Professional Documents
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2.12 Cell Search, Synchronization & MobilityUE Call Flow View .....................................................................25
2.12.1 Cell Search and Synchronization ...............................................................................................................................................25
2.12.2 UE Procedure for Reporting Channel Quality Indication (CQI), Precoding Matrix indicator (PMI) and rank indication (RI) ...........26
2.12.3 System Information Bit Definition .............................................................................................................................................27
2.12.4 Mobility Management ..............................................................................................................................................................27
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11 References ...........................................................................................................................................184
Chapter Title
Detailed Description
Learn LTE fundamental which includes PHY and MAC layer technology.
Meanwhile, some key LTE technologies such as MIMO and FFR will be presented
in this section.
Frequency and
Spectrum Planning
Understand the parameters that comprise the LTE RF Link Budget. Learn about
some of the basic propagation models as well as critical features that affect link
budget values.
Interference, Guard
band and Refarming
Analysis
Understand some basic concept for interference analyze such as ACS, ACLR, etc.
Learn different interference between two different systems among serials TDD
and FDD system.
Overview of LTE capacity planning as well as highlight all the critical factors and
considerations that will affect capacity for an LTE network.
Network Planning
Checklist
Provide a list of items that Planning engineers need to consider and ideally have
answers from customer before performing any detail planning.
Figure below is the LTE uplink allocation structure from a time and frequency perspective.
With this smaller carrier bandwidth, the frequency coherence bandwidth is much smaller than 3G systems while and
correlation factor is much higher. As a result, it will also be much easier to implement scheduling algorithm based on
Frequency Selective Scheduling to improve system throughput in the manner shown below.
6
the signal is substantially larger than the average value. This high PAR is one of the most important implementation
challenges that face OFDM, because it reduces the efficiency and hence increases the cost of the RF power amplifier,
which is one of the most expensive components in the radio. The figure below shows the relationship between OFDM
and SC-FDMA in LTE.
The major difference between the downlink and uplink transmission scheme is that each subcarrier in the uplink carries
information about each transmitted modulation symbol as shown in figure below, whereas in downlink each subcarrier
only carries information related to one specific modulation symbol. As a result, the uplink power level due to SC-FDMA
also need to be increased by 2~3dB to compensate for the extra noise due to more spreading.
The sampling rate in both FDD and TDD is the same and both technologies operate under a 1-ms sub-frame (TTITransmission Time Interval) and 0.5us timeslot definition.
The first 3 configurations (0-2) for TDD can also be viewed as 5ms allocation due to repetition. The figure below shows
a detailed relationship between rates and frame structure.
8
Resource element is the smallest unit of resource assignment and its relationship to resource block is shown as below
from both a timing and frequency perspective.
9
10
As LTE is a MIMO based technology, it can have more than two transmit antennae and in order to avoid reference
signals from the same cell interfering with each other, different antennae will be transmitting reference signal at
different time and frequency and how these are allocated are shown below.
As defined in the standard for TDD operations, the channel-sounding mechanism involves the UEs transmitting a
deterministic signal that can be used by the eNodeB to estimate the UL channel from the UE. If the UL and DL channels are
properly calibrated, the eNodeB can then use the UL channel as an estimate of the DL channel, due to channel reciprocity.
A quick summary of all the physical layer information for LTE is shown below.
11
The key to making OFDM realizable in practice is the use of the FFT algorithm, which has low complexity. In order for
the IFFT/FFT to create an ISI-free channel, the channel must appear to provide a circular convolution. Adding cyclic
prefix to the transmitted signal to create a signal that appears to be just like circular convolution and this is done by
copying the last part of each OFDM symbol to the front of each symbol with the length of a guard interval, to form a
cyclic prefix (CP).
Also, to prevent the guard interval from destroying the inter-sub-carrier orthogonality, the delay of each path should
not exceed the guard interval where the number of waveforms within the integral time of the FFT is an integer
The cyclic prefix, although elegant and simple, is not entirely free. It comes with both a bandwidth and power penalty.
Since redundant symbols are sent, the required bandwidth for OFDM also increases. Similarly, an additional symbol
must be counted against the transmit-power budget. Hence, the cyclic prefix carries a power penalty of v dB in addition
to the bandwidth penalty. In summary, the use of the cyclic prefix entails data rate and power losses. The wasted
power has increased importance in an interference-limited wireless system, causing interference to neighboring users.
12
Where L is the power used for non CP transmission. In the case where there is a large delay spread, e.g. due to large
cell radius, an extended CP option can be used.
The figure below shows the location of PSS and SSS in LTE-TDD and the major difference from LTE FDD is that LTE TDD
embedding the Primary Sync channel in the DwPTS so the location will not be affected by different DL/UL combination
ratio
13
2.8.1 FDD Uplink Control, Sounding and Demodulation Reference Signal Structure
The figure below shows the relative position of uplink control channels in the frequency domain in relation to the
entire channel bandwidth. In summary,
1) PUCCH resources are located at the edges of the spectrum
To maximize frequency diversity
2) Multiple UEs can share the same PUCCH resource block
3) PUCCH is never transmitted simultaneously with PUSCH from the same UE
4) Two consecutive PUCCH slots in Time-Frequency Hopping at the slot boundary
14
The Figure below shows respective position of the uplink demodulation reference signal in FDD LTE uplink frame
structure including sounding reference signal position.
For LTE TDD only, SRSs can be transmitted in an ordinary sub-frame or in UpPTS sub-frame to improve spectral
efficiency. Normally, it uses UpPTS sub-frame.
The figure below shows a possible N Antennae + M input layers setup in spatial multiplexing
16
As a result, a more accurate coding application can be applied to the communication with the UE. The figure below
shows where the pre-coding function may exist in a N Antennae with M input layers
In mode 5 (Multi-user MIMO), different UEs are receiving downlink data from different antenna. As a result, the overall
throughput per cell is increased.
17
18
III. Spatial Multiplexing Matrix Using Four Antenna Ports with Cell-Specific Reference Signals
19
20
One popular beam-forming algorithm is based on Direction of Arrival where the incoming signals to a receiver may
consist of desired energy and interference energyfor example, from other users or from multipath reflections. The
various signals can be characterized in terms of the DOA or the angle of arrival (AOA) of each received signal. Each
DOA can be estimated by using EUTRAN signal-processing techniques as requested in 3GPP-TS 36-214. From these
acquired DOAs, a beam-former extracts a weighting vector for the antenna elements and uses it to transmit or receive
the desired signal of a specific user while suppressing the undesired interference signals.
Ideally, the beam-former has unity gain for the desired user and two nulls at the directions of two interferers and can
place nulls in the directions of interferers. The DOA-based beam-former in this case is often called the null-steering
beam-former. The null-steering beam-former can be designed to completely cancel out interfering signals only if the
number of such signals is strictly less than the number of antenna elements.
Typically, there exists a trade-off between interference null and desired gain lost. Thus far, we have assumed that the
array response vectors of different users with corresponding AOAs are known. In practice, each resolvable multipath
is likely to comprise several unresolved components coming from significantly different angles. In this case, it is not
possible to associate a discrete AOA with a signal impinging the antenna array. Therefore, the DOA based beam-former
is viable only in LOS environments or in environments with limited local scattering around the transmitter.
The table below summarizes the difference between the two technologies.
21
22
BCH indicates:
Basic L1/L2 system parameters
Downlink system bandwidth
Reference-signal transmit power
Multi-media Broadcast over a Single Frequency Network (MBSFN)-related parameters
Number of transmit antennas
HARQ resource allocation
Control region is 1-3 OFDM symbols at the beginning of each subframe, composed of control channel elements (CCEs)
4 Res = Resource element group (REG)
9 REGs = 1 CCE
PCFICH Physical Control Format Indicator Channel
# of OFDM symbols of control region
PHICH Physical Hybrid ARQ Channel
ACK/NACK signalling
PDCCH Physical Downlink Control Channel
Scheduling
UL power control
24
25
2.12.2 UE Procedure for Reporting Channel Quality Indication (CQI), Precoding Matrix
Indicator (PMI) and Rank Indication (RI)
As stated in TS 36-213, the time and frequency resources that can be used by the UE to report CQI, PMI, and RI are
controlled by the eNodeB. For spatial multiplexing, the UE shall determine a RI corresponding to the number of useful
transmission layers. For transmit diversity RI is equal to one. A UE in transmission mode 8 is configured with PMI/RI
reporting if the parameter PMI-RI-Report is configured by higher layer signaling; otherwise, it is configured without
PMI/RI reporting.
CQI, PMI, and RI reporting is periodic or a-periodic. A UE shall transmit periodic CQI/PMI, or RI reporting on PUCCH
as defined hereafter in sub-frames with no PUSCH allocation. A UE shall transmit periodic CQI/PMI or RI reporting
on PUSCH as defined hereafter in sub-frames with PUSCH allocation, where the UE shall use the same PUCCH-based
periodic CQI/PMI or RI reporting format on PUSCH. A UE shall transmit a-periodic CQI/PMI, and RI reporting on PUSCH
if the conditions specified hereafter are met. For a-periodic CQI reporting, RI reporting is transmitted only if configured
CQI/PMI/RI feedback type supports RI reporting. Figure below shows which channels will be used for different CQI
reporting scenario
26
27
28
29
It is worth noting that around the 2.3GHz band (Band 40), there is a significant frequency spectrum overlap (100MHz)
between LTE TDD with WiMAX. To many WiMAX operators currently in this frequency band, it is an ideal opportunity
to evolve their network back into the mainstream LTE technologies.
The channel edges are defined as the lowest and highest frequencies of the carrier separated by the channel
bandwidth, i.e. at FC +/- BWChannel /2.
31
Figure 3-4 Definition of Channel Bandwidth and Transmission Bandwidth Configuration for one E-UTRA carrier
Figure 3-5 Visualizing the Relationship between Channel Bandwidth, NRB and Transmission Bandwidth Configuration
where BWChannel(1) and BWChannel(2) are the channel bandwidths of the two respective E-UTRA carriers. The channel
spacing can be adjusted to optimize performance in a particular deployment scenario.
The relation between EARFCN and carrier frequency in MHz for the uplink is given by the following equation where
FUL_low and NOffs-UL are given in table 5.7.3-1 and NUL is the uplink EARFCN.
NOTE: The channel numbers that designate central carrier frequencies so close to the operating band edges that the
carrier extends beyond the operating band edge shall not be used. This implies that the first 7, 15, 25, 50, 75 and 100
channel numbers at the lower operating band edge and the last 6, 14, 24, 49, 74 and 99 channel numbers at the upper
operating band edge shall not be used for channel bandwidths of 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15 and 20 MHz respectively because of
the bandwidth requirement. For example, for a 20MHz carrier, using channel 99 as center frequency will extend the LTE
carrier below the allocated spectrum (99*0.1 = 9.9MHz but actual requirement is 10MHz from lower edge)
E-UTRA
Operating
Band
1
Downlink
Uplink
FDL_low [MHz]
NOffs-DL
Range of NDL
FUL_low [MHz]
NOffs-UL
Range of NUL
2110
0 - 599
1920
18000
18000 - 18599
1930
600
600 - 1199
1850
18600
18600 - 19199
1805
1200
1200 - 1949
1710
19200
19200 - 19949
2110
1950
1950 - 2399
1710
19950
19950 - 20399
869
2400
2400 - 2649
824
20400
20400 - 20649
875
2650
2650 - 2749
830
20650
20650 - 20749
2620
2750
2750 - 3449
2500
20750
20750 - 21449
925
3450
3450 - 3799
880
21450
21450 - 21799
1844.9
3800
3800 - 4149
1749.9
21800
21800 - 22149
10
2110
4150
4150 - 4749
1710
22150
22150 - 22749
11
1475.9
4750
4750 - 4949
1427.9
22750
22750 - 22949
12
729
5010
5010 - 5179
699
23010
23010 - 23179
13
746
5180
5180 - 5279
777
23180
23180 - 23279
14
758
5280
5280 - 5379
788
23280
23280 - 23379
734
5730
5730 - 5849
704
23730
23730 - 23849
17
18
860
5850
5850 - 5999
815
23850
23850 - 23999
19
875
6000
6000 - 6149
830
24000
24000 - 24149
20
791
6150
6150 - 6449
832
24150
24150 - 24449
21
1495.9
6450
6450 - 6599
1447.9
24450
24450 - 24599
33
1900
36000
36000 - 36199
1900
36000
36000 - 36199
34
2010
36200
36200 - 36349
2010
36200
36200 - 36349
33
E-UTRA
Operating
Band
35
Downlink
Uplink
FDL_low [MHz]
NOffs-DL
Range of NDL
FUL_low [MHz]
NOffs-UL
Range of NUL
1850
36350
36350 - 36949
1850
36350
36350 - 36949
36
1930
36950
36950 - 37549
1930
36950
36950 - 37549
37
1910
37550
37550 - 37749
1910
37550
37550 - 37749
38
2570
37750
37750 - 38249
2570
37750
37750 - 38249
39
1880
38250
38250 - 38649
1880
38250
38250 - 38649
40
2300
38650
38650 - 39649
2300
38650
38650 - 39649
41
2496
39650
39650 - 41589
2496
39650
39650 - 41589
42
3400
41590
41590 - 43589
3400
41590
41590 - 43589
43
3600
43590
43590 - 45589
3600
43590
43590 - 45589
NOTE: T he channel numbers that designate carrier frequencies so close to the operating band edges that the carrier extends
beyond the operating band edge shall not be used. This implies that the first 7, 15, 25, 50, 75 and 100 channel numbers
at the lower operating band edge and the last 6, 14, 24, 49, 74 and 99 channel numbers at the upper operating band
edge shall not be used for channel bandwidths of 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15 and 20 MHz respectively.
Application scenario
Limited application scenario in urban and suburban environment without impacting QoS/QoE.
Possible application in highly isolated rural scenario where users are also highly scattered
34
Advantage
High spectral efficiency and high throughput per site.
Easy to deploy.
No special scheduling algorithm required
Disadvantage
High level of interference especially on cell edge area
Low throughput on cell boundary and lower QoS/QoE for users on boundary area.
Coverage control of cells becomes an important factor in achieving a high throughput level
Application scenario
Recommended configuration to satisfy high traffic and high site density requirement.
Best results will require the introduction of Inter Cell Interference Coordination (ICIC)
Advantage
Reduce inter-cell interference under a high site density deployment.
Improve cell edge user throughput and quality of experience.
Figure 3-10 Uplink-Downlink Pilot Time Slot and Guard band Configuration Schemes
Lastly, for TDD to work properly, all cells must be operating in time synchronous mode to avoid any extra interference
being introduced to the network. IEEE 1588v2 implementation is recommended and will help to ensure the integrity of
time synchronization within the LTE TDD network.
36
Figure 3-12 Cell Coverage Comparison (UL@128kbps) between various frequency bands
37
Figure 3-13 Cell Coverage Comparison (DL@1024kbps) between various frequency bands
frequency band. The figure below just some 1 example of what customer may do with multiple technologies and their
evolution in different frequency band. It is the responsibility of the radio planner and account managers to work with
customer to determine the best combination to meet their interest.
39
This chapter will focus on the RF link budget itself and radio transmission model. System simulation will be described in
Chapter7.
41
42
PDP
Extended Pedestrian A
model
Extended Vehicular A
model
# of Paths
Relative
Path Power
(dB)
Delay (ns)
0.0
0.0
-1.0
-1.0
30
-1.5
30
-1.0
50
-2.0
70
-1.4
150
-1.0
120
-3.0
90
-3.6
310
0.0
200
-8.0
110
-0.6
370
0.0
230
-17.2
190
-9.1
710
0.0
500
-20.8
410
-7.0
1090
-3.0
1600
-12.0
1730
-5.0
2300
-16.9
2510
-7.0
5000
EPA 5Hz
5 Hz
EVA 5Hz
5 Hz
EVA 70Hz
70 Hz
ETU 70Hz
70 Hz
ETU 300Hz
300 Hz
Table below shows possible variation of received power in multi-path fading environment under the various extended
delay spread conditions listed below
Extended Pedestrian A Model - EPA
Excess tap delay [ns]
0.0
30
-1.0
70
-2.0
90
-3.0
110
-8.0
190
-17.2
410
-20.8
43
-1.0
50
-1.0
120
-1.0
200
0.0
230
0.0
500
0.0
1600
-3.0
2300
-5.0
5000
-7.0
0.0
30
-1.5
150
-1.4
310
-3.6
370
-0.6
710
-9.1
1090
-7.0
1730
-12.0
2510
-16.9
A separate high speed train model is also defined and the Doppler shift trajectory is shown in the diagram below.
The assumption for this model is where Ds/2 is the initial distance of the train from eNodeB, and Dmin is eNodeB
Railway track distance, both in meters; V is the velocity of the train in m/seconds.
44
K1-los
K2-los
K1-nlos
K2-nlos
K3
K4
Method
K5
Indicates a coefficient related to the propagation distance and the effective height of the transmitter.
K6
Kclutter
Where, d indicates the distance between the terminal and the base station. The unit is km. f indicates the carrier
frequency. The unit is MHz. The preceding formula does not consider the impact of ground reflection, and thus often
underestimates propagation loss. This model is applicable to the scenario when the antennas of the base station and
terminal are mounted at considerable height and CLOS exists between the base station and the terminal.
II. Cost231-Hata Model
Cost231-Hata model can be used in macro cells as the propagation model. The application range is as follows:
Frequency band: 1500 MHz to 2000 MHz
Base station height: 30 meters to 200 meters. The base station must be higher than the surrounding buildings.
Terminal antenna height: 1 meter to 10 meters
Distance between the transmitter and receiver: 1 km to 20 km
The Cost231-Hata model can be expressed by the following formula:
Total = L - a(Hss) + Cm
L = 46.3 + 33.9 lg( f ) - 13.82 lg(HBS) + (44.9 - 6.55 lg(HBS)) lg(d )
Where, f indicates the working frequency of the system. The unit is MHz.
HBS indicates the height of the base station antenna. The unit is m.
HSS indicates the height of the terminal antenna. The unit is m.
d indicates the distance between the terminal and the base station. The unit is km.
a(hss) indicates the terminal gain function. This function is related to the antenna height and working frequency of the
terminal and the environment.
The value of Cm depends on the terrain type. The values of Cm in the standard Cost231-Hata are as follows:
In large cities: Cm = 3 (as defined in Urban - large city in the related protocol)
46
In medium-sized cities: Cm = 0 (as defined in Urban small city in the related protocol)
In suburban areas: Cm = -2(log( f /28))2 - 5.4dB (as defined in Urban Suburban in the related protocol)
In rural open areas: Cm = -4.78 (lg( f ))2 + 18.33 lg( f ) -40.94
(As defined in Rural (open) desert in the related protocol)
In highways: Cm = -4.78 (lg( f ))2 + 18.33 lg( f ) -35.94
(As defined in Rural (quasi-open) countryside where the terminal is unobstructed for 100 meters in the front in the
related protocol)
Since some of the working frequencies of the LTE networks are 2.3 GHz and 2.6 GHz have exceeded the band range
of the standard Cost 231-Hata model, that is, 150 MHz to 2000 MHz. Therefore, in the actual LTE system design, the
standard Cost231-Hata model must be corrected based on the CW test result. According to the planning experience
and actual CW test results in multiple scenarios, a set of Cm has been created in the experienced model.
III. Standard Propagation Model (SPM)
The standard propagation model is a model (deduced from the Hata formula) particularly suitable for predication
in the 150MHz~3500MHz band over long distance (1Km<d<20Km) and is very adapted to GSM900/1800, UMTS,
CDMA2000, WiMAX and LTE technologies. This model uses the terrain profile, diffraction mechanisms (calculated in
several ways) and take into account clutter classes and effective antenna heights in order to calculate path loss.
The model may be used for any technology; it is based on the following formula:
LSPM = K1 + K2 log (d )+ K3 log (H Txeff)+ K4 Diffractio nLoss + K5 log (d )log (H Txeff)+ K6 H Rxeff + K cluttrt f (clutter)
Where:
K1
K2
K3
HTxeff
K4
Diffraction loss
K5
K6
HRxeff
KClutter
f(clutter)
The standard propagation model can be used for propagation model calibration through CW (Continuous Wave) test
by using simulation tools- GENEX U-Net.
47
Where,
48
LFS
Lc
kwi
Lwi
Lf
The value of Lc is often 37 dB. In normal indoor offices, the value of n is 4. For capacity calculations in moderately
pessimistic environments, the value can be changed to 3.
Table 4-2 Weighted average for loss categories
Loss category
Description
Factor (dB)
18.3
Lw1
3.4
Lw2
Internal walls
Concrete, brick
Minimum number of holes
6.9
Lf
Caution:
In an indoor cell, often the antenna height of the base station or terminal is not specified and the deviation of shadow
fading in log-normal distribution is often 12 dB.
VI. Ray Tracing Model
The ray tracing model involves analyzing electric wave propagation by using the ray tracing method and obtaining the
field strength of received signals through theoretical calculation. Some LTE network uses the higher part of the UHF
band such as 2.3 GHz and 2.6 GHz. The wavelength of the radio wave is several centimeters. Therefore, obstructions
in the propagation environment are often larger than the wavelength of the radio wave. In this case, the ray tracing
method can be used to analyze wave propagation. In addition, geological information technologies allow you to
identify each building in a city as a right prism in a high precision degree. Such a right prism is identified by the top
coordinate of the polygon at the bottom and height. The basic idea of the ray tracing method is as follows: Determine
the position of a transmission source. Identify all the propagation routes from the transmission source to each receive
point, that is, the test point, according to the features and layout of the buildings on the 3D map. Determine reflection
and diffraction losses based on the Fresnel equation and the geometrical or uniform theory of diffraction. In this case,
49
the field strength of each route to each test point can be obtained. Perform the same point coherence stacking of field
strengths of all routes to obtain the total received field strength of each test point.
The ray tracing model is integrated in common commercial planning software. Simulation software GENEX U-Net uses
a 3D ray tracing model. This model, however, requires highly precise (at least to within 5 meters) digital maps that
contain 3D building information. The prediction accuracy of the model is closely related to the precision of the digital
maps and accuracy of site engineering parameters, such as the antenna position, height, direction angle, and down-tilt
angle. Due to the cost, the ray tracing model is used only in network planning in densely populated areas of large cities.
The link budget is only concerned with the scenario in which an outdoor transmitter is used and the signals penetrate
only one wall.
The propagation modes of electromagnetic waves are as follows: direct radiation, inverse radiation, diffraction,
penetration, and scattering. In areas where no indoor distributed system is deployed, electromagnetic wave signals
are obtained through diffraction and scattering. Therefore, the indoor penetration loss is related to the incident angle,
building materials, terrain, and working frequency. Table below lists the penetration losses associated with typical
buildings.
Table 4-3 Typical building penetration losses
Typical Penetration Loss (dB)
Frequency (GHz)
Concrete Wall
Brick Wall
Wooden Floor
Lift Door
1.8~2.6
15~30
10
3~5
1~3
20-30
50
In the link budget, penetration loss values depend on the coverage scenario. Therefore, coverage target areas are
classified into densely populated urban areas, common urban areas, suburban areas, rural areas, and highways. Table
below lists the area classification principles.
Table 4-4 Principles for classifying coverage scenarios
Scenario Name
Description
In this scenario, buildings are densely distributed, and the average building height
exceeds 30 m. In certain areas, buildings are distributed in order. The distance
between buildings is narrow and is not fixed. The average distance between buildings
is 10 m to 20 m. Most streets that are not main avenues are narrow. These areas are
densely populated.
In this scenario, the average building height is about 20 m. The average distance
between buildings is similar to the average building height. Such areas contain a
certain amount of open spaces and greenery.
Suburban area
In this scenario, the average building height is about 10 m. Buildings are scattered
and the average distance between buildings is 30 to 50 m. The streets are wide. Such
areas may contain much greenery and many open spaces.
Rural area
In this scenario, buildings are scarce. The average building height is about 5 m. Such
areas are likely to contain vast open spaces, fields, greenery, and roads.
The building penetration loss ranges from 5 dB to 40 dB. In link budget, if no actual test data in the target area is
available, an assumed penetration loss value must be used. The final assumption is also highly dependent on local
customer requirement. For example in sophisticated Asian Metropolis like Hong Kong, Singapore and Shanghai, the
indoor coverage expectation will be very high, hence requiring a high penetration loss provisioning. On the other
hand, in less developed market such as Africa and Latin America, customer expectation is lower so the penetration loss
requirement can be reduced to reduce overall cost involved. During network planning, if no actual field testing data is
available, refer to the penetration loss values listed in Table below.
Table 4-5 Example of penetration loss
Scenario
Penetration Loss
18 - 25 dB
15 - 18 dB
Suburban area
10 - 12 dB
Rural area
6 - 8 dB
1/2"
7/8"
5/4"
450
4.683
2.644
1.871
800
6.396
3.594
2.564
900
6.822
3.861
2.762
1500
9.000
5.129
3.693
1800
10.099
5.693
4.228
2000
10.693
6.089
4.416
2300
11.543
6.624
4.919
52
Frequency (MHz)
1/2"
7/8"
5/4"
2400
11.733
6.733
5.000
2500
12.035
6.906
5.129
3000
13.218
7.525
5.624
3300
13.932
7.932
5.928
3500
14.348
8.169
6.105
If a base station is mounted indoors, the link budget must include the losses of all devices from the RF port of the base
station to the antenna interface, including the indoor jumper, connector, main transmission feeder, combiners, splitters
and the outdoor jumper. If the RRU of a distributed base station is mounted on the tower top, you need to consider
only the loss of the outdoor 1/2" jumper. In this case, the total cable loss can be greatly reduced to approximately 0.5dB.
SINR indicates the demodulation threshold of the receiver. The demodulation threshold is related to the specific code
modulation mode involved, the BLER chosen and whether other quality affecting features are implemented e.g. MIMO
and Coding repetition. The SINR used in the link budget is obtained from the system simulation result.
Nfloor indicates the multiplication result of K and T and is the density of the thermal white noise power. The value is
-174 dBm/Hz.
In LTE system, we often use 65 18-dBi directional antennas and 11-dBi omni-directional antennas as the antennas
in base stations. Figure 4-6 and Figure 4-7 show the antenna lobes of the 65 18-dBi directional antenna and 11-dBi
omni-directional antenna.
Horizontal pattern
Vertical pattern
Horizontal Pattern
Vertical Pattern
Figure 4-8 Definition of Features on Horizontal & vertical patterns of directional antenna
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We recommend the 65 dual-polarized 18-dBi directional antennas for the base stations that are distributed in densely
populated urban areas and common urban areas. The 90 or 65 directional antennas can be used for base stations in
suburban areas. We recommend the 11-dBi omnidirectional antennas for coverage in rural areas, especially in isolated
towns. The 33 horizontal beamwidth antennas can be used for highway coverage. The gain of such antennas can
reach 21 dBi, which helps increase coverage radius.
The antenna gains of the terminals in the LTE system vary. This results in a large difference in the coverage scopes of
different terminals. However, the LTE terminal market is dominated by USB dongle at this stage and CPE antenna gain
values will be based on final product availability. However, since CPE antenna is external, gain similar to those currently
available in 3G/WiMAX product is expected.
Figure 4-9 Transmit Diversity and Spatial Multiplexing MIMO TS36.211 (fig 6.3-1)
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In the example above, a single data input stream is used to feed two separate antennae but it is equally possible to
feed two different input data streams into this setup to provide higher data rate and it is the fundamental principle for
Multiple Code Word (MCW) in LTE.
Multi-antenna technology can improve system capacity and coverage without largely increasing cost. This is because
the multi-antenna technology gives the following gains: power combining gain, array gain, space diversity gain,
and interference reduction gain. In addition, the MIMO achieves a spatial multiplexing gain, which is mainly used to
increase the system capacity. This section describes the various gains brought by the MIMO.
1. Power combining gain
When multiple antennae (N) are used to transmit signals, N transmit channels are available. In this case, the total
transmit power is equal to N times the transmit power from a single antenna signal transmission. As a result, a
power gain of 10log(N) dB can be obtained. If a single antenna is used to transmit signals, you can also increase the
transmit power. In this case, however, the requirements for the power amplifier are high, and implementation cost
is complex and increased.
2. Array gain
The array gain indicates an improvement in the average signal noise ratio (SINR) at the receive end when the total
transmit power is the same. The array gain can be obtained through the coherent combining of various antenna
signals. Various multi-antenna systems can obtain the array gain. That is, after the multi-antenna technology is used,
the receiving SINR can be improved.
3. Space diversity gain
Due to the fading nature of wireless channels, the signals in a single-antenna system suffer from deep fading. In
a multi-antenna system, the distance between antennae is often large. This ensures that the signal fading of an
antenna is independent. Therefore, the SINR fluctuation of the received signals after combining stabilizes, thus
improving received signal quality.
4. Interference reduction gain
In mobile cellular communications system, inter-cell interference cannot be ignored due to the frequency sharing
and multiplexing nature both within and between cells. However, different from white noise, the interference signal
is colored noise. You can combine the expected signals and suppress the interference signal through proper multiantenna spatial weight at the receiving end to improve the average SINR at the receiving end. This is the basis of
Interference Reduction Combining feature.
5. Spatial multiplexing gain
The spatial multiplexing gain indicates the improvement of data throughput or transmission rate when the transmit
power and bandwidth remain unchanged. You can obtain a spatial multiplexing gain by transmitting multiple
parallel data streams over the same time-frequency resources. The spatial multiplexing gain is used to increase
system capacity.
required edge rate, the larger the cell coverage radius. This comes about due to the fixed power offered by UE (normally
23dBm) being spread evenly to the number of RBs involved in the modulation scheme assigned, assuming there is no
power control (i.e. Downlink ICIC also disabled). Some of the factors that affect the edge rate in the LTE system are as
follows:
Uplink/downlink TDD proportion
MIMO schemes chosen
eNodeB Power Amplifier power (affect downlink only)
Number of RB used at the sector edge
Modulation mode (1 of 29 coding methods)
Repeated coding times
The formula for calculating the downlink cell edge rate is as follows:
Cell edge rate_Phy = Number of Different data stream transmitted x Number of Resource Block assigned to
user per frame x Number of available Traffic carrying Resource Element per Resource Block x Coding rate x
Modulation model level / Duration of each frame - Where,
Number of Resource Block Assigned (a single RB is the basic resource assignment level) reflects the number of
resource blocks used by user at the edge of the sector. The smaller the number of resource blocks assigned, the
lower the cell edge rate. In previous version of link budget tools, receive sensitivity of a base station is defined by the
bandwidth of the RB which is 180 kHz. More recent version are using per subcarrier as basis of receiver sensitivity and
the conversion value is simply 10log10(12). RB can be assigned down to a per TTI level (1 ms duration)
Number of Different data stream transmitted is related to the number of data stream being simultaneously
transmitted. Number can be ranging from 1 (SFBC) to 2 (MCW 2x2). In case of BF, the value should be 1 for single
antenna port transmission mode 7 (port 7 or 8), and 2 streams for dual antenna port transmission mode 8 (port 7 and 8).
Number of available Traffic carrying Resource Element per Resource Block indicates the number of RE available
for each resource block. In FDD system, a maximum of 3 symbols (36 Res) can be consumed per frame (10ms) for
control channel signaling purposes and there is at least 6 more extra RE can be used for Downlink Reference signaling
per TTI (1ms). A minimum of 1 symbol (12 Res) will be required per RB for control signaling purposes. In TDD system,
due to frequency sharing and time gap requirement for switching between uplink and downlink, 6 symbols equivalent
(72 Res) will be the minimum overhead requirement per TTI.
Coding rate indicates the volume coding rate of the channel code. For example, the volume coding rate of QPSK1/2 is
1/2, and the volume coding rate of 16QAM3/4 is 3/4.
Modulation model level indicates the number of bits in the modulation mode. For example, the modulation mode
levels of QPSK, 16QAM, and 64QAM are 2, 4, and 6 respectively.
Duration of each frame indicates the frame size. As regulated by the protocols, the frame size in LTE networks is 10 ms.
In the link budget, the settings of the uplink/downlink cell edge rates (in particular the uplink cell edge rate) will
determine the final cell coverage radius. Hence, an understanding of edge coverage requirement is very critical from
a network planning perspective. If Downlink ICIC is enabled, downlink power control must be enabled also (which
is executed at 20ms intervals based on UE BER reported value) and edge rate calculation will be more complex and
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beyond the formula listed above. However, the cell edge data rate requirement will still be the single most important
factor in any cell planning activities.
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10dB
8dB
Suburban area
6dB
Rural area
6dB
The slow fading margin can be obtained based on the cell edge coverage probability and standard deviation of slow fading.
The formula for calculating the edge coverage probability is as follows:
Edge coverage probability = 1 - Q(
The slow fading margin can be obtained through the following formula:
Slow fading margin = Q-1(1 - Edge coverage probability) Standard deviation of slow fading
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The edge of coverage probability of a cell is based on area coverage probability. Suppose that the area coverage
probability of a cell is PCov. Use this probability to try the edge coverage probability PEdge for multiple times. If the area
coverage probability of the cell is PCov' = PCov the obtained edge coverage probability PEdge of the cell is the actual edge
coverage probability of the cell.
When Uplink IRC is used, simulation has shown a maximum SINR gain of 7dB can be achieved over traditional MMSE
interference reduction method. By outperforming Maximum Ratio Combining and MMSE receivers, IRC can enhance
network coverage and provide better QoS for cell edge users.
Alternatively, reliability of information transmission can also be boosted not by radio transmission power but by
adjusted to a lower modulation level (MCS adjustment).
Type of MIMO multi-antenna technology used (At this stage, default is 2T2R)
Design target area coverage probability. (Operator dependent ranging from 90 to 95%)
The antenna in a base station is mounted at a height of 30 meters. The terminal antenna is mounted at 1.5 meters high.
The Cost231-Hata model that is amended based on planning experience is generally used as the propagation model.
Below listed are some of the critical and selectable parameters from the Link Budget tool
Duplex Mode: Option Frequency division duplex (FDD)/ Time division duplex (TDD).
TMA used: Yes/No
TMA Gain: 12dB/24dB
Morphology: Dense Urban/Urban/Suburban/Rural/Highway
Channel Model: EPA, ETU, EVA, High Speed Train (HST)
Frequency (MHz): Frequency used in this system (700, 800, 850, 900, 1500, AWS, 1800, 2100, 2300, 2600)
Bandwidth: 1.4M, 3M, 5M, 10M, 15M, 20M
MIMO Scheme: Separately settable for Downlink (1x2, 2x2 SFBC, 4x2 SFBC+FSTD) and Uplink (1x2, 1x4, 1x8). Please
Note, In a AxB configuration, A is always refers to the transmit function of the device
DL/UL Cell Edge Rate (kbps): Setting in accordance to the actual customer requirements
DL/UL Edge MCS: Total of 29 Coding selection that can be chosen separately for DL and UL. As UL normally is the
weakest link due to limited UE power, We recommend UL MCS coding of QPSK 0.25 at the Edge as UE power is
shared across only 8 RBs for best Maximum path loss results against other MCS.
DL/UL Target Load: Target customer loading should be provided here separately for Downlink and Uplink so the
desired interference margin can be incorporated into the link budget. Common values are 30%, 50%, 70% and 100%
Propagation Model: Option include Cost231-Hata (Classic), Cost231-Hata-Huawei, Okumura Hata (Classic), Okumura
Hata-Huawei, SPM, Cost231-Micro (Classic) and Cost231-Micro-Huawei. Further information is available in the
Propagation Model section below
eNodeB Total Transmit Power: Customer configuration specific, referring to per TX path transmit power value.
Typical value is either 43dBm (20W) or 46 dBm (40W). Further information can be seen in the following sections.
However, please refer to detailed eNodeB configuration guide for final detail.
eNodeB cable loss: Value is dependent on cable configuration at customer site (0.5dB for RRU) vs 3dB (standard cable
length) or more (extended length) for RFU based configuration
UE Transmit Power: Typical value is 23dBm +/- 2dB for a Class 3 unit. The minimum transmit power by this UE is
-40dBm according to 3GPP TS 36.101. Actual UE power can be reduced by the modulation used.
UE Antenna Gain: Typical value is 0dB in the absence of any external antenna
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Uplink
Downlink
Morphology
Dense Urban
Duplex Mode
FDD
User Environment
Indoor
20
Channel Model
ETU 3
MIMO Scheme
12
22 SFBC
256
1024
23
46
Allocated RB
24
6.19
15.21
18
0.5
6.19
32.71
-2.52
-3.39
Tx
2.5
-132.26
-128.63
18
0.5
Target Load
50.00%
70.00%
0.87
3.67
-148.89
-124.96
20
20
11.7
11.7
95.00%
95.00%
9.48
9.48
Pathloss
125.6
128.18
Propagation Model
Cost231-Hata
30
1.5
Frequency (MHz)
2600
2600
0.29
0.34
The link budget is based on only theories, and can neither ensure the capacity nor coverage reliability of the actual
network. The coverage target and requirements also vary with different network requirement and the respective
assumptions. As a result, the link budget result varies greatly, depending on the different input parameters. Therefore,
to design the link budget that reflects the requirement of a particular network, the designer must discuss with the
operator to determine the value of each input parameter in the link budget.
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Link budget also assumes a uniform landform, simple terrain, ideal site locations, and even subscriber distribution.
System simulation covers detailed landform distribution, actual site location, terrain type, and subscriber distribution.
Hence, the link budget result serves ONLY as the theoretical calculation result. The calculated coverage radius is
used for reference in simulated site distribution. The detailed coverage planning must be completed through system
simulation. For a given coverage area, the number of planned base stations will depend on the system simulation
result.
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combination such as 2f1-f2 and 2f2-f1 of the two strong interference signals may drop into the band of the receiver
and then generates interference.
The capability to resist inter-modulation is a feature of the receiver. If you want to eliminate the inter-modulation
interference by installing a filter, you need to install a receive filter in the interfered system.
ACS
Adjacent channel selectivity (ACS) is a protection index to determine the capability of a receive filter. ACS refers to
the capability to receive the power of the local in band channel when the interference signal from the adjacent
frequency exists. ACS is the ratio of the receive filter attenuation on the assigned channel frequency to the receive
filter attenuation on the adjacent channel(s). Hence, ACS is the ratio of the receive filter loss on the designated
channel to the loss on the adjacent channel.
ACLR
Adjacent Channel Leakage power Ratio (ACLR) is measure of transmitter performance and it is defined as the ratio of
the transmitted power to the power measured after a receiver filter in the adjacent RF channel. Alternatively, it can be
referred to as the ratio of the average power on the designated frequency point to the average power on the adjacent
channel. ACLR represents the suppression capability of the transmit filter to the adjacent channel.
As shown in the figure below, ACLR is the dB value of C (total transmit power of the designated frequency point)
subtracting D (total in-band leakage power of the adjacent channel). The adjacent channel may be used by the same
system or a different system. The bandwidth is determined based on the system in the adjacent channel.
ACLR was also formerly called Adjacent Channel Power Ratio and ACLR is specified in the 3GPP standard.
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ACIR
It is difficult to separate ACLR and ACS because they coexist; therefore, ACLR and ACS are usually considered together.
The result of the consideration is Adjacent Channel Interference Ratio (ACIR) and ACIR is the ratio of the total power
transmitted from a source (base station or UE) to the total interference power affecting a victim receiver, resulting from
both transmitter and receiver imperfections. The formula is as follows:
The interference in the adjacent channel affects both the system coverage and system capacity. When near-far effect
exists, interference from the adjacent channel greatly affects the system coverage, and may even cause the dead zone.
As shown in the preceding figure, when the terminal in system A enters system B, the interference power of system B
to system A is even greater than the useful power of system A. Therefore, the dead zone occurs, where the terminal
cannot access the network.
In the uplink, the limiting design factor is the UE transmitter, which will dominate the uplink interference. The reason
is that ACLRUE << ACSBS, which implies that uplink ACIR ACLRUE. Thus, in an uplink simulation, it is essentially the UE
ACLR performance that is simulated.
In the downlink, the limiting design factor is the UE receiver, which will dominate the downlink interference. The
reason is that ACSUE << ACLRBS, which implies that downlink ACIR ACSUE. A downlink simulation will thus essentially
be a simulation of UE ACS performance.
OFFSET/BW/GB
Figure below is the relationship of the Offset (frequency offset value), BW (channel bandwidth) and Guard Band.
If the demodulation carrier-to-interference ratio C/I (unit: dB) of the eNodeB receive system for a particular modulation
scheme (MCS), then the theoretical receive sensitivity of the eNodeB is as follows:
The noise level directly affects the eNodeB receive sensitivity, that is, when the noise level rises by 1 dB, the eNodeB
receive sensitivity decreases by 1 dB.
In the system, 1 dB decrease in the receiver sensitivity of the system is regarded as the threshold of interference.
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For LTE, sensitivity is calculated on per subcarrier rather than the entire channel allocation as in GSM, WCDMA
or WiMAX because it is the basic bandwidth that needs to be demodulated by each UE. In actual component
implementation level, receivers IF bandwidth and noise coefficient are affected by the specific circuits and can never
reach the theoretical value or optimum value from a pure analog circuitry perspective.
Assume that the external receive intra-frequency spurious interference has the feature of the quasi-white noise, the
influence of the interference to the system is that the interference adds to the original equivalent noise of the system
and then raises the receive noise level of the system. Table 5-1 lists the receive background noise rise level due to the
presence of the external interference at level specified.
Table 5-1 Increase of background noise due to the presence of interference levels
Original system noise level / new
interferer level (dB)
20
16
12
10
0.04
0.1
0.37
0.4
0.5
0.97
1.76
0.04
0.1
0.37
0.4
0.5
0.97
1.76
In general, the new total interference increase from original due to extra interferer can be represented by:
10.log(1+10^(P/10))
P = new interferer level compared to the original level in dB.
Assume that the original noise level of the system is 1 w:
1. T he interference level is 0 dB lower than the original noise level of the system, that is, the interference level is also 1
w. The total noise level of the system is (1 + 1 = 2 w). Therefore, after the system is interfered, the total noise level
increase is as follows: 10 log (2 w/1 w = 2) = 3 dB.
2. T he interference level is 3 dB lower than the original noise level of the system, that is, the interference level is 0.5
times of the original noise level (1/103/10 = 0.5), that is, 0.5 w. The total noise level of the system is 1 + 0.5 = 1.5 w.
Therefore, after the system is interfered, the total noise level increase is as follows: 10 log (1.5 w/1 w = 1.5) = 1.76 dB.
3. The other values are calculated in the similar way:
As shown in the preceding table, when the original receive sensitivity of the system decreases by 0.4 dB, the
allowed interference level must be 10 dB lower than the original receive noise level of the system. When the original
receive sensitivity of the system decreases by 0.1 dB, the allowed interference level must be 16 dB lower than the
original receive noise level of the system. When the interference level is equal to the original receive noise level of
the system, the receive sensitivity of the system decreases by 3 dB.
In the broadband system, the allowed interference level is generally 6 dB lower than the original receive noise
coefficient of the system. Therefore, the original receiver sensitivity of the system decreases by 1 dB.
congestion, network coverage and capacity. How to reduce or eliminate interference is one of the key tasks in network
planning and optimization. The decrease of sensitivity is the most direct influence of interference, which results in the
decrease of coverage radius. Table 5-2 lists the relationship between the decrease of sensitivity and the decrease of coverage
radius (calculated based on the classic propagation model Okumura-Hata, with the eNodeB antenna height of 30 m).
Table 5-2 Relationship between the decrease of sensitivity and the decrease of coverage
Decrease of Sensitivity (dB)
0.4
3%
6%
6.37%
12.33%
12.33%
23.14%
17.91%
32.61%
28.03%
48.21%
10
48.21%
73.17%
Scenarios (a) and (c) described above clearly indicate inter-carrier interference. Implementation of time synchronization
equipment such as IEEE 1588v2 as discussed in Chapter three will help to resolve most of the asynchronous systems problem.
The interference scenarios can be classified into the following four types: eNodeB->UE, UE->eNodeB, eNodeB>eNodeB, and UE->UE, as listed in Table 5-3 Please note the TDD system can be either WiMAX or LTE TDD
Table 5-3 TDD/TDD interference classification
Interference Scenario
Interference Type
Risk
(1)
(2)
Victim Link
eNodeB->UE
Normal
DL
eNodeB->eNodeB
Severe
UL
UE->UE
Severe
DL
UE->eNodeB
Normal
UL
(3)
Table 5-4 Impact of UE->UE interference to the network coverage Monte Carlo Spread
Downlink Coverage Probability
Guard Band (MHz)
Frequency Band
No Interference
from Other System
With Interference
from Other System
2.5 G
98.6%
98.2%
Downlink Coverage
Loss
0.4%
Figure 5-13 Co-Site GuardBand (MHz) between LTE Carrier of different Bandwidth &GSM
LTE1800 eNodeB supports the compact bandwidths by strict filer and RB punching. Compact bandwidths for 5 MHz,
10 MHz, 15 MHz and 20 MHz are supported.
Compact bandwidth configuration helps operators make full use of anomalous frequency bands and reduce the
waste of frequency fragment.
Compact bandwidth need not to accord with standard bandwidth; Compact bandwidth produces higher
throughput and better user experience.
Compact bandwidth is completely transparent to UE and has no impact to R8/R9 UE.
148Mbps downlink speed rate in trial test with 20MHz LTE bandwidth for LTE1800.
Figure 5-16 Buffer Zone for LTE and GSM Co-existence Deployment
The final implementation will certainly be more complex due to coverage variations, traffic requirement, interRAT as
well as possible frequency planning arrangement but buffer zone concept will remain a feasible option for LTE and
GSM co-existence.
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Figure 5-17 Co-location Antenna Configuration for LTE 2.6G and GSM 900/1800MHz
Figure 5-18 Co-location Setup for LTE 2.6G and GSM 900/1800MHz with RCU and TMA
The following Configuration is not recommended due to the extra component requirement and addition insertion loss
introduced.
Figure 5-19 Co-Location Configuration Not Recommended for LTE 2.6G and GSM
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Figure 5-20 Co-location Setup for LTE/GSM 1800MHz with RCU and without/with TMA
85
OR
Figure 5-21 Antenna Physical Configuration Recommendation under LTE/GSM Co-location
86
87
Figure 5-23 Antenna Isolation due to LTE TDD and WiMAX Co-location
Figure 5-24 Physical Separation due to LTE TDD and WiMAX Co-existence but not co-located
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The aim of LTE capacity dimensioning is to obtain the PS throughput supported in the network based on the
bandwidth available and channel condition of each user. A high level summary for capacity planning process and input
requirement is listed in the diagram below:
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Most of these parameters are similar to those used for 2G/3G network dimensioning and by carefully considering the
contribution of all these parameters, network planning engineers can determine which customer service level can be met.
Nevertheless, the arrival of smart phone, which has completely different behavior compared to feature phones, is going
to add a new level of challenges to planning engineers. They frequently changes state between "idle" and "connected",
its fast dormancy feature forces the terminal to switch to an "idle" state every six to eight seconds in order to save
battery power, and the service heartbeat mechanism periodically communicates with the application server. According to
signaling statistics of operator S in Singapore, one smart phone creates 14 times the signaling load of a feature phone.
In addition, the increasing popular level of applications like twitter will hasten the evolution of customer behavior and
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traffic model in the next few years. Average subscriber usage at busy hour has rapidly increased from the low 10kbps
(since R99/1xRTT) to be in the mid to high 30kbps right now.
From a EUTRAN design perspective, how customer chooses the proportion and combination of these different services
will be translated into bits per second requirement for the customer network. Although the dynamic nature of E-UTRAN
capacity limiting factors listed below will affect the final user throughput and capacity, it is essential that the network
is dimensioned properly in the design stage to reduce the impact of services offer booking and short term surges in
services due to unexpected events.
when it comes to capacity planning. The frequency propagation and penetration characteristics will determine the
number of sites that need to be built in order to cover the designated area chosen by the Operator. This in turn will
decide the final capacity that can be offer for commercial services.
The figure below gives a high level view of the likely difference in coverage strength offered by the different major
frequency band currently chosen for LTE deployment.
With its shorter coverage range, 2.6GHz is more likely to be used and is best suited for urban environment which
also demand higher capacity within a smaller area. On the other hand, 800MHz is more likely to be used for rural
applications due to the more extended coverage (e.g. Germany white spot wireless DSL project)
number of users increase. At the same time, the per user throughput also decrease as the number of users in the
cell increases due to resources sharing. This clearly identifies interference control (either through cell coverage
control, Downlink ICIC or efficient power control) as the most important factor in cell capacity protection.
In addition, We offer a separate antenna related technology in uplink, which is focusing on capacity improvement. This
feature is called Uplink Virtual MIMO and it achieves uplink throughput by allocating same RB for different uplink users.
Uplink Virtual MIMO can increase overall uplink spectral efficiency and hence increasing the overall uplink throughput.
It is similar to a feature called CSM for WiMAX.
The network will carefully select two users with the following characteristics:
Highly uncorrelated in the Uplink
Offer the best capacity improvement to the cell after combining
Highest Max PFair output when the 2 users are combined together
These selection criteria will allow users with the most uplink data need and most uncorrelated to be chosen first. Since
those two users are highly uncorrelated, they can be easily removed from each others overall signal.
6.3.12 UE Capability
It is important to remember that the composition and penetration of various UE types will also have an impact on
the final achievable cell throughput level. A high concentration of relatively low end UEs will result in low resources
utilization efficiency, thereby bringing down the overall cell throughput. This will certainly be depending on when the
network is launched, pricing model of Operators as well as UE vendors as well as the form factors of UE offered at the
time. The figure below summarizes the capability of UEs by their category. E.g. only Cat-5 UE can support 64QAM on
uplink initially and will affect user uplink throughput.
6.3.14 Time Slot Allocation for Uplink and Downlink TDD specific
The time division nature of LTE TDD will also require radio engineers to consider how time slots are shared between
uplink and downlink based on both customer input as well as commercial users usage pattern between uplink and
downlink in that country. This will have a direct impact on the EUTRAN capacity. There are 7 time sharing configuration
between Uplink and Downlink in LTE TDD as defined by 3GPP. They are shown in the figure below and in summary,
they are (DL : UL) - 1:3 or 2:2 or 3:1 or 2:1 or 7:2 or 8:1 or 3:5
Besides time sharing configuration, there is also a need to define how uplink and downlink pilots are configured based
on the Guard band requirement. The guard band duration is also a direct result of propagation delay requirement
due to the designated cell coverage radius. Inadequate guard band provisioning will result in direct interference
between users within the same cell due to difference in signal delay arrival. 3GPP has defined 9 different guard period
configuration schemes for Operator to choose. They are listed in the figure below.
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Figure 6-10 Uplink-Downlink Pilot Time Slot and Guard band Configuration Schemes
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In general, the traffic on S1 interface is divided into two different plane, the control plane, which uses SCTP (Stream
Control Transmission Protocol) developed by IETF for the purpose of transporting various signaling protocols over IP
network, and the user plane, where GPRS tunneling protocol for user plane (GTPU) is adopted as the tunneling method.
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Although LTE capable terminal is required to rescan for LTE network after 6 minutes, this rescanning could be
hindered by any active connections to UMTS/GSM during this period. The final delay period could also depend on
individual UE manufacturers rescanning algorithm.
Different Inter-RAT handover algorithms are listed below:
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Simulation Process
1. Create a simulation project.
Mandatory.
Mandatory.
Mandatory.
Set the Feeder Equipment.
Optional.
Optional.
Mandatory.
Mandatory.
9. Set the Clutter Classes parameter (standard square deviation of shadow fading).
Mandatory.
10. Set the parameters of propagation models (including the propagation models
for different geographic types).
Mandatory.
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Mandatory.
Optional.
Service setting.
Mandatory.
Terminal setting.
Mandatory.
Environment setting.
on the toolbar or choose File>New. The Project Templates dialog box is displayed.
3. Select LTE and then click OK. The LTE U-Net project is created.
4. Click
5. Select the storage directory and name of the project from the Save Project File dialog box and save the file, as shown below.
104
Maps related information can then be imported individually via highlighting each of the following
105
Display of Coordinate Systems can be changed after importing either Clutter or Height information into the project. It
can be changed by calling up the Map Setting function in the following way
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Parameter
Description
Code
Name
Height
Model, C/
I standard
deviation
The standard deviation is used to calculate the shadow fading margin. Unit: dB. Value range: 4-10 dB.
The standard deviation is used to calculate prediction items. If it is not C/I prediction, the standard
deviation of Model is used.
Penetration Loss
Indicates the indoor loss of each clutter class. The indoor loss is used when buildings exist. The value is
consistent with that of the Estimation tool, with a common value of 8-20 dB.
If the indoor coverage is considered when estimating, indoor penetration loss should be considered.
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Field
Name
Channel Width (MHz)
Description
Indicates the frequencies and has no impact on the calculation.
Channel bandwidth. Indicates the bandwidth of each sector.
Start channel
The first channel that can be used, number normally starting from 0 (or any positive number).
Related to the frequency width and channel bandwidth.
Last channel
Excluded channels
The channels between the first channel and last channel that cannot be used.
Indicates the start frequency. Indicates the start frequency in the time division duplex (TDD)
mode and the downlink start frequency in the frequency division duplex (FDD) mode.
Field
Adjacent Channel Signal to
Interference Ratio
Duplexing Method
Description
The default value is 30. The value range is from 0 to 231
Indicates the duplex mode. TDD (Time Division Duplex) or FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) mode.
A detail cell configuration layout will appear and numerous LTE specific parameters will appear.
109
Users can then set the value for each of the Uplink and Downlink MCS threshold separately. However, please
doublecheck the default value in U-Net as it may differ from the actual requirement.
110
Users can then match the required MCS table accordingly to Uplink and Downlink table defined above through the
selection tab shown below.
By clicking Cell reception equipment or Default UE reception equipment and then followed by clicking on MCS
threshold, users can also view the MCS value format used in U-Net.
V. Setting MIMO Configuration
Path: [Explorer / Data / Transmitters]
Set the number of Tx/Rx antennae per eNodeB transceiver here. Make sure all fields are displayed as well.
Field
Name
Description
Indicates the name of MIMO.
Tx_Antennas
Rx_Antennas
SM_Supported
SM_Gain (dB)
All MIMO parameters must be set correctly in order to allow simulation to be performed correctly especially for MCS function.
Then enable Space Multiplexing by checking the box under LTE Terminal folder. This will allow simulation to switch
between SFBC and MCW where appropriate. Under U-NetV3R6 only downlink spatial multiplexing is enabled.
112
7.5.3 Equipment
Setting TMA Equipment
Path: [Explorer / Data / Transmitters / Equipment / TMA Equipment]
Field
Name
Noise Figure
Description
Indicates the name of TMA equipment.
Indicates the thermal noise of the equipment. Unit: dB.
Gain (UL)
Loss (DL)
Description
Indicates the feeder name.
Please refer to Chapter 4 for feeder loss at particular frequency. Unlike Atoll, it is better to
include connector loss under jumper or miscellaneous loss as U-Net calculates cable loss by
cable length.
Description
Indicates the Site Equipment Name, e.g. DBS 3900.
Indicates the thermal noise parameter. The Default Noise Figure of U-Net is 2.3 dB.
The results should appear as below after importing file with correct format.
114
By checking the corresponding box, the actual label will appear in an excel like table after the selection has taken
place. Extra fields can also be added according to the users requirement
User adjusted propagation model can also be created by modifying the individual K parameters, diffraction method as
well as effective height definition.
Drive test/CW data can be imported and then used for calibration which is performed in the following steps
116
After choosing/creating an appropriate model for network design, this model can be assigned to each cell in the
network accordingly within the Cell table
Path: [Explorer / Network/ Transmitters / Cell /]
117
Upon completion make sure the right selection is chosen under LTECell/Propagation Model
This will allow each clutter type to be assigned to an appropriate morphology type (Dense Urban/Urban/Suburban/
Rural) and saving the time needed for radio planner to assign different model for different cell.
Notes: Target Load/Target Iot for simulation, Actual Iot/Actual Load for coverage prediction
119
I. Max Power
The maximum power from the eNodeB by summing all the transmit paths. If eNodeB is a 2x20W configuration, the
Max power is 46dBm. An eNodeB of 2x40W will be 49dBm
II. RS Power
This is the power allocated to the Reference signal and will be dependent on the bandwidth as well as the number of
RE (15kHz) channel allocation. For example, if there is 2x20W at a 20MHz spectrum while Power Boosting (PB) = 1,
then the RS power
RSRE Power = 43dBm (20w) Log10 1200 (100 RB) + 3 (PB = 1) = 15.2dBm
Since different RE will be used for RS at different antennae, U-Net is avoiding any uncertainty in UE RSRP measurement
methods by providing only a single path RS power. It is likely the actual RSRP measured in the field be higher due to
the implementation of downlink MIMO.
III. PB
Power Boosting with a range of [0, 1, 2, 3], this value is defaulted to be 1 and represent the number of extra RE used
for the addition of Reference signal transmission.
V. Neighbor load
Impact estimation due to interference from Neighbor cell can be set under Properties function of a particular
121
Before running the allocation, ensure the band and channel index shown below are selected
I. Channel Index
Path: [Explorer / Network/ Transceiver / Cell /Normal Parameter]
Value of Channel Index will determine the frequency reuse pattern. Under Single frequency reuse (1x1), all cells will be
labeled as using Channel 0 only. With multiple frequency reuse (U-Net only support 1x3 currently), user can select N
Channel index (N = 3 under 1x3) and frequency planning function will allocate different Channel to different cell.
123
In U-Net, the first step is to select the frequency Reuse pattern, then select the Channel index that can be used for
frequency planning before running the allocation. Upon completion, the frequencies will be allocated according to
the table below. An example output is shown based on 1x3 selection where Channel 0 -2 are chosen.
Various settings in Edge frequency Style, ICIC switch and Channel index will not affect the prediction results as these are mainly used for traffic
simulation.
Most common antennae categories are already included as part of U-Net standard tools without any need of new
input. However, user may also need to configure special antennae due to customers requirement by incorporating
data into the 4 tables under Antenna New option.
126
Parameter
Name
Description
Indicates the antenna name.
The naming rule of the U-Net antenna consists of the following four parts:
Half power angle
Antenna gain
Electrical tilt
Application frequency
Manufacturer
Gain
I. Horizontal Pattern
Parameter
Figure area
Angle
Att. (dB)
Description
Indicates the horizontal or vertical beam figure of the antenna.
Indicates the antenna angle. Value range: 0 359
Indicates the attenuation value of the current transmission angle. Unit: dB.
Antenna gain of this angle is represented by:
Antenna Gain() = Standard Gain Attenuation()
The antenna angle is from 0 to 359, giving all angles and corresponding fading values.
Other Properties
The U-Net defines three parameters for antenna data: Beamwidth, Max Frequency and Min Frequency. However, all
these values are for labeling purposes only and dont affect prediction results
127
Parameter
Beamwidth
Description
Indicates the antenna vertical beamwidth.
Max Frequency
Min Frequency
128
Parameter
Name
Site
Description
Indicates the name of the current transmitter.
Indicates the name of the site to which the current transmitter belongs.
Click this button to set the properties of the selected site.
Parameter
Dx, Dy
Equipment
TMA
Feeder
Power Ratio
Feeder Length
Miscellaneous Losses
129
Description
Indicate the offsets of coordinates X and Y of the current transmitter relative to the site
location.
User can simulate a remote transmitter by setting this parameter.Equipment
Allow user to fill in total loss or add individual component such as TMA separately
Indicates the tower-mounted amplifier.
Indicates the feeder type and will recall feeder table.
Indicates the power allocation to the transmit equipment. Default value = 1
Indicates the transmit feeder length and the receive feeder length. The feeder loss is equal to
the feeder loss per unit length multiplied by the total feeder length.
Indicates the miscellaneous transmit loss and the miscellaneous receive loss.
The U-Net software does not establish a loss model for each piece of equipment. You can
define additional losses, such as combiner loss and power splitter loss.
Parameter
Active
Description
Indicates whether the current transmitter is activated. If Activate is selected, the current
transmitter is activated.
A transmitter not yet activated does not participate in any calculation.
Main Antenna
High Speed
Frequency Band
/Template Management/Properties]
I. General
Define the radius of hexagongrid if it is used for new site design
130
Parameter
Description
Main Antenna
Model
1st Sector Azimuth
131
7.7.2 Environments
Path: [Explorer/Data/Traffic Parameters/Environment/Any environment type/ Properties]
I. General
Parameter
Name
User
Description
Indicates the name of the environment type.
Indicates the user type.
For details on the setting of the user type in User Profiles, please see in the section below.
Mobility
Density
132
Field
Clutter class
Description
Indicates the clutter class.
Weight
%Indoor
133
Parameter
Description
Name
Service
Terminal
Calls/hour
Duration
UL Volume (Kbytes)
DL Volume (Kbytes)
7.7.4 Terminals
Path: [Explorer/Data/Traffic Parameters/Terminals Profiles/Any Terminal type/ Properties]
Parameter
Name
Reception Equipment
Description
Indicates the name of the current terminal type.
Indicates the type of equipment used by the current terminal. Defined under Path: [Explorer/
Data/Traffic Parameters/ Terminals Profiles/Any Terminal type/ Properties]
134
Parameter
Description
Min Power
Indicates the minimum transmit power allowed for the current terminal.
During the simulation, the U-Net software calculates the transmit power of the terminal
required to meet the current network QoS requirements. If the required transmit power
of the terminal is lower than this value, the terminal transmits signals using this minimum
transmit power.
Max Power
Indicates the maximum transmit power allowed for the current terminal.
During the simulation, the U-Net software calculates the transmit power of the terminal
required to meet the current network QoS requirements. If the transmit power of the
terminal is greater than this value, the terminal is denied by the U-Net and limit the transmit
power to Tx Max.
Losses
Noise Figure
Model
Gain
Spatial Multiplex Support
MIMO
Indicates the model of the terminal antenna. In general, this parameter should be left blank.
Indicates the antenna gain of the terminal.
Indicates the antenna technology used by the terminal.
Indicates the number of transmit antennas and the number of receive antennas at the
terminal side.
135
Description
Indicates the name of the mobility type.
Indicates the terminal rate.
7.7.6 Services
Path: [Explorer/Data/Traffic Parameters/Services/LTE/Any Services type/ Properties]
Parameter
Description
Name
Type
GBR
Indicates the GBR service. You can select the GBR service only after selecting Data.
Priority
Activity Factor
AMR Rate
Max Throughput
Min Throughput
Average
Throughput
Indicates the average throughput requested by the service (using in creating a traffic map based on
environment only).
Transmission
Efficiency
IBER
Offset
Body loss
This parameter is used to calculate the application layer throughput. Indicates the fixed uplink/downlink
overhead, which is the length added to an encapsulated packet during the transmission at the MAC or
RLC layer.
Uplink: fixed uplink overhead. Value is 0 to 232.
Downlink: fixed downlink overhead. Value is 0 to 232.
Indicates the body loss, which is usually 3 dB for voice services and not considered for data services.
136
Parameter
Description
137
138
Parameter
User profile
Description
Indicates the user profile.
Mobility
Density
Parameter
Description
Name
Indicates the name of the area/polyon to which the vector area belongs.
Density
Parameter
Description
Terminals (%)
Indicate the distribution ratios of terminals and mobility of the service or user.
If the total ratio is not equal to 100%, the U-Net software automatically recalculates the ratios.
Mobility (%)
Weight
% Indoor
Indicate the distribution weight and indoor distribution ratio of the service or user for
different clutter classes.
The input here is the number of users for each service type
140
Parameter
Prediction Group
Tx_ID
Description
Selects a coverage prediction group
Indicates the transmitter name, which is set in the properties of a single transmitter in the
Transmitters folder.
LTEFTP (UL)
LTEFTP (DL)
Indicates the number of uplink users corresponding to the video conferencing service
Indicates the number of downlink users corresponding to the video conferencing service
LTEVoIP (UL)
LTEVoIP (DL)
Indicates the number of uplink users corresponding to the Web browsing service
Indicates the number of downlink users corresponding to the Web browsing service
141
I. General information
142
Resolution
Indicates the handover threshold of intra-frequency cells. This parameter is valid during the
prediction of the counters Handover Area and Overlapping Zones
Indicates the handover threshold of inter-frequency cells. This parameter is valid during the
prediction of the counters Handover Area and Overlapping Zones.
Polygon
Neighbour load
With Shadow
Cell Edge Coverage
Probability
Indoor Coverage
RS Shifting
II. Advanced
Frequency Name
Channel Index
143
III. Condition
Parameter
Description
Indicates the lower limit of the predicted value. No calculation is performed if the value of
the parameter in the middle of the equality is lower than this value.
Indicates the upper limit of the predicted value. No calculation is performed if the value of
the parameter in the middle of the equality is higher than this value.
Service
Terminal
Mobility
Interferer Reception
Threshold (dBm)
144
7.8.2 Simulation
Path: [Explorer/Operation/Simulations/]
145
I. Setting
Monte Carlo method is used by U-Net for traffic distribution.
Traffic Map needs to be created prior to running simulations. Once it is ready, Planner can adjust the Source Traffic
table as below.
Parameter
Global Scaling Factor
Select Traffic Maps
Select Calculate Area
Description
Indicates the scaling factor of user number.
Number of users = Size x User density x Scaling factor of user number
Indicates a traffic map to be selected.
Indicates a calculation area to be selected.
146
Parameter
Description
Number of TTI
Indicates the number of transmission time intervals (TTIs) within a snapshot. U-Net adopts the
semi-dynamic simulation to obtain the instantaneous network information as per TTI within
a snapshot. A larger TTI count allow better reflection of scheduling, therefore increases the
precision of simulation results but requires longer calculation period.
Site Corr
UL IOT Convergence
Threshold
Indicates the uplink IoT convergence threshold, which is used for checking whether a
network is converged.
UL Load Convergence
Threshold (%)
Indicates the uplink load convergence threshold, which is use for checking whether a
network is converged.
DL Load Convergence
Threshold (%)
Indicates the downlink load convergence threshold, which is used for checking whether a
network is converged.
UL Throughput Convergence
Threshold (%)
Indicates the uplink throughput convergence threshold, which is used for checking whether
a network is converged.
DL Throughput Convergence
Threshold (%)
Indicates the downlink throughput convergence threshold, which is used for checking
whether a network is converged.
TTI Bundling
VMIMO
IRC
HARQ
Fix User Position
147
148
Individual users simulation results can also be seen by pointing the mouse on top of the user locations within the
Simulation
149
150
7.9.1 Profile
Purpose of this window is to display the terrain profile in relation to signal loss.
Parameter
Transmitter
Description
Indicates the transmitter. After you specify the transmitter, you can view the profile of the
path from a point on the map to this transmitter.
Choose to display either the path loss or the DL RSRP at the Cursor.
User enter the required value and Margin needed will be displayed
7.9.2 Reception
151
Parameter
Description
Display area
Indicates the names and signal strength of all the cells available for the terminal at the Cursor
location
Parameter
Simulation group
Terminal or Mobility or Service
Description
Indicates a simulation or a group of simulations, whose simulation results are used to
simulate the current analysis environment.
Indicate the type of the terminal, moving speed, service, and the permitted access carrier of
the terminal represented by
7.9.4 Result
This page displays the coordinates and altitude of the current cursor location, the class of clutter in the position where the
terminal is located as well as list of cells from which signals can be received,the received signal strength and Clutter class
Simulation Area
Indicates the simulation area of RF auto-planning (this area must contain the analysis area.)
Indicates the maximum number of iterations. Value range is from 0 to 32,768. The greater
the number of iterations is, the more accurate the planning result is but longer time the
calculation takes.
Resolution
RSRP Target Ratio
153
Description
Indicates the name of an RF planning group
Parameter
RSRP FitnessWeight
Description
Indicates the weight of the RSRP performance counter of a cell. Value range is from 0 to 1.
RS SINR Fitness Weight + RSRP Fitness Weight = 1
Indicates the weight of the RS SINR performance counter of a cell. Value range is from 0 to 1.
RS SINR Fitness Weight + RSRP Fitness Weight = 1
Indicates the percentage of the downlink RS SINR that reaches the specified threshold in the
selected calculation area.
Calculate Now
Parameter
Description
Population Size
Indicates the size of a population, that is, the total number of individuals in a population. In
U-Net, an individual represents the configuration combination of the RF parameters related
to all the cells in a calculation area. Individuals of Population Size are calculated in each
iteration and the greater the number of individuals, the more accurate the planning result is,
but the longer time the calculation takes. Value range is from 10 to 40.
Indicates the maximum/minimum downtilt angle. Value range is from -90 to 90.
Indicates the maximum adjustment range of the downtilt angle.The value range is from 0 to
180.
Indicates the minimum adjustment range of the downtilt angle. The value range is from -180
to 0.
Indicates the step length at which the downtilt angle is adjusted. Value range is from 0 to 90.
Indicates the maximum/minimum transmit power of the reference signal. Value range is from
-32,768 to 32,768.
Maximum Range
Indicates the maximum adjustment range of the reference signal. Value range is from 0 to
32,768
Minimum Range
Indicates the minimum adjustment range of the reference signal. Value range is from -32,768
to 0.
Indicates the step length at which the reference signal is adjusted. Value range is from 0 to
32,768.
Indicates the maximum adjustment range of the azimuth. Value range is from 0 to 360.
Indicates the minimum adjustment range of the azimuth. Value range is from -360 to 0.
Indicates the step length at which the azimuth is adjusted. Value range is from 0 to 360.
154
Clutter Name
Area (sq.km.)
Percentage (%)
unclassified
0.0
sea
0.05
0.2
inland_water
1.17
3.9
wetland
0.0
barren
0.0
grass/agriculture
3.71
12.3
rangeland
0.0
woodland
2.31
7.7
forest
0.0
village
0.0
suburban
0.0
dense_suburban
0.61
2.0
urban
0.52
1.7
dense_urban
2.94
9.8
core_urban
3.42
11.4
building_blocks
0.01
0.0
industrial
0.83
2.8
airport
0.01
0.0
open_in_urban
0.2
0.6
open
14.35
47.6
Value
Used DL Spectrum
2630-2650 MHz
Used UL Spectrum
2510-2530 MHz
Frequency (GHz)
2.6
Bandwidth (MHz)
20
2T2R
UE Antenna Configuration
1T2R
2x20
2.5
0.5
UE Tx Power (dBm)
23
1.5
COST231-Hata (Huawei)
PDCCH: 3 symbols
PUCCH: 9 RBs
156
Name
unclassified
sea
inland_water
wetland
barren
grass/agriculture
rangeland
woodland
forest
village
12
suburban
14
dense_suburban
16
urban
18
dense_urban
20
11
core_urban
20
11
building_blocks
20
11
industrial
14
airport
14
open_in_urban
open
157
158
159
The above coverage prediction plots show that in 95% of the planning area, DL and UL RSRP levels are higher than -115dBm,
PDSCH SINR and PUSCH SINR levels are higher than -5dB, DL and UL MAC Peak Throughput levels are higher than 5Mbps.
The network design leads to a good coverage situation.
100
Mobility
30 km/h
50 km/h
60 km/h
90 km/h
Fixed
80
Pedestrian
20
160
Clutter Class
Weight
% Indoor
unclassified
sea
inland_water
wetland
barren
grass/agriculture
rangeland
woodland
forest
village
suburban
dense_suburban
urban
dense_urban
core_urban
building_blocks
industrial
airport
open_in_urban
open
161
Site
Transceiver
Tx Power
(dBm)
IoT(UL)
(dB)
Load (UL)
Load (DL)
MAC
Throughput
(UL) (kbps)
MAC
Throughput
(DL) (kbps)
403
4031
41.17
5.60
0.89
0.94
22,750.17
30,452.48
403
4032
41.12
5.67
0.94
0.90
20,597.09
26,731.86
403
4033
41.20
5.29
0.98
0.97
28,958.01
33,994.38
405
4051
41.20
8.54
0.97
0.96
23,103.69
24,083.91
405
4052
41.13
8.35
0.97
0.96
15,406.92
23,570.73
405
4053
41.11
7.08
0.96
0.99
20,397.32
29,832.70
4050
40501
41.21
5.53
0.85
0.92
24,937.39
34,495.55
4050
40502
41.07
6.28
0.90
0.98
22,811.09
29,829.18
4050
40503
41.14
5.57
0.93
0.93
26,540.54
30,793.67
4051
40511
41.13
9.51
0.95
1.00
14,012.50
22,644.85
4051
40512
41.16
5.95
0.91
1.00
14,103.35
27,611.93
4051
40513
41.15
6.25
0.92
0.99
17,009.39
30,454.95
4052
40521
41.15
6.81
0.98
0.98
20,963.90
28,689.63
4052
40522
41.10
8.72
0.99
0.87
20,852.64
27,229.36
4052
40523
41.14
6.93
0.99
1.00
30,605.76
31,372.96
Cell throughput is the benchmark to evaluate the system capacity. The cell throughput statistics results (both downlink
and uplink) are presented in the figures below. It shows that over 95% cells can reach over 15Mbps DL throughput
and 10Mbps UL throughput in the target area. Cell capacity of this simulation case is good enough.
162
KPI Architecture
The above KPI classification fully considers the customer experience and focuses on the Quality of Experience,
providing a wide range of network KPIs to reflect network factors that are relative to the service quality, using industry
standards as reference to define network counters and KPIs.
During the phase of preliminary acceptance before commercial launch, KPIs will be derived from the drive test analysis
and stationary measurements, and this analysis and measurement are on the basis of cluster which constitutes a group
of sites (20-40 sites).
Statistics KPIs are not proposed and measured at this stage as the traffic is insufficient, statistics will not eligible
statistical result without enough samples.
After on-going optimization while the traffic keeps increasing after commercial launch, the final acceptance of the
whole network performance on the basis of statistics will be implemented. However, the KPI values of statistics
probably might not be same with those in drive test due to different calculations and considerations.
164
Indicator
Accessibility
Drive test
Retainability
Drive test
Stationary
Throughput
Test Method
Stationary
Delay/Latency
Stationary
Mobility
Drive test
Indicators
Test Method
Stats.
Stats.
Retainability
Stats.
Mobility
Stats.
Accessibility
165
166
clarified here if it has not be done so before any detail planning activities are to begin.
It is also worth noting here although the bits/Hz value will not change with different frequency band (i.e. per cell
capacity is bandwidth not frequency band dependent), the final capacity offer by the network will be different due
to the coverage requirement. This is mainly because the final site count is more likely to be determined by coverage
requirement and the capacity offered by the network is the product of site count x capacity per site.
penetration margin and slow fading margin in the link budget. If customer focus is just in covering dense urban area, it
will be inappropriate to design a radio network with solid coverage everywhere (suburban/rural alike) where customer
do not appreciate the value or return on their investment.
suburban usage, home DSL replacement package, shutting down of existing data network and migrating users to
new LTE networks)
At certain cell site sectors, antenna orientation and tilt may need to be adjusted to avoid interference from external
sources and existing customer network configuration may give hints in this direction.
Although external interference sometimes could be unavoidable due to various reasons, ideally, radio engineers should
choose a spectrum that is relatively clean in both the uplink and downlink for new LTE systems deployment.
Finally, interference increase due to traffic loading is always an important consideration especially when subscriber
number increases. Careful planning of location update border and coverage control remains two of the most important
techniques in resolving this problem.
Radio engineer should also discuss with customer to ensure any sites needing extended coverage are addressed by
using the Long CP configuration as discussed in Chapter 3 and 6.
factor will help to improve coverage perception and reduce cell site count as RSRP is always a major requirement from
customer.
However, once network traffic grows steadily, there will be a need to scale back power boosting as
Power Boosting consumes extra RE that could have been used for traffic
The higher the MIMO order, the more RE will be consumed
More new sites are likely to be added to enhance coverage as well as capacity so Power boosting will indeed have
a negative impact on coverage control in this situation.
173
10.2.1 Frequency
Antennas can be classified as single-band antennas (narrow-band antennas), wide-band antennas, dual-band
antennas, triple-band antennas, etc
10.2.2 Directivity
Antennas can be omnidirectional, sector or directive. Omni-directional antennas radiate roughly the same pattern all
around the antenna in a complete 360 pattern. The most popular types of omnidirectional antennas are the dipole
and the ground plane. Sectorial antennas radiate primarily in a specific area. The beam can be as wide as 180 degrees,
or as narrow as 60 degrees. Directional or directive antennas are antennas in which the beamwidth is much narrower
than in sector antennas. They have the highest gain and therefore used for long distance coverage. Types of directive
antennas are the Yagi, the biquad, the horn, the helicoidal, the patch antenna, the parabolic dish, and many others.
Power capacity
Impedance
Third order intermodulation
The mechanical specifications of antenna include:
Dimensions
Weight
Number Input ports
Port connector type (e.g. N or DIN)
Wind load
175
The antenna gain is relevant to the number of oscillator units, horizontal and vertical beamwidth.
176
10.3.4 Beamwidth
The beamwidth is also called the half power beamwidth, including horizontal beamwidth and vertical beamwidth. The
horizontal beamwidth and vertical beamwidth is the beamwidth between two points where the power is lower 50% (3
dB) than the maximum radiation power. The common horizontal beamwidth of eNodeB antennas includes 360, 90,
65, 60, and 33. The common vertical beamwidth of eNodeB antennas includes 6.5, 7, 10, 13, and 16.
Wherein,
Ga: the antenna gain in the unit of dBi.
: the vertical beamwidth in the unit of dBi.
: the horizontal beamwidth in the unit of dBi.
According to the previous formula, if you have known the antenna gain and horizontal, you can calculate the vertical
beamwidth.
For example, for an omnidirectional antenna, the gain is 11 dBi, the horizontal beamwidth is 360, so the vertical
beamwidth is calculated as below:
Due to the deficiency of design and manufacturing process, the actual vertical beamwidth of omnidirectional antenna is
177
usually smaller than the calculated result. The less difference between the two beamwidth, the better the antenna is designed.
Figure 10-3 Relation among antenna gain, vertical beamwidth, and horizontal beamwidth
According to the figure above, when the antenna gain is low, the vertical beamwidth and horizontal beamwidth are
usually large. When the antenna gain is high, the vertical beamwidth and horizontal beamwidth are usually small.
In addition, the antenna gain depends on the number of oscillators. The larger the number of oscillators, the higher
the gain is and the larger the aperture of antenna (the effective receiving area) is. For an omnidirectional antenna, if the
antenna gain increases by 3 dB, the antenna length will double. Therefore, the antenna gain is usually within 11 dBi.
the D/U ratio (the ratio of strength of useful signal to that of interference signal). The level of the first upper side lobe
compared with main lobe shall be smaller than 18 dB. This is invalid to the antennas of macro cell eNodeB.
You can also represent the matching character of port with echo loss as below:
Loose connection
Rusty or water filled connection
Magnetic objects
The intermodulation product interferes with communication systems, and especially the intermodulation products in
the receiver band have severe impact on the receiving performance of system. As a result, there are strict requirements
on the intermodulation feature of passive parts like connectors, cable, and antennas as below:
Passive intermodulation index of connects: 150 dBc
Passive intermodulation index of cable: 170 dBc
Passive intermodulation index of antenna: 150 dBc
proceeds smoothly. The camouflaged antenna applies for urban site construction and coverage solutions for top grade
residence area.
There are no fixed modes and methods for antenna camouflage. The antenna camouflage changes to flexible
forms in different scenarios. The antenna camouflage aims to hidden it in the environment. You can choose proper
beautification modes according to the environment for actual installation. The following paragraphs focus on some
antenna camouflage schemes.
The antenna camouflage includes the following types:
Customized camouflage
Outlook camouflage
Camouflage in special environment
Figure 10-7 Flat panel antennas camouflaged by advertising board and road sign
183
11 References
3GPP Specification TS 36.101: E-UTRA: User Equipment (UE) radio transmission and reception
3GPP Specification TS 36.104: E-UTRA: Base Station (BS) radio transmission and reception
3GPP Specification TS 36.133: E-UTRA: Requirements for support of radio resource management
3GPP Specification TS 36.141: E-UTRA: Base Station (BS) conformance testing
3GPP Specification TS 36.201: E-UTRA: Long Term Evolution (LTE) physical layer; General description
3GPP Specification TS 36.211: E-UTRA: Physical channels and modulation
3GPP Specification TS 36.212: E-UTRA: Multiplexing and channel coding
3GPP Specification TS 36.213: E-UTRA: Physical layer procedures
3GPP Specification TS 36.214: E-UTRA: Physical layer; Measurements
3GPP Specification TS 36.300: E-UTRA and E-UTRAN: Overall description; Stage 2
3GPP Specification TS 36.304: E-UTRA: User Equipment (UE) procedures in idle mode
3GPP Specification TS 36.306: E-UTRA: User Equipment (UE) radio access capabilities
3GPP Specification TS 36.321: E-UTRA: Medium Acces Control (MAC) protocol specification
3GPP Specification TS 36.322: E-UTRA: Radio Link Control (RLC) protocol specification
3GPP Specification TS 36.323: E-UTRA: Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) specification
3GPP Specification TS 36.331: E-UTRA: Radio Resource Control (RRC); Protocol specification
3GPP Specification TS 36.401: E-UTRAN: Architecture description
3GPP Specification TS 36.410: E-UTRAN: S1 layer 1 general aspects and principles
3GPP Specification TS 36.420: E-UTRAN: X2 general aspects and principles
V. Erceg, K.V.S. Hari, M.S. Smith, D.S. Baum et al, Channel Models for Fixed Wireless
Applications, IEEE 802.16.3c-01/29r1, 23 Feb. 2001
FCC: methods for predicting interference from response station transmitters and to response station hubs and for
supplying data on response station systems.
GSM/3G and LTE Market update: Global mobile Supplier Association, March, 2011
3GPP TSG RAN TSGR#3(99) 231 Technical Specification Group Meeting #3, Yokohama, 21-23 April 1999
Huawei Interference Analysis and Co-existence Training
Huawei LTE Technology Overview and Introduction Training
Huawei LTE InterRAT Handover Management Training
Huawei TFR Solution and Performance Training
Huawei Genex U-Net Operation Manual
184
Consultant:
Wang Tao
Editors-in-chief:
Liu Jinghai, Cheng Tangbai, Yang Bo
Editors:
Lin Guangpu, Dong Fei, Zhong Fanliang, Xu Haihong,
Jin Keyou, Xie Guozhu, Li Guoyue, Gao Zhengwei,
Zhao Yinghe, Zhang Fan, Hao Guangming, Zhou Dongfei,
Ma Guotian, Hu Kangyan, Chen Qi, Wang Mingmin,
Zhou Zhibing, Zhao Xinlei, Liu Yingwei, Fang Minxi,
Liu Yadong, Fang Minghai, Xiang Rui
Auditors:
Lin Guangpu, Dong Fei, Ying Weimin, He Gang, Tan Zhu
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