egs, G.50) and @.52) are valid for any coordinate system. For a Cartesian coordinate system with the origin of the coordinate on the left surface (ie., x =0 in Fig. 3.2), A(s)= 4 isa constant and eqs. (3.50) and (3.52) become G1) -T) y= fs nes (= Fd Be, G54) waft) tino ess For the heat conduction in a cylindrical and spherical coordinate system, the general solution, eqs. (3.50) and (3.52), can be simplified by considering the variation of eonduction area (see Problem 3.7 and 3.8). Heat Transter from Extended Surfaces The total thermal resistance in cq. (3.37) includes two convective thermal resistances and one conduction thermal resistance. For the eases that one of the convection thermal resistances is dominant (ie, significantly greater than the conduction thermal resistance and the other convective thermal resistance), one can inerease the heat transfer coefficient (h, orf.) oF the heat transfer area (4 oF42) to enhance the overall heat transfer. Since inereasing the heat transfer coefficient is constrained by the type of working fluid and the power required driving the flow, increasing the heat transfer area becomes a natural choice. The increase of surface area can be done by using fins that extend into the Muid, Figure 3.7 shows some examples of fin configurations. It can be seen that the fins can have either uniform or variable cross-seetional areas. For cases where the fluid is cooling the fin, the fin temperature is the highest at the base (x= 0) and decreases with increasing x as convection takes place on the fin surface. The degree of heat transfer enhancement can be maximized by minimizing the temperature variation, which can be achieved by using fin materials with large 224 Advanced Heat and Mase TransferFigure 3.7 Fin configuations: (2) straight fa of uniform erss-setion on plan wall, (b) straight fin f uniform erosssetion on circular tube, () annular fin, and () straight pin fin (Hedman. 2002 Figure 3.8 Hest condition ini fn with variable crose-secton thermal conductivity. The solution of heat wansfer from extended surfaces (fins) will provide (a) temperature distribution in the fin, and (b) total heat transfer from the finned surface Figure 3.8 shows the generalized physical model for heat transfer form an extended surface. It is a steady-state conduction problem in variable cross- sectional area. It is different from the preceding subsection in that convection‘occurs on the extended surface. The following assumptions are made to simplify the problem: 1. Heat transfer is steady-state, 2. The thermal conductivity of the fin is independent from the temperature, 3. There is no internal heat generation in the fin, 4. Both convective heat transfer coefficient and fluid temperature are constants, 5. The heat transfer is one-dimensional, i¢., the temperature is uniform in the same cross-sectional area, Heat transfer in a fin can be modeled as a steady-state one-dimensional conduction with internal heat generation, described by og. (347), if the convection from the extended surface is treated as an equivalent internal heat source. For the differential control volume (dV = Adx ) shown in Fig. 3.8, the convective heat transfer from the sid (Chapter 3 Heat Conduction 225go, = MPa, -T)] where P is the perimeter of the fin, The equivalent intensity of the intemal heat souree in the control volume due to the convection on the extended surface is ir, re av at ~~ Tes] ‘Therefore, the energy equation becomes La aT) he, taf) Wr pyc 3.56 fae) as aT (1dd\at_ ie {Leela ir 7 yea 357 waa ae” os which requires two boundary conltions.A¢ the base ofthe fin, the femperature s r. x=0 G58) ‘There are commonly three kinds of different boundary conditions at he tip ofthe fin: |. When the fin is sufficiently long, the temperature at the tip can be assumed to be equal to the fluid temperature, Tf, x=L G39) 2. Itis assumed thatthe hea transfor atthe tip ofthe fin is negligible, Boo, vet 3.60) 3. When the fin is not long enough, the tip temperature is higher than the fluid temperature and convection occuts atthe fin tip, 1B ant), L (361) Heat transfer from an extended surface is a non-homogencous problem because 4, (3.56) or (3.57) is not homogonous. If convection atthe fin tip is considered, 4, (3.61) is also non-homogeneous. Defining excess temperature 9(8)=Tx)-T.Equations (3.57) ~ (3.61) become @9 (1 dado rd 22. = 3.62) aaa ae oa v=0 6.63) x=L 3.64) rsh 6.65) 8.66) which are all homogeneous. The total amount of heat transfer from a fin can be obtained by using Fourier’s law at the base of the f 226 Advanced Heat and Mase Transler4-H 42) sn ‘of accounting for convective heat transfer throughout the fin surface by a =Hf, Po 68) Under steady sae contin, the het eonfuton fom the base of the fn vin 9.67 etal telcos est ansaid from eq. (3.68), however, eg. (3.67) is much easier to apply than eg. 3.68). The performance of a fin is usually measured by the fin efficiency, 1 which is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transfer rate ofa fin to the heat which would be transferred if the entire fin area is at base temperature, te Gamo “ann Pals While the general solution of the heat conduction in a fin with arbitrarily able cross-sectional area cannot be obtained, analytical solutions for some special eases are possible. For fins with uniform cross-sections, the second term in eq. (3.62) is dropped and the energy equation becomes a= (3.69) =m'9=0 (3.70) where a G71) The general solution of eg. 8.70) Ce eCe™ an) where C, and C; are integral constants that need to be determined by boundary conditions at the base and the tip of the fin. The temperature distributions, heat‘ranster rate, and fin etficteney for the three boundary conditions represented by eqs. 3.59) - B.61) are’ 1. For the case that the fin’s top temperature equals the fluid temperature: 3 fie (73) a 4, -NiPK9, (3.78) 1 eo 8.75 UL ae 2. Forthe case that the fin tip is adiabatic sham L—x)] 7 6.76) cosh) 4, ~NIPIAS, tanh(mLy @.77) ‘Chapter 3 Heat Conduction 227