Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts 3 Atoms, Elements, and Minerals 29 Igneous Rocks, Intrusive Activity, and the Origin of Igneous Rocks 55 Volcanism and Extrusive Rocks 81 Weathering and Soil 113 Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks 137 Metamorphism, Metamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks 169 Time and Geology 193 Mass Wasting 221 Streams and Floods 247 Ground Water 283 Glaciers and Glaciation 307 Deserts and Wind Action 339 Waves, Beaches, and Coasts 361 Geologic Structures 383 Earthquakes 405 Earth’s Interior and Geophysical Properties 437 The Sea Floor 461 Plate Tectonics 483 Mountain Belts and the Continental Crust 519 Resources 543 The Earth's Companions 573Preface xiv Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts 3 Who Needs Geology? 4 ‘Supplying Things We Need + Protecting the Enviroameat 5 Avoiding Geologic Hazards 5 ‘Understanding Our Surroundings 11 Earth Systems 11 An Overview of Physical Geology—Important Concepts 13 Internal Processes: How the Earth's Internal Heat Engine Works 13 Earth’ Imerioe 14 ‘The Theory of Pate Tectonies 15 Divergent Boundaries 15 Convergent Boundaries 18 ‘Transform Boundaries 20 Surficial Processes: The Eath’s Exteral Heat Engine 20 Geologic Time 25 SUMMARY 26 Atoms, Elements, and Minerals 29 Minerals 30 Inieoduction 30 Minerals and Rocks 31 ‘Atoms and Elements 32 Tons and Bonding 34 Crstaline Structures 35 ‘The Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron 36 [Nonsilcate Minerals 4 ‘Variations in Mineral Structures and Compositions 41 ‘The Physical Properties of Minerals 41 Coloe 42 Sureak 42 Luster 43 Hardness 43 External Crystal Form 4 Cleavage 46 Fracture 48 Specific Gravity 48 Special Properties 48 Chemical Tests 49 ‘The Many Conditions of Mineral Formation $1 SUMMARY 51 sive Activity, and the Origin of Igneous Rocks 55 Igneous Rocks, The Rock Cycle 56 'A Pate Tectonic Example $7 Igneous Rocks 58 Igneous Reck Textures 59 entfication of Igneous Rocks 59 Chemistry of Igneous Rocks 63 Intrusive Bodies. 64 ‘Shallow Intrusive Structures 64 Intrusive That Crystallize at Depth 66 ‘Abundance and Distribution of Plutonic Rocks 67 How Magma Forms 68 Heat for Melting Rock 68 ‘The Geothermal Gradient and Patil Melting 68 Decompression Melting. 68 ‘Adkltion of Water 69 How Magmas of Different Compositions Evolve 69 Sequence of Crystallization and Melting 69 Diffeentiaion 70 Pari Meting 72 Assimilation 72 Mixing of Magmas 72 viivill CONTENTS Explaining Igneous Activity by Plate Tectonies 73 Igneous Processes at Divergent Boundaries 73 Tntraplate Igneous Activity. 74 Taneous Processes at Convergent Boundaries 75 SUMMARY 77 pals Volcanism and sive Rocks 81 Pyroclastic Debris and Lava Flows 82 Living with Voleanoes 82 Supemmatral Beliefs 82 ‘The Growth ofan sland 85 Geothermal Energy 5 Effeeton Climate 85 Voleani Catstrophes 85 Eruptive Violence and Physical Characteristics of Lava 88 Extrusive Rocks and Gases. 90 Scientific Investigation of Volcanism 90 Gases 90 Extrusive Rocks 91 Composition 91 Extrnive Textures 92 ‘Types of Volcanoes. 95 Shield Voleanoes 96 Cinder Cones. 96 Composite Voicanoes 98 Voleanie Domes 101 Lava Floods 101 Submarine Eruptions 106 Pillow Basal 106 SUMMARY 108 Breen ay Soil 113 Weathering, Erosion, and Trapsportation 114 ‘Weathering and Earth Systems 14 Atmosphere 114 Hydronpere 114 Biosphere 115 How Weathering changes Rocks 115 Effects of Weathering 116 Mechanical Weathering 116 Pressure Release 117 Frost Action 117 Other Provesses. 118 Chemical Weathering 118 Role of Oxygen 119 Role of Acids 120 Solution Weathering. 121 (Chemical Weathering of Feldspar 122 Chemical Weathering of Other Minerals 123, Weathering Products 123, Factors Affecting Weathering 124 Soil 124 Soil Horizons 125 Factors Affecting Soll Formation 127 Soil Erosion. 130 Soil Classification 131 SUMMARY 133 Sediment and Si Sediment 138 ‘Transportation 139 Deposition 140 Preservation 141 Lithifcation 141 ‘Types of Sedimentary Rocks. 142 Detrital Rocks 142 Breccia and Conglomerate 142 Sandstone 143 The Fine-Grained Rocks 143 Chemical Sedimentary Rocks. 146 ‘Carbonate Rocks 146 Cher 150 Evaporites 150 Organic Sedimentary Rocks 152 Coal 152 ‘The Origin of Oil and Gas 152 Sedimentary Structures 152 Fossils. 155 Formations 158 ntary Rocks 137 Interpretation of Sedimentary Racks. 159 Source Area 159 Environmeat of Deposition 160 Transgression and Regression 162 Plate Tectonics and Sedimentary Rocks 162 SUMMARY 164Metamorphism, Introduction 170 Factors Controlling the Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks 171 Composition ofthe Parent Rock 172 “Temperature 172 Pressure 173 Fluids 174 Time 175 Classification of Metamorphic Rocks 175 Nonfoliated Rocks 175 Folisted Rocks 177 ‘Types of Metamorphism 179 Contact Metamorphism 179 Regional Metamoephisty 179 Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism 183 Foliation and Plate Tectonies 183 Pressure-Temperature Regimes 183 Hydrothermal Processes 185 Hydrothermal Activity at Divergent Plate Boundaries 186 ‘ster at Convergent Boundaries 187 ‘Metasomatism Hydrothermal Rocks and Minerals 188 SUMMARY 190 lamorphic Rocks, and Hydrothermal Rocks 169 CONTENTS ix Combining Relative and Numerical Ages 212 Age of the Earth 213 Comprehending Geologie Time 214 SUMMARY 216 Mass g 221 Introduction to Mass Wasting. 2 Classification of Mass Wasting 223, Rate of Moveme ‘Type of Material 223 ‘Type of Movement 223 Controlling Factors in Mass Wasting ‘Common Types of Mass Wasting 228 Creep 228 Flow 230 Rockfalls and Rockslides 234 Underwater Landslides 237 Preventing Landslides 242 Preventing Mass Wasting f Soil 242 Preventing Rockfalls and Rockslides on Highways 243, SUMMARY 244 Time and Geology 193 ‘The Key tothePast 194 Relative Time 195 Principe Used to Dezrine Relative Age 195 Caceres 300 Covelaion 202 The Sanard Geologie Tine Sale 208 Numerical Age 208 Tsp Dating 206 Streams and Floods 247 Ea ystms-—The Hydric Glo B48 Running Water 249 Drainage Basins 250 Drainage Patterns 250 Factors Affecting Stream Erosion and Deposition 251 Velocity 251 Gradient 253 ‘Channel Shape and Roughness 253 Discharge 253x CONTENTS Stream Erosion 254 Stream Transportationof Sedime Deposition 257 Braided Streams 260 Meandesing Streams an Point Bars 260 Flood Plains 261 Delis 263, Alluvial Fans 267 Stream Valley Development 267 Downcuiting and Base Level 267 The Concept of « Graded Stream 269 Lateral Erosion 270 Headward Erosion 270 Stream Terraces 270) Incised Meanders 2 Flooding 272 Urban Flooding 274 Fash Floods 274 Controlling Foods 274 “The Midwest Floods of 1993 and 2008 278, SUMMARY 280 Ground Water 283 Introduction 284 Porosity and Permeability 284 ‘The Water Table 285 ‘The Movement of Ground Water 286 Aquifers 288 Wells 289 Springs and Streams 290 Contamination of Ground Water 202 Balancing Withdrawal and Recharge 296 Effects of Groundwater Action 297 Caves, Sinkholes, and Karst Topography 297 Other Effects 299 Hot Water Underground 300 Geothermal Energy 301 SUMMARY 303 Glaciers and Glaciation 307 Introduction 308 Glaciers—Where They Are, How They Form and Move 309 Distribution of Glaciers 309 ‘Types of Glaciers 309 Formation and Growth of Glaciers 309 Movement of Valley Glaciers 312 Movement of ie Sheets 314 Glacial Erosion 316 Erosional Landscapes Associated with Alpine Glaciation 317 Erosional Landscapes Associated with Continental Glaciation 321 Glacial Deposition Moraines 324 Outwash 326 Glacial Lakes and Varves 327 PAST GLACIATION 327 Direct Effects of Past Glaciation in North America 330 Indirect Eifecs of Pas! Glaciation 331 Evidence for Older Glaciation 334 SUMMARY 335 Deserts and WindAction 339 Distribution of Deserts 3 Some Characteristics of Deserts 341 Desert Features in the Southwestem United States 344 Wind Action 349 ‘Wind Erosion and Transportation 349 Wind Deposition 351 SUMMARY 358CONTENTS xi Waves, Beac s, an Coasts 361 Introduction 362 ‘Water Waves 362 Surt 363 Near-Shore Circulation 364 Wave Refraction 364 Longshore Currents. 364 Rip Currents. 364 Beaches 366 Longshore Drift of Sediment 367 Human Interference with Sand Drift 368 Sources of Sand on Beaches 370 Coasts and Coastal Features 370 Erosional Coasts 370 Depositional Coasts. 372 Drowned Coasts 373 Uplifted Coasts 374 The Biosphere and Coasts 375 SUMMARY 380 Geologic Str res 383 ‘Tectonic Forces at Work 3 Suress and Strain in the Earth's Lithosphere 384 How Do Rocks Behave When Stressed? 385 Structures As a Record of the Geologic Past 386 Geologic Maps and Field Methods 386 Folds 388 Geometry of Folds 389 Further Description of Folds 391 Fractures In Rock 393 Joints 393 Faults 395 SUMMARY 402 Earthquakes, 405 ‘Causes of Earthquakes Seismic Waves 407 Body Waves 407 Surface Waves 408 Locating and Measuring Earthquakes 409 Determining the Location of an Earthquake 409 “Measuring the Size ofan Earthquake 411 Location and Size of Earthquakes in the United States 413, Effects of Earthquakes 415 Tsunami 419 World Distribution of Earthquakes 422 First-Motion Studies of Earthquakes: 425 Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics 425 Farthguakes at Plate Boundaries 426 Subduction Angle 427 Earthquake Prediction and Seismic Risk 427 SUMMARY 433 Earth’s Interior and Geophysical Properties 437 Introduction 438 Evidence from Seismic Waves 438 Earth's Internal Structure 440 The Crust 440 ‘The Mantle 441 The Core 443) Isostasy 446 Gravity Measurements 448 Earth's Magnetic Field 449 Magnetic Reversals 451 Magnetic Anomalies 452cs xii CONTENTS Heat within the Barth 454 Geothermal Gratis Heat Flow 485 SUMMARY 457 454 The S 461 Origin of the Ocean 462 Methods of Studying the Sea Floor 462 Features of the Sea Floor 464 Continental Shelves and Continental Slopes 464 ‘Submarine Canyons 466 Turbidity Curren 467 Passive Continental Margins 468 The Continental Rise 469 Abyssal Pains 469 Active Continental Margins 470 Oceanie Trenches. 470 Mid-Oceanic RidgeS 471 ji Activity atthe Ridges 471 ie Activity atthe Ridges. 472 Fracture Zones 472 ‘Seamounts, Guyots, and Ascismic Ridges 473 Reefs 474 Sediments of the Sea Floor 476 Oceanic Crustand Ophiolites 476 ‘The Age of the Sea Floor 479 The Sea Floor and Plate Tectonics 479 SUMMARY 479 Plate Tect« 483 The Early Case for Continental DriftA85 Skepticism about Continental Drift 487 Paleomagnetism and the Revival of Continental Drift 488 Recent Evidence for Continental Dift 489 History of Continental Positions 450 Seafloor Spreading 490 Hess's Driving Force 490 Explanations 491 Plates and Plate Motion 492 How Do We Know that Plates Move? 492 Marine Magnetic Anomalies 492 Another Test Fracture Zones and Transform Fults 495 Measuring Plate Motion Directly 496 Divergent Plate Boundaries 496 ‘Transform Boundaries. $01 Convergent Plate Boundaries SOL ‘Ocean-Ocean Convergence $01 ‘Ocean-Continent Convergence $03 Continent-Continent Convergence 503 ‘The Motion of Plate Boundaries 504 Plate Size 507 ‘The Attractiveness of Plate Tectonics 507 What Causes Plate Motions? 508 Mantle Coavection S08 Ridge Push 509 Slab Pall 509 Trench Suction 509 Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots 509 AFinal Note 510 SUMMARY 514 Mountain Belts, Continental st Introduction 520 (Characteristics of Major Mountain Belis $23 Size and Alignment 523 ‘Ages of Mountsin Belts and Continents $23, Thickness and Characteristics of Rock Layers: $24 Patterns of Folding and Faulting 525 Metamorphism and Pluionism $25 Normal Faulting 526 ‘Thickness and Density of Rocks 527 Features of Active Mountain Ranges 528 Evolution of Mountain Belts 528 Orogenies and Plate Convergence 528 Pos-Onogenic Uplift and Block Fauting 534 ‘The Growth of Continents 537 Displaced Terranes 538 SUMMARY 539Regie iments 50 et OM Reserves and Resources. 544 Energy Resources 546 Nonrenewable Eneray Resources $46 Renewable Energy Sources 558 Metallic Resources 560 ‘Ores Formed by Igneous Processes $60 (Ores Formed by Surface Processes 563, Mining S64 Nonmetallic Resources 566 ‘Construction Materials $66 Fenilizers and Evapories $66 Other Nonmetallics 5 ‘The Human Perspective 567 SUMMARY 569 oS CONTENTS iil The Ears Gompdrions 573 ‘he Eatin Space $74 hemes Mama The San S14 The sola Sysem 575 Te ly Wy and be Univer 576 Osiginof the Planets 578 The Solar Nebula 578 Perma of Paes 80 Fazmaion of oon 380 Fal Sageset Planet ormaton $80 Pomatehet Atmnpers 50 Baers Sysems 300 Ports ofthe Planets 581 OurMoon 381 Neve 87 Noss Nan 330 Na sae Tenet Pants So ite? 598 Mle ot Sr 398 trams aD tue 600 Pao andthe lee Dvarves 600 Minor Objects ofthe Solar System 602 eter ad Meteors 602 Neteores 62 Noise, Comes 3 Giant pts 605 Giant Maer Impcts 605 SUMMARY 606 Appendices A~G 608 Glossary 620 Index 632