The Aviation Community

The Three Sector of Aviation Community

A. Commercial Aviation - is the part of civil aviation (both general aviation and scheduled
airline service) that involves operating aircraft for hire. In most countries, a flight may be
operated for money only if it meets three criteria:

the pilot must hold a valid commercial pilot's license

the aircraft must hold a valid commercial registration
the operator must hold a certificate or some other authorization for commercial
operations

There are some exceptions for example, a flight instructor is normally allowed to fly for
money in a private aircraft owned by the student but the above requirements hold for most
flights where money changes hands.
Typically, a commercial license or registration requires higher standards than a private one.
For example, a commercial pilot may have to demonstrate more maneuvers to a higher
standard, and may need to pass more frequent medical examinations. A commerciallyregistered plane may require more frequent or more extensive maintenance.
It is the purpose of the flight, not the type of aircraft or pilot, that determines whether the
flight is commercial. For example, a two-seat Cessna 150 towing a banner for money would be
a commercial flight, while a large jet flown by its owners for a private vacation would not be,
even if the pilots were commercially licensed and the jet were commercially registered.

B. Military aviation - is the use of aircraft and other flying machines for the purposes of
conducting or enabling warfare, including national airlift (cargo) capacity to provide
logistical supply to forces stationed in a theater or along a front.
Air power includes the national means of conducting such warfare including the
intersection of transport and war craft. The wide variety of military aircraft includes
bombers, fighters, fighter bombers, transports, trainers, and reconnaissance aircraft.
These varied types of aircraft allow for the completion of a wide variety of objectives.

C. General Aviation- is one of two categories of civil aviation. It refers to all flights
other than military and scheduled airline flights, both private and commercial.
General aviation flights range from gliders and powered parachutes to large, nonscheduled cargo jet flights. As a result, the majority of the world's air traffic falls
into this category, and most of the world's airports serve general aviation
exclusively.

Contents

1 Origins
2 Types of military aircraft
o 2.1 Attack aircraft
o 2.2 Bombers
o 2.3 Fighters
o 2.4 Reconnaissance aircraft
o 2.5 Logistics aircraft
o 2.6 Helicopters
o 2.7 Experimental Aircraft
o 2.8 Multirole
3 Air forces
4 See also
5 References
6 External links

An A-10 Thunderbolt II, F-86 Sabre, P-38 Lightning and P-51 Mustang fly in formation during
an air show at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia.
Origins
Heavier-than-air aircraft were first used in the military in the Italo-Turkish War in the
Libyan theater. Those aircraft were used primarily for reconnaissance. Since then, aircraft have
been able to take on a wide variety of missions. The last two decades were characterized by
incredible advances in electronics, stealth technology, and both offensive and defensive
systems. Today, the Air Force is the first line of defense against an attack in high technological
warfare. They are also usually the first to engage an enemy.

TYPES OF MILITARY AIRCRAFT

Attack aircraft
Attack aircraft are what the U.S. Navy and Marines have traditionally called their light
and medium bombers, such as the A-7 Corsair II and A-6 Intruder respectively. The U.S. Air
Force labels their light ground attack aircraft like the A-10 Thunderbolt II, as "fighters", even
though
they
have
virtually
no
air-air
capability.

Bombers
Bombers are normally larger, heavier, and less maneuverable than fighter aircraft. They
are capable of carrying large payloads of bombs. Bombers are used almost exclusively for
ground attacks and not fast or agile enough to take on enemy fighters head-to-head. A few
have a single engine and require one pilot to operate and others have two or more engines
and require crews of two or more. A limited number of bombers, such as the B-2 Spirit, have
stealth capabilities that keep them from being detected by enemy radar. An example of a
conventional modern bomber would be the B-52 Stratofortress. An example of a WWII bomber
would be a B-17 Flying Fortress.

FIGHTERS
Fighters are fast, highly maneuverable, and capable of destroying enemy aircraft and
ground targets. Their main role is air-to-air combat, offensive or defensive. Escorting bombers
or other aircraft is also a common task. They are capable of carrying a variety of weapons,
including machine guns, cannons, rockets, guided missiles and bombs, depending on the
mission. They can also be used to provide support for friendly ground troops. Some fighters,
called fighter-bombers, are able to carry conventional or nuclear weapons far behind enemy
lines to strike priority ground targets.
Many modern fighters can attack enemy fighters from a great distance, before the
enemy even sees them. Examples of air-superiority fighters include the F-22 Raptor and the
MiG-29. WWII fighters include the P-51 Mustang and Bf 109. An example of an interceptor (a
fighter designed to take-off and quickly intercept and shoot down enemy planes) would be the
MiG-25.

Reconnaissance aircraft
Reconnaissance aircraft are primarily used to gather intelligence. They are equipped
with photographic, infrared, radar, and television sensors. These aircraft may be specially
designed or may be modified from a basic fighter or bomber type. Some are equipped with
special electronic gear for detecting submarines, such as sonar, and others can give early
warnings of enemy approach.
Due to the growing number and reliability of satellites, most reconnaissance aircraft are
quickly becoming useless. Reconnaissance aircraft are normally the fastest aircraft in the
military an example being the SR-71 Blackbird and the U-2.

Logistics Aircraft
Logistics aircraft are primarily used to transport troops and war supplies. Cargo can be
attached to pallets, which are easily loaded, secured for flight, and quickly unloaded for
delivery. Cargo also may be discharged from flying aircraft on parachutes, eliminating the need
for landing. Also included in this category are aerial tankers; these planes can refuel fighters,
bombers, and helicopters while in flight. An example of a transport aircraft is the C-17 Globe
master III. A WWII example would be the C-47. An example of a tanker craft would be the KC135 Stratotanker.

Helicopters
Helicopters may be used to transport troops, attack targets, provide support, deliver
supplies, and search and rescue. The ability of helicopters to land and take off vertically gives
them the option to land in areas fixed wing aircraft would not be able to access. An example of
a military helicopter is the Chinook helicopters.
6

Experimental Aircraft
Experimental aircraft are designed in order to test advanced aerodynamic, structural,
avionic, or propulsion concepts. These are usually well instrumented, with performance data
telemetered on radio-frequency data links to ground stations located at the test ranges where
they are flown. An example of an experimental aircraft is the XB-70 Valkyrie.

Multirole
Many aircraft today have a multirole ability. Normally only applying to fixed-wing aircraft,
this term signifies that the plane in question can be a fighter or a bomber, depending on what
the mission calls for. An example of a multirole plane is the F/A-18 Hornet.

Air Forces
Where they exist, air forces are usually tasked with the air defense of a country, as well
as strategic bombing, interdiction, close air support, intelligence gathering, battle space
management and transport functions. Air Force operations may also include space-based
operations such as reconnaissance or satellite operations. Militaries may have a branch
dedicated to aviation (an air force) or may distribute aviation between other branches such as
the army or navy. Even when a country has a dedicated air force, the other branches will
generally utilize aviation.
General Aviation- is one of two categories of civil aviation. It refers to all flights other than
military and scheduled airline flights, both private and commercial. General aviation flights
range from gliders and powered parachutes to large, non-scheduled cargo jet flights. As a
result, the majority of the world's air traffic falls into this category, and most of the world's
airports serve general aviation exclusively.
List of General Aviation Activities

A general aviation scene at Kemble Airfield, England. The aircraft in the foreground is a
homebuilt Vans RV-4

Aircraft at general aviation airport Helsinki-Malmi, Finland.

The General Aviation Terminal at Raleigh Durham International Airport. Terminal A is in the
background.
General aviation covers a huge range of activities, both commercial and noncommercial, including private flying, flight training, air ambulance, police aircraft, aerial
firefighting, air charter, bush flying, gliding, and many others. Experimental aircraft, light-sport
aircraft and very light jets have emerged in recent years as new trends in general aviation.

Contents

1 Regulation and safety

2 See also
3 References

4 External links

Regulation and safety

Most countries have authorities that oversee all civil aviation, including general aviation,
adhering to the standardized codes of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
Examples include the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in the United States, the Civil
Aviation Authority (CAA) in Great Britain, the Luftfahrt-Bundesamt (LBA) in Germany, and
Transport Canada in Canada.
Since it includes both non-scheduled commercial operations and private operations,
with aircraft of many different types and sizes, and pilots with a variety of different training and
experience levels, it is not possible to make blanket statements about the regulation or safety
record of general aviation.
At one extreme, in most countries business jets and large cargo jets face most of the
same regulations as scheduled air transport and fly mostly to the same airports. Commercial
bush flying and air ambulance operations normally do not operate under as heavy a regulatory
burden, and often only use small airports or off-airport strips, where there is less governmental
oversight. Nonetheless they must obey the same regulations as any other type of flying.
Aviation accident rate statistics are necessarily estimates. According to the U.S.
National Transportation Safety Board, in 2005 general aviation in the United States (excluding
charter) suffered 1.31 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours of flying in that country,
compared to 0.016 for scheduled airline flights. In Canada, recreational flying accounted for
0.7 fatal accidents for every 100,000 hours, while air taxi accounted for 1.0 fatal accident for
every 100,000 hours.

10

CATEGORIES OF AN AIRCRAFT
Lighter than Air Aircraft - Lighter than air refers to gases which are buoyant in air because
they have densities lower than that of air (about 1.2 kg/m3, 1.2 g/l). Some of these gases are
used as lifting gases in lighter-than-air craft, which include free balloons, moored balloons, and
airships, to make the whole craft, on average, lighter than air. (Heavier-than-air aircraft include
aeroplanes, gliders and helicopters.

Contents

1 Usage as lifting gas

o 1.1 Ammonia
o 1.2 Methane
o 1.3 Hydrogen and helium
2 Vacuum balloon
3 See also
4 External links

Usage as Lifting Gas

Ammonia
Ammonia has sometimes been used to fill weather balloons. Due to its relatively high
boiling point (compared to helium and hydrogen), ammonia could potentially be refrigerated
and liquefied aboard an airship to reduce lift and add ballast (and returned to a gas to add lift
and reduce ballast).
11

Methane
Methane (the chief component of natural gas) is sometimes used as a lift gas when
hydrogen and helium are not available. It has the advantage of not leaking through balloon
walls as rapidly as the small-molecule hydrogen and helium. (Most lighter-than-air balloons are
made of aluminized plastic that limits such leakage; hydrogen and helium leak rapidly through
latex balloons.)
Hydrogen and helium
Hydrogen and helium are the most commonly used lift gases. Although helium is twice
as heavy as (diatomic) hydrogen, they are both so much lighter than air that this difference is
inconsequential. Hydrogen has about 8% more buoyancy than helium (as shown here). Both
provide about 9.8 N of lift (the force to lift 1 kg) per cubic meter of gas at room temperature and
sea level pressure. Helium is preferred because it is not combustible.
Vacuum balloon
First proposed by Italian monk Francesco de Lana in 1670, the vacuum balloon would
be the ultimate expression of displacement lift power. A frequent topic of blue sky thinking, the
basic principle has remained the same: A container strong enough to preserve a vacuum that
displaces sufficient air to lift the container and an additional load.
However, construction of a container strong enough to withstand atmospheric pressure
while at the same time being lighter than the air it displaces is currently far from the realm of
possibility given current technology[ (see unobtainium). Although this is perhaps an example of
linear thinking: plasma windows could be used to contain a vacuum. Less exotically, magnetic
fields could be used to keep the balloon from collapsing. A vacuum balloon would be able to lift
1.292 (g/L) at sea level making it 16% more efficient than helium and 7% more efficient than
hydrogen.

12

Contents
1 Classes of rotorcraft
o 1.1 Helicopter
o 1.2 Auto gyro
o 1.3 Gyro dyne
o 1.4 Tilt rotors
o 1.5 Hybrids and compounds
2 Rotor configuration
o 2.1 Number of blades
o 2.2 Number of rotors
o 2.3 Intermeshing
o 2.4 Ducted rotors
3 See also
4 References

5 External links

CLASSES OF ROTORCRAFT
Helicopter
A helicopter is a rotorcraft whose rotors are driven by the engine(s) throughout the flight,
to allow the helicopter to take off vertically, hover, fly forwards, backwards and laterally, as well
as to land vertically. Helicopters have several different configurations of one or more main
rotors.
Helicopters with one driven main rotor require some sort of anti torque device such as a
tail rotor, fantail, or NOTAR, except some rare examples of helicopters using tip jet propulsion
which generates almost no torque.
13

Auto gyro

A German-registered auto gyro

An auto gyro (sometimes called gyrocopter, gyroplane, or rot plane) utilizes an
unpowered rotor driven by aerodynamic forces in a state of autorotation to develop lift, and an
engine-powered propeller, similar to that of a fixed-wing aircraft, to provide thrust. While similar
to a helicopter rotor in appearance, the auto gyros rotor must have air flowing up and through
the rotor disk in order to generate rotation.
Early auto gyros resembled the fixed-wing aircraft of the day, with wings and a frontmounted engine and propeller in a tractor configuration to pull the aircraft through the air. Latemodel auto gyros feature a rear-mounted engine and propeller in a pusher configuration.

Gyro dyne

Fairey Rotodyne prototype.

The rotor of a gyro dyne is normally driven by its engine for takeoff and landing
hovering like a helicopterwith anti-torque and propulsion for translational flight provided by
one or more propellers mounted on short or stub wings. As power is increased to the propeller,
less power is required by the rotor to provide forward thrust resulting in reduced pitch angles
and rotor blade flapping. At cruise speeds with most or all of the thrust being provided by the
propellers, the rotor receives power only sufficient to the amount needed to overcome the
profile drag and maintain lift. The effect is a rotorcraft operating in a more efficient manner than
14

the freewheeling rotor of an autogyro in autorotation, and minimizing the adverse effects of
retreating blade stall of helicopters at higher airspeeds.
Tilt Rotors

A USAF CV-22 in flight

The powered rotors of a tilt rotor (sometimes called pro protors) are mounted on rotating
shafts or nacelles at the end of a fixed wing, and used for both lift and propulsion. For vertical
flight, the rotors are angled to provide thrust upwards, lifting the way a helicopter rotor does. As
the aircraft gains speed, the rotors progressively rotate or tilt forward, with the rotors eventually
becoming perpendicular to the fuselage of the aircraft, similar to a propeller. In this mode, the
wing provides the lift and the rotor provides thrust. The wing's greater efficiency helps the tilt
rotor achieve higher speeds than helicopters.
Hybrids and Compounds
A hybrid or compound rotorcraft utilizes the wings of a fixed-wing or the envelope of an
aerostat, along with the rotor(s) of a helicopter or an autogyro. Most have existed in design or
experimental versions only, and none have entered production.
The Focke-Wulf Triebflgel was a design by Nazi Germany to utilize pulsejets to power
a rotor that rotated about the fuselage axis behind the cockpit. Similar to a coleopter aircraft,
the Triebflugel took off and landed on its tail and then rotated forward on the pitch axis after
takeoff and acceleration for forward flight. The design was never been built beyond model wind
tunnel testing, due to Allied bombing of the development facilities.
The Vertol VZ-2 was a research aircraft developed in the late 1950s. Unlike other
tiltwing aircraft, Vertol designed the VZ-2 using rotors in place of propellers. [2] On 23 July 1958,
the aircraft made its first full transition from vertical flight to horizontal flight. By the time the
aircraft was retired in 1965, the VZ-2 had accomplished 450 flights, including 34 full transitions.
The Sikorsky X-Wing had a rotor utilizing compressed air to control lift over the surfaces
while operating as a helicopter. At higher forward speeds, the rotor would be stopped to
15

continue providing lift as tandem wings in an X configuration. The program was canceled
before the aircraft had attempted any flights with the rotor system.
Piasecki Helicopter developed the Piasecki PA-97 Helistat using the rotor systems from
four obsolete helicopters and a surplus Navy blimp, in order to provide a capability to lift
heavier loads than a single helicopter could provide. The aircraft suffered a fatal accident
during a test flight. In 2008, Boeing and Sky Hook International resurrected the concept and
announced a proposed design of the Sky Hook JHL-40.

ROTOR CONFIGURATION
Number of Blades
A rotary wing is characterized by the number of blades. Typically this is between two
and six.
Number of Rotors
A rotorcraft may have one or more rotors. Various rotor configurations have been used:

Single rotor - One rotor disc.

Twin rotor - Two rotor discs. These usually rotate in opposite directions, so that no tail
rotor or other yaw stabilizer is needed:
o Tandem - One in front of the other.
o Transverse - Side by side.
o Coaxial - One rotor disc above the other, with concentric drive shafts.
Multiple rotors [- More than two rotor discs (sometimes indicates more than one):
typically, one at each corner.

Intermeshing
Where a rotorcraft has two or more rotors, the rotor discs may be arranged to pass
through each other. The blades of the two rotors must be synchronized so that they intermesh
without touching each other.
Ducted rotors
In a ducted rotor design, the rotor is surrounded by a large ring-shaped duct, to reduce
tip losses. Typically, the rotor swings forward to act as a propeller in forward flight and the duct
is designed to act as a fixed wing in this mode.
The difference between a ducted rotor and a ducted fan design (which is not a rotorcraft) is
that when the rotor is stationary you can see through the rotor disc.

16

Heavier Than- Air- Aircraft

Aerodynes
Heavier-than-air aircraft must find some way to push air or gas downwards, so that a
reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This dynamic
movement through the air is the origin of the term aerodyne. There are two ways to produce
dynamic upthrust: aerodynamic lift, and powered lift in the form of engine thrust.
Aerodynamic lift is the most common, with fixed-wing aircraft being kept in the air by the
forward movement of wings, and rotorcraft by spinning wing-shaped rotors sometimes called
rotary wings. A wing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross-section as an aerofoil.
To fly, the wing must move forward through the air; this movement of air over the
aerofoil shape deflects air downward to create an equal and opposite upward force, called lift,
according to Newton's third law of motion. A flexible wing is a wing made of fabric or thin sheet
material, often stretched over a rigid frame. A kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the
speed of the wind over its wings, which may be flexible or rigid, fixed or rotary.
With powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrust vertically downwards.
The initialism VTOL (vertical take off and landing) is applied to aircraft that can take off
and land vertically. Most are rotorcraft. Others, such as the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, take off
and land vertically using powered lift and transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight. Similarly,
STOL stands for short take off and landing. Some VTOL aircraft often operate in a short take
off/vertical landing mode known as STOVL.
A pure rocket is not usually regarded as an aerodyne, because it does not depend on
the air for its lift (and can even fly into space); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have
been powered or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles which obtain
aerodynamic lift at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies, are a marginal case.

17

An Airbus A380
The World Largest Passenger Airliner

AIRPLANE CLASSIFICATION

Transport refers to airplane and/or other large aircraft that exceeds certain limits.
Aircraft design primary for carriage of personnel and/or cargo.

18

Commuters design to carry passengers. The vast majority of flights around the world
each day belong to airplane classification.

Restricted for special purposed a/c (ex. Presence)

19

Limited - refers to military a/c that are new allowed to be use only for limited propose in
circle aviation. Combat a/c or like fighter bombers are represent only a minority of this
classification.

Experimental a/c used to test new designed in general. an experimental a/c that has
not yet been fully proven in flight.

20

Provisional an internal measure w/c have not met all requirements

operated to certain purpose.

Aerobatic a/c have the fewest operating limitation because their design requirement
demand more strength than others.

Normal and utility common to the most smallest a/cp use in flight training are
certified both of there classification.

21

but still can be

luis@
FLIGHT SERVICE STATION (FSS)
Air traffic facilities which provide pilot briefing, en route communications and VFR
search and rescue services, assist lost aircraft and aircraft in emergency situations, relay ATC
clearances, originate Notices to Airmen, broadcast aviation weather and NAS information,
receive and process IFR flight plans, and monitor NAVAID. In addition, at selected locations,
FSS provided En route Flight Advisory Service (Flight Watch), take weather observations,
issue airport advisories, and advise Customs and Immigration of trans border flights.
1. Flight Service Stations Real Life
Flight Service Stations (FSS) are air traffic facilities which have the responsibilities for
providing pilot briefings, en route communications and VFR search and rescue services,
assist lost aircraft and aircraft in emergency situations, relay ATC clearances, originate
Notices to Airmen, broadcast aviation weather and National Airspace System (NAS)
information, receive and process IFR flight plans and monitor NAVAIDS. In addition, at
selected locations FSS provide En Route Flight Advisory Service (Flight Watch), take
weather observations, issue airport advisories and advice Customs and Immigration of
trans-border flights.
2. Role and Responsibilities on IVAO
The primary role of a FSS facility on IVAO is to provide assistance to pilots and other
ATC facilities when requested. As a FSS facility, they do not provide any radar or
procedure control using the ATC client. Likewise, flight plans are not approved by a FSS
facility. This is accomplished via the active APP, or if APP is not active, then an active
CTR controller in the area of responsibility.
The responsibilities of a FSS facility can be summarized into the following areas:
1. Pre-flight Weather Briefings
a. Standard Briefing Adverse conditions, VFR flight not recommended,
Synopsis, Current conditions, En-route forecast, Destination forecast, Winds and
Temperature Aloft, NOTAMS, ATC Delays, Assistance with Flight Plans, and
Other Information that may include specific ATC services and rules.
b. Abbreviated Briefing This only requires new and updated weather information
and the pilot is expected to previously obtained the weather information through
the METAR, TAF, and Short TAF functions on the pilot client or other sources.
This is the most common type of briefing and should be used as the first choice
by the FSS facility.
c. Outlook Briefing This briefing is provided if the pilots proposed departure
time is six (6) or more hours away and assists the pilot with determining the
22

feasibility of their flight, and should be updated by the pilot to either (a) or (b),
above. Although this type of briefing is available, it should only be considered for
long flights of six (6) hrs or more.

2. Pilot Assistance
a. En Route Communications Provide assistance with active ATC controller
frequencies along the route.
b. VFR Search and Rescue Provide search and rescue services for VFR
flights and coordination with responsible ATC positions.
c. Lost Aircraft Provide assistance to pilots who are lost by giving the pilot their
current location and headings to requested navaid.
d. Flight Plan Assistance Provide assistance to pilots on the information
required to file a flight plan. This could be the SquawkBox or the IvAp ICAO type
of flight plan.
e. En Route Weather Advisories Provide METAR/TAF information for
requested ICAO airports.
f. Airport Advisories Advise of any delays at requested airports in the FSS
sector area.
g. Other Information Provide NOTAMS applicable to the route selected, IVAO
Event information or ATC practical examines that are in progress in the FSS
facility area. Assist in answering other questions by new ATC controllers or pilots
on IVAN.

23

3. FSS Facility Frequencies

FSS facilities can cover large sector areas. Generally, for FSS facilities located within
different IVAO Divisions, the Division website will describe the specific facility frequency.
Some of the call signs with the FSS facility frequency are as follows:
FACILITY

Call sign

Frequency

USA, CTR ICAO code

_FSS, e.g. KZFW_FSS

122.000

Canada, CTR ICAO code

_FSS

126.700

For European FSS use the respective sector call sign and frequency as per agreement
of the respective countries.
4. Weather Information
Weather sources from within the ATC client is limited to METAR reports, which are
revised hourly, unless a significant weather change has occurred for that airport. Other
weather information is available through the internet which includes TAFs, winds aloft,
jet stream information, and a variety of other flight advisories services. For more
information on TAFs, please review Section L-7 TAF, Decoding TAF and Some Other
Weather Messages.
5. Handling Malfunction Reports (IFR)/Emergencies
When operating as a FSS facility, if a pilot declares an emergency, they should first
contact the ATC controller in the airspace that has responsibility of the aircraft. This
could be TWR, APP, or CTR.
If the FSS station is the only active facility, then the pilot would contact the FSS station in
the area where this station is active. The FSS station should obtain the following
information and provide assistance to the nearest airport that is suitable for the aircraft to
land:
1. Aircraft Identification, e.g. UAL1000, type Boeing 7Echo7
2. Equipment Affected, e.g. Engine #2 Failure
3. Degree t which the equipment failure will impair the pilots ability to operate under
IFR, e.g. lost NAV1, can not perform ILS approach.
4. Type of assistance required from ATC, e.g. suitable alternate airport.
Note: Remember, FSS facilities can not provide Radar or Procedure Control.

24

6. Position Ranking Requirements

As a general rule, FSS facility positions require an in depth knowledge of IVAO
procedures and ATC/Pilot client software in order to assist pilots effectively. Generally,
the FSS facility should be manned by a C-3 or above. Divisions within IVAO may have
more specific requirements and the local Division website should be checked for these
requirements
The FSS also relays ATC clearances, and generates the recordings for its area's
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs). The FSS broadcasts aviation weather and National Airspace
System (NAS) information. The Station receives and processes VFR and IFR flight plans for
private pilots, and monitors NAVAIDS. In addition, at selected locations an FSS provides an En
Route Flight Advisory Service (Flight Watch), gathers weather data, and issues airport
advisories. The FSS also advises US Customs and Immigration of trans-border flights. There
are 15 Flight Service Stations (FSS) in the United States.
Just as electronics and new technology have updated the cockpit, modernization has
come to the Flight Service Station. The Automated Flight Service Station is equipped with
newer technology to better assist the Specialists there in providing Air Traffic services to pilots.
There are 61 Automated Flight Service Stations (AFSS) in the United States.
PREFLIGHT BRIEFINGS
The Aeronautical Information Manual states that "pilots-in-command, BEFORE BEGINNING A
FLIGHT, shall familiarize themselves with all available information concerning that flight."
FSS locations are the primary source for obtaining preflight briefings and in-flight weather
briefings. Pilots may walk into any FSS to review available aviation weather products and
charts, or they may choose to use telephones or radio.
Three types of preflight briefings are available: the Standard Briefing, Abbreviated Briefing, and
the Outlook Briefing. To properly tailor the briefing for a flight the briefer needs background
information about the proposed flight.
The required background information includes:

Type of Flight: VFR or IFR

Aircraft Identification or Pilot's Name
Aircraft Type
Departure Point
Estimated Time of Departure
Altitude
Route-of-Flight
Destination
Estimated Time En Route

25

The FSS also relays ATC clearances, and generates the recordings for its area's Notices to
Airmen (NOTAMs). The FSS broadcasts aviation weather and National Airspace System (NAS)
information. The Station receives and processes VFR and IFR flight plans for private pilots,
and monitors NAVAIDS. In addition, at selected locations an FSS provides an En Route Flight
Advisory Service (Flight Watch), gathers weather data, and issues airport advisories. The FSS
also advises US Customs and Immigration of trans-border flights. There are 15 Flight Service
Stations (FSS) in the United States.
Just as electronics and new technology have updated the cockpit, modernization has come
to the Flight Service Station. The Automated Flight Service Station is equipped with newer
technology to better assist the Specialists there in providing Air Traffic services to pilots. There
are 61 Automated Flight Service Stations (AFSS) in the United States.

A control tower, or more specifically an air traffic control tower, is the name of the airport
building from which the air traffic control unit controls the movement of aircraft on and around
the airport. Most of the world's airports are non-towered or mandatory frequency only a
minority of airports have enough traffic to justify a control tower, though some airports may
open temporary tower units during special events like the Oshkosh airshow.
Permanent control tower structures generally rise high above other buildings at an airport to
give air traffic controllers a view of aircraft moving on the ground and in the air around the
airport, though temporary tower units may operate from trailers or even portable radios
outside.
Medium-traffic airports may have only one controller staffing the control tower, and may not
keep the tower open 24 hours per day. Busier airports usually have space for several
controllers and other support staff, and operate 24 hours per day, 365 days per year.
Full control tower structures usually have windows that circle the entire top floor, giving all
round vision. The windows are usually tilted outwards at 15 degrees, because otherwise the
controllers would see the reflection of their equipment. The ceiling may also be painted black. [1]
Control towers typically contain the following:

radios for communication with aircraft, linked to controllers' headsets or to microphones

and speakers;
a telephone system that connects dedicated voice lines and public telephone lines via
quick-dial systems to controllers' headsets, allowing them to talk to other controllers and
outside parties;
a strip board allowing Flight Progress Strips to be used (however in some towers these
have been replaced by a computerised system);
a light gun for communication with aircraft via aviation light signals in the event of a
radio failure;
wind and pressure gauges.
Cab glass may be impact resistant laminated, or the typical insulated annealed glass.
Testing includes the determination of acceptable tolerances regarding double imaging.
26

Other equipment may include the following:

an aerodrome traffic monitor, which is a small radar display that is not used for
separation purposes but allows controllers to see the aircraft flying in the vicinity of the
airport;
a surface movement radar displaying aircraft and vehicles on the airport to assist
controllers at night and in poor visibility;
computerized meteorological information, flight data and briefing systems.

Preventing collisions is referred to as separation, which is a term used to prevent

aircraft from coming too close to each other by use of lateral, vertical and longitudinal
separation minima; many aircraft now have collision avoidance systems installed to act as a
backup to ATC observation and instructions. In addition to its primary function, the ATC can
provide additional services such as providing information to pilots, weather and navigation
information and NOTAMs (NOtices To AirMen).
In many countries, ATC services are provided throughout the majority of airspace, and
its services are available to all users (private, military, and commercial). When controllers are
responsible for separating some or all aircraft, such airspace is called "controlled airspace" in
contrast to "uncontrolled airspace" where aircraft may fly without the use of the air traffic
control system. Depending on the type of flight and the class of airspace, ATC may issue
instructions that pilots are required to follow, or merely flight information (in some countries
known as advisories) to assist pilots operating in the airspace. In all cases, however, the pilot
27

in command has final responsibility for the safety of the flight, and may deviate from ATC
instructions in an emergency.

FIXED BASED OPERATION

In the aviation industry, a fixed base operator (also known as fixed base of operation),
or FBO, is a service center at an airport that may be a private enterprise or may be a
department of the municipality that the airport serves. The term is originally North American,
but it is becoming more common in Europe and the UK.
At a minimum, most FBO offer aircraft fuel, oil, and parking, along with access to
washrooms and telephones. Some FBO offer additional aircraft services such as hangar
(indoor) storage, maintenance, aircraft charter or rental, flight training, deicing, and ground
services such as towing and baggage handling. FBO may also offer services not directly
related to the aircraft, such as rental cars, lounges, and hotel reservations.

History
In the early days of aviation in the United States, there were no airports. "Barn-stormier"
was pilots who performed aerobatic shows and landed in farmer's fields, moving across the
28

country as traveling performers. Mechanics and flight instructors followed the shows, offering
their services.
As aviation matured airports were built, businesses sprang up around them. Repair
stations, flight instructors, charter operators, and fuel suppliers could now be found
consistently at these businesses, or "fixed bases." When the first regulations were written by
the federal Civil Aeronautics Board (predecessor of the FAA) it was deemed necessary to
distinguish between those who were offering business services at a fixed base and those who
were acting independently. Thus, the term FBO was born, and qualified FBO were granted
somewhat more lenient regulations in some areas in return for more stringent documentation
and staffing standards.
This distinction within the FAA regulations continues today, as for example, a private
flight instructor is regulated differently under Part 61 than a fully-qualified school operating
under Part 141.
Services offered
Over the years, as most aviation services became centered on airports, the term FBO
has changed in common usage. Today it usually means that an operator sells fuel for general
aviation aircraft, and provides some facilities for receiving and handling charter flights and
passengers.
Although many FBO still house little more than a tattered old sofa and a table for flight
planning, today most have bright, airy modern facilities. Nearly all provide a computer with
weather depiction or an Internet connection so pilots can begin their briefings online. In
addition to a passenger lounge, many also have a quiet room where a weary crew can lean
back and snooze while waiting out the weather or waiting for passengers. Hungry crew
members can frequently borrow a car for a quick ride into town for lunch or dinner. If a car is
not available, it is not unusual for an FBO operator to provide a lift into town for a meal or a
hotel room.
Commonly there is a store, or just a single counter, selling charts, manuals, and other
accessories such as headsets and "sick-sacks". If there isn't a restaurant or other food service
on the field, there may be a vending machine or even a refrigerator stocked and maintained on
the "honor system". Nearly every FBO has a pot of coffee waiting on the burner.
There is often a hangar available for maintenance or to protect airplanes from weather.
Other times it is necessary to "tie-down" small aircraft outside near the FBO.
Fancier FBO may require a landing fee or an overnight fee that usually varies according
to the size of plane. In some cases, the fee is waived if fuel is purchased.
Most importantly, nearly every FBO provides a telephone that can be used 24-hours a day so
that pilots can close their flight plans and get a briefing for their next flight. Twenty-four hour
bathrooms are another necessity

29

R U N W AY L I G H T I N G A N D M A R K I N G S

Runways may intersect each other. The additional runways enable aircraft to land into the
wind. Single runways can be difficult if there is a strong crosswind. Where there is only one
runway, every effort is made to build the alignment in the direction of the prevailing wind.
Single
Parallel

Open-V

Runways are referred to after their compass heading.

30

R U N W AY N U M B E R I N G S Y S T E M
A runway's compass direction is indicated by a large number painted at the end of each
runway. A runway's number is not written in degrees, but is given a shorthand format. For
example, a runway with a marking of "14" is actually close to (if not a direct heading of) 140
degrees. This is a southeast compass heading. A runway with a marking of "31" has a
compass heading of 310 degrees, that is, a northwest direction. For simplicity, the precise
heading is rounded off to the nearest tens. For example, runway 7 might have a precise
heading of 68 degrees, but is rounded off to 70 degrees. It is still good practice to check your
compass prior to take-off or landing as it has been known that the numbers have been painted
on the wrong ends!

Your
browser
does not
support
inline
frames or
is
currently
configured
not
to
display
inline
frames.

Occasionally there may be parallel runways. 'L' and 'R' is then added to the runway number.
Even more rarely there are three parallel runways. The central runway is called 'C'.
Below are shown typical runway markings.

31

Your browser does not support inline frames or is currently configured not to display inline
frames.
Relocation
Taxiway

of

Threshold
Aligned

32

with

Markings
with

for
Runway

RUNWAY LIGHTING

It is relatively easy to navigate around small airports, but large airports can be a nightmare for
pilots using them for the first few times. Pilots can inform the ground controller they are
unfamiliar with the airport, and request progressive taxi instructions. The ground controllers are
happy to help newcomers. The airborne view of Dallas/Ft. Worth airport will give you a picture
of how complex and confusing a large airport can be to pilots who do not work out of DFW
regularly. The view looking north shows nine runways and dozens of taxiways and high-speed
turnoffs.

33

Airports also use standardized lighting to provide direction and identification to all air
and ground crews. To assist pilots in differentiating at night between airport runways and major
roads, airports have rotating beacon lights. These beacons usually flash green and white lights
to indicate a civilian airport. These beacons are visible from the air long before the entire
airport
is
recognizable.

34

Military identification beacons flash red.

To help pilots at night quickly identify the beginning of a runway, green threshold lights
line the runway's edge. Red lights mark the ends of runways and indicate obstructions. Blue
lights run alongside taxiways while runways have white or yellow lights marking their edges.
All these markings and lights serve to set a safety standard for all pilots to follow.

History
The first runway lighting appeared in 1930 at Cleveland Municipal Airport (now known as
Cleveland Hopkins International Airport) in Cleveland, Ohio.

35

Technical Specifications
Runway lighting is used at airports which allow night landings. Seen from the air, runway lights
form an outline of the runway.[ A particular runway may have some or all of the following.

Runway End Identification Lights (REIL[3]) Unidirectional (facing approach direction)

or omnidirectional pair of synchronized flashing lights installed at the runway threshold,
one on each side.

Runway end lights A pair of four lights on each side of the runway on precision
instrument runways, these lights extend along the full width of the runway. These lights
show green when viewed by approaching aircraft and red when seen from the runway. [

Runway edge lights White elevated lights that run the length of the runway on either
side. On precision instrument runways, the edge-lighting becomes yellow in the last
2,000 ft (610 m) of the runway. Taxiways are differentiated by being bordered by blue
lights, or by having green centre lights, depending on the width of the taxiway, and the
complexity of the taxi pattern.[

Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS[3]) Lights embedded into surface of the
runway at 50 ft (15 m) intervals along the runway centerline on some precision
instrument runways. White except the last 3,000 ft (914 m), alternate white and red for
next 2,000 ft (610 m) and red for last 1,000 ft (305 m).

Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL[3]) This consists of rows of white light bars (with three
in each row) on either side of the centerline over the first 3,000 ft (914 m) (or to the
midpoint, whichever is less) of the runway.

Taxiway Centerline Lead-Off Lights Installed along lead-off markings, alternate

green and yellow lights embedded into the runway pavement. It starts with green light
about runway centerline to the position of first centerline light beyond holding position
on taxiway.

Taxiway Centerline Lead-On Lights Installed the same way as taxiway centerline
lead-off Lights.

Land and Hold Short Lights A row of white pulsating lights installed across the
runway to indicate hold short position on some runways which are facilitating land and
hold short operations (LAHSO).

Approach Lighting System (ALS[3]) A lighting system installed on the approach end
of an airport runway and consists of a series of lightbars, strobe lights, or a combination
of the two that extends outward from the runway end.

According to Transport Canada's regulations, the runway-edge lighting must be visible for
at least 2 mi (3 km). Additionally, a new system of advisory lighting, Runway Status Lights, is
currently being tested in the United States.
The edge lights must be arranged such that:
36

the minimum distance between lines is 75 ft (23 m), and maximum is 200 ft (61 m);
the maximum distance between lights within each line is 200 ft (61 m);
the minimum length of parallel lines is 1,400 ft (427 m);
the minimum number of lights in the line is 8.

Control of Lighting System - Typically the lights are controlled by a control tower, a Flight
Service Station or another designated authority. Some airports/airfields (particularly
uncontrolled ones) are equipped with Pilot Controlled Lighting, so that pilots can temporarily
turn on the lights when the relevant authority is not available. This avoids the need for
automatic systems or staff to turn the lights on at night or in other low visibility situations. This
also avoids the cost of having the lighting system on for extended periods. Smaller airports
may not have lighted runways or runway markings. Particularly at private airfields for light
planes, there may be nothing more than a windsock beside a landing strip.

There are three types of runways:

Visual Runways are used at small airstrips and are usually just a strip of grass, gravel,
asphalt or concrete. Although there are usually no markings on a visual runway, they
may have threshold markings, designators, and centerlines. Additionally, they do not
provide an instrument-based landing procedure; pilots must be able to see the runway
to use it. Also, radio communication may not be available and pilots must be self-reliant.
Non-Precision Instrument Runways are often used at small- to medium-size airports.
These runways, depending on the surface, may be marked with threshold markings,
designators, centerlines, and sometimes a 1,000 ft (305 m) mark (known as an aiming
point, sometimes installed at 1,500 ft (457 m)). They provide horizontal position
guidance to planes on instrument approach via Non-directional beacon (NDB), VHF
omnidirectional range (VOR), Global Positioning System, etc.
Precision instrument runways, which are found at medium- and large-size airports,
consist of a blast pad/stopway (optional, for airports handling jets), threshold,
designator, centerline, aiming point, and 500 ft (152 m), 1,000 ft (305 m)/1,500 ft
(457 m), 2,000 ft (610 m), 2,500 ft (762 m), and 3,000 ft (914 m) touchdown zone
marks. Precision runways provide both horizontal and vertical guidance for instrument
approaches.

National variants
In Australia, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom[7], as well as some other countries all
3-stripe and 2-stripe touchdown zones for precision runways are replaced with onestripe touchdown zones.
In Australia, precision runways consist of only an aiming point and one 1-stripe
touchdown zone. Furthermore, many non-precision and visual runways lack an aiming
point.
In some Latin American countries like Colombia, Ecuador and Peru one 3-stripe is
added and a 2-stripe is replaced with the aiming point .
Some European countries replace the aiming point with a 3-stripe touchdown zone.
37

Runways in Norway have yellow markings instead of the usual white ones. This also
occurs on some airports in Japan. The yellow markings are used to ensure better
contrast against snow.
Runways may have different types on each end. To cut costs, many airports do not
install precision guidance equipment on both ends. Runways with one precision end
and any other type of end can install the full set of touchdown zones, even if some are
past the midpoint. If a runway has precision markings on both ends, touchdown zones
within 900 ft (274 m) of the midpoint are omitted, to avoid pilot confusion over which end
the marking belongs to. Runway safety

Several terms fall under the flight safety topic of runway safety, including incursion,
excursion, and confusion.
Runway Excursion is an incident involving only a single aircraft where it makes an
inappropriate exit from the runway. This can happen because of pilot error, poor weather,
emergency, or a fault with the aircraft. Overrun is a type of excursion where the aircraft is
unable to stop before the end of the runway. An example of such an event is Air France Flight
358 in 2005. Further examples can be found in the overruns category.
Runway excursion is the most frequent type of landing accident, slightly ahead of
runway incursion. For runway accidents recorded between 1995 and 2007, 96% were of the
'excursion' type.
Runway event is another term for a runway accident.
Runway incursion involves a first aircraft, as well as a second aircraft, vehicle, or
person. It is defined by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as: "Any occurrence at
an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or person on the
protected area of a surface designated for the landing and take off of aircraft." [9]
Runway Confusion involves a single aircraft, and is used to describe the error when the
aircraft makes "the unintentional use of the wrong runway, or a taxiway, for landing or take-off".
[10]

The active runway is the runway at an airport that is in current use for takeoffs and
landings. Since takeoffs and landings are usually done as close to "into the wind" (see
headwind) as possible, wind direction generally determines the active runway (or just the
active in aviation vernacular).
Selection of the active runway, however, depends on a number of factors. At a nontowered airport, pilots usually select the runway most nearly aligned with the wind, but they are
not obliged to use that particular runway. For example, a pilot arriving from the east may elect
to land straight in to an east-west runway despite a minor tailwind or significant crosswind, in
order to expedite his arrival, although it is recommended to always fly a regular traffic pattern
to more safely merge with other aircraft.
At controlled airports, the active is usually determined by a tower supervisor. However,
there may be constraints, such as policy from the airport manager (calm wind runway
selection, for example, or noise abatement guidelines) that dictate an active runway selection
that isn't the one most nearly aligned with the wind.
38

T AX I W AY L I G H T I N G A N D M A R K I N G S
The most important rule to remember is that any sign that has white letters on red is
mandatory. Usually they mark points that must not be passed without permission from air traffic
control.
Taxiways should have centreline markings and runway holding position markings whenever
they intersect a runway. Taxiway edge markings are present whenever there is a need to
separate the taxiway from a pavement that is not intended for aircraft use or to delineate the
edge of the taxiway. Taxiways may also have shoulder markings and holding position markings
for Instrument Landing System/Microwave Landing System (ILS/MLS) critical areas, and
taxiway/taxiway intersection markings.
The taxiway centreline is a single continuous yellow line, 6 inches (15 cm) to 12 inches (30 cm)
in width. This provides a visual cue to permit taxiing along a designated path. Ideally the
aircraft should be kept centred over this line during taxi to ensure wing-tip clearance.
Taxiway Edge Markings. Taxiway edge markings are used to define the edge of the taxiway.
They are primarily used when the taxiway edge does not correspond with the edge of the
pavement. There are two types of markings depending upon whether the aircraft is suppose to
cross the taxiway edge:
1. Continuous Markings. These consist of a continuous double yellow line, with each line
being at least 6 inches (15 cm) in width spaced 6 inches (15 cm) apart. They are used to
define the taxiway edge from the shoulder or some other abutting paved surface not intended
for use by aircraft.
2. Dashed Markings. These markings are used when there is an operational need to define
the edge of a taxiway or taxi-lane on a paved surface where the adjoining pavement to the
taxiway edge is intended for use by aircraft. e.g., an apron. Dashed taxiway edge markings
consist of a broken double yellow line, with each line being at least 6 inches (15 cm) in width,
spaced 6 inches (15 cm) apart (edge to edge). These lines are 15 feet (4.5 m) in length with 25
foot (7.5 m) gaps. (See FIG 2-3-9.)
Taxi Shoulder Markings. Taxiways, holding bays, and aprons are sometimes provided with
paved shoulders to prevent blast and water erosion. Although shoulders may have the
appearance of full strength pavement they are not intended for use by aircraft, and may be
unable to support an aircraft. Usually the taxiway edge marking will define this area. Where
conditions exist such as islands or taxiway curves that may cause confusion as to which side
of the edge stripe is for use by aircraft, taxiway shoulder markings may be used to indicate the
pavement
is
unusable.
Taxiway
shoulder
markings
are
yellow.
Surface Painted Taxiway Direction Signs. Surface painted taxiway direction signs have a
yellow background with a black inscription, and are provided when it is not possible to provide
taxiway direction signs at intersections, or when necessary to supplement such signs. These
markings are located adjacent to the centreline with signs indicating turns to the left being on
the left side of the taxiway centreline and signs indicating turns to the right being on the right
side of the centreline.
39

Surface Painted Taxiway Direction Signs

Surface Painted Location Signs. Surface painted location signs have a black background
with a yellow inscription. When necessary, these markings are used to supplement location
signs located along side the taxiway and assist the pilot in confirming the designation of the
taxiway on which the aircraft is located. These markings are located on the right side of the
centerline.

Surface Painted Location Signs

Geographic Position Markings. These markings are located at points along low visibility taxi
routes designated in the airport's Surface Movement Guidance Control System (SMGCS) plan.
They are used to identify the location of taxiing aircraft during low visibility operations. Low
visibility operations are those that occur when the runway visible range (RVR) is below 1200
feet(360m). They are positioned to the left of the taxiway centerline in the direction of taxiing.
The geographic position marking is a circle comprised of an outer black ring contiguous to a
white ring with a pink circle in the middle. When installed on asphalt or other dark-colored
pavements, the white ring and the black ring are reversed, i.e., the white ring becomes the
outer ring and the black ring becomes the inner ring. It is designated with either a number or a
40

number and letter. The number corresponds to the consecutive position of the marking on the
route.

Geographic Position Markings

Holding Position Markings

Runway Holding Position Markings.
For runways these markings indicate where an aircraft is supposed to stop. They
consist of four yellow lines two solid, and two dashed, spaced six or twelve inches apart and
extending across the width of the taxiway or runway. The solid lines are always on the side
where the aircraft is to hold. There are three locations where runway holding position markings
are encountered.
Runway Holding Position Markings on Taxiways.
These markings identify the locations on a taxiway where an aircraft is supposed to stop
when it does not have clearance to proceed onto the runway. When instructed by ATC "Hold
short of (runway "xx")" the pilot should stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond the
holding position marking. When approaching the holding position marking, a pilot should not
cross the marking without ATC clearance at a controlled airport or without making sure of
adequate separation from other aircraft at uncontrolled airports. An aircraft exiting a runway is
not clear of the runway until all parts of the aircraft have crossed the applicable holding
position marking.

41

Runway Holding Position Markings on Runways.

These markings are installed on runways only if the runway is normally used by air
traffic control for "land, hold short" operations or taxiing operations and have operational
significance only for those two types of operations. A sign with a white inscription on a red
background is installed adjacent to these holding position markings. (see above) The holding
position markings are placed on runways prior to the intersection with another runway, or some
designated point. Pilots receiving instructions "cleared to land, runway "xx"" from air traffic
control are authorized to use the entire landing length of the runway and should disregard any
holding position markings located on the runway. Pilots receiving and accepting instructions
"cleared to land runway "xx," hold short of runway "yy"" from air traffic control must either exit
runway "xx," or stop at the holding position prior to runway "yy."
Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Areas.
These markings are used at some airports where it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a
taxiway located in the approach or departure area of a runway so that the aircraft does not
interfere with the operations on that runway. This marking is collocated with the runway
approach area holding position sign.

42

Taxiways Located in Runway Approach Areas

Holding Position Markings for Instrument Landing System (ILS).
Holding position markings for ILS/MLS critical areas consist of two yellow solid lines
spaced two feet apart connected by pairs of solid lines spaced ten feet apart extending across
the width of the taxiway as shown. A sign with an inscription in white on a red background is
installed adjacent to these hold position markings. When the ILS critical area is being
protected, the pilot should stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond the holding position
marking. When approaching the holding position marking, a pilot should not cross the marking
without ATC clearance. ILS critical area is not clear until all parts of the aircraft have crossed
the applicable holding position marking.

43

Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/ Taxiway Intersections.

Holding position markings for taxiway/taxiway intersections consist of a single dashed
line extending across the width of the taxiway as shown. They are installed on taxiways where
air traffic control normally holds aircraft short of a taxiway intersection. When instructed by ATC
"hold short of (taxiway)" the pilot should stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond the
holding position marking. When the marking is not present the pilot should stop the aircraft at a
point which provides adequate clearance from an aircraft on the intersecting taxiway.

Surface Painted Holding Position Signs.

Surface painted holding position signs have a red background with a white inscription
and supplement the signs located at the holding position. This type of marking is normally used
where the width of the holding position on the taxiway is greater than 200 feet(60m). It is
located to the left side of the taxiway centreline on the holding side and prior to the holding
position marking.

44

Vehicle Roadway Markings.

The vehicle roadway markings are used when necessary to define a pathway for vehicle
operations on or crossing areas that are also intended for aircraft. These markings consist of a
white solid line to delineate each edge of the roadway and a dashed line to separate lanes
within the edges of the roadway. In lieu of the solid lines, zipper markings may be used to
delineate the edges of the vehicle roadway.

Vehicle Roadway Markings

Roadway Edge Stripes, White, Zipper Style

Non-movement Area Boundary Markings.
These markings delineate the movement area, i.e., area under air traffic control. These
markings are yellow and located on the boundary between the movement and non-movement
area. The non-movement area boundary markings consist of two yellow lines (one solid and
one dashed) 6 inches (15cm) in width. The solid line is located on the non-movement area side
while the dashed yellow line is located on the movement area side.

45

Non-movement Area Boundary Markings

AI RP ORT SIGNS
There are six types of signs installed on airfields: mandatory instruction signs, location signs,
direction signs, destination signs, information signs, and runway distance remaining signs.
Mandatory Instruction Signs
a. These signs have a red background with a white inscription and are used to denote:
1. An entrance to a runway or critical area and;
2. Areas where an aircraft is prohibited from entering.

b . Typ i c a l m a n d a t o r y s i g n s a n d a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e :
Runway Holding Position Sign.
This sign is located at the holding position on taxiways that intersect a runway or on
runways that intersect other runways. The inscription on the sign contains the designation of
the intersecting runway as shown in FIG 2-3-24. The runway numbers on the sign are
arranged to correspond to the respective runway threshold. For example, "15-33" indicates
that the threshold for Runway 15 is to the left and the threshold for Runway 33 is to the right.

Runway Holding Position Sign

On taxiways that intersect the beginning of the takeoff runway, only the designation of
the takeoff runway may appear on the sign, while all other signs will have the designation of
both runway directions.
46

Holding Position Sign at Beginning of Takeoff Runway

If the sign is located on a taxiway that intersects the intersection of two runways, the
designations for both runways will be shown on the sign along with arrows showing the
approximate alignment of each runway. In addition to showing the approximate runway
alignment, the arrow indicates the direction to the threshold of the runway whose designation
is immediately next to the arrow.

Holding Position Sign for a Taxiway that Intersects the Intersection of Two Runways
A runway holding position sign on a taxiway will be installed adjacent to holding position
markings on the taxiway pavement. On runways, holding position markings will be located only
on the runway pavement adjacent to the sign, if the runway is normally used by air traffic
control for "Land, Hold Short" operations or as a taxiway.
Runway Approach Area Holding Position Sign.
At some airports, it is necessary to hold an aircraft on a taxiway located in the approach
or departure area for a runway so that the aircraft does not interfere with operations on that
runway. In these situations, a sign with the designation of the approach end of the runway
followed by a "dash" (-) and letters "APCH" will be located at the holding position on the
taxiway. Holding position markings will be located on the taxiway pavement. An example of this
sign is shown below. In this example, the sign may protect the approach to Runway 15 and/or
the departure for Runway 33.

Holding Position Sign for a Runway Approach Area

ILS Critical Area Holding Position Sign.
At some airports, when the instrument landing system is being used, it is necessary to
hold an aircraft on a taxiway at a location other than the holding position described in
paragraph 2-3-5, Holding Position Markings. In these situations the holding position sign for
these operations will have the inscription "ILS" and be located adjacent to the holding position
marking on the taxiway described in paragraph 2-3-5. An example of this sign is shown below.

47

Holding Position Sign for ILS Critical Area

No Entry Sign.
This sign, shown in below, prohibits an aircraft from entering an area. Typically, this sign
would be located on a taxiway intended to be used in only one direction or at the intersection
of vehicle roadways with runways, taxiways or aprons where the roadway may be mistaken as
a taxiway or other aircraft movement surface.

Sign Prohibiting Aircraft Entry into an Area

Location Signs
Location signs are used to identify either a taxiway or runway on which the aircraft is
located. Other location signs provide a visual cue to pilots to assist them in determining when
they have exited an area. The various location signs are described below.
Taxiway Location Sign. This sign has a black background with a yellow inscription and yellow
border as shown below.

Taxiway Location Sign

The inscription is the designation of the taxiway on which the aircraft is located. These
signs are installed along taxiways either by themselves or in conjunction with direction signs or
runway holding position signs.

48

Taxiway Location Sign Collocated with

Runway Holding Position Sign

fig 18 Direction Sign Array with Location Sign on Far Side of Intersection
Runway Location Sign.
This sign has a black background with a yellow inscription and yellow border. The
inscription is the designation of the runway on which the aircraft is located. These signs are
intended to complement the information available to pilots through their magnetic compass and
typically are installed where the proximity of two or more runways to one another could cause
pilots to be confused as to which runway they are on.

Runway Location Sign

49

Runway Boundary Sign.

This sign has a yellow background with a black inscription with a graphic depicting the
pavement holding position marking. This sign, which faces the runway and is visible to the pilot
exiting the runway, is located adjacent to the holding position marking on the pavement. The
sign is intended to provide pilots with another visual cue which they can use as a guide in
deciding when they are "clear of the runway."

Runway Boundary Sign

ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign.
This sign has a yellow background with a black inscription with a graphic depicting the
ILS pavement holding position marking as shown in FIG 2-3-34. This sign is located adjacent
to the ILS holding position marking on the pavement and can be seen by pilots leaving the
critical area. The sign is intended to provide pilots with another visual cue which they can use
as a guide in deciding when they are "clear of the ILS critical area."

ILS Critical Area Boundary Sign

Direction Signs
a. Direction signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. The inscription
identifies the designation(s) of the intersecting taxiway(s) leading out of the intersection that a
pilot would normally be expected to turn onto or hold short of. Each designation is
accompanied by an arrow indicating the direction of the turn.
b. Except as noted in subparagraph e, each taxiway designation shown on the sign is
accompanied by only one arrow. When more than one taxiway designation is shown on the
sign each designation and its associated arrow is separated from the other taxiway
designations by either a vertical message divider or a taxiway location sign.

50

c. Direction signs are normally located on the left prior to the intersection. When used
on a runway to indicate an exit, the sign is located on the same side of the runway as the exit.
The illustration below shows a direction sign used to indicate a runway exit.

Direction Sign for Runway Exit

d. The taxiway designations and their associated arrows on the sign are arranged
clockwise starting from the first taxiway on the pilot's left.
e. If a location sign is located with the direction signs, it is placed so that the
designations for all turns to the left will be to the left of the location sign; the designations for
continuing straight ahead or for all turns to the right would be located to the right of the location
sign.
f. When the intersection is comprised of only one crossing taxiway, it is permissible to
have two arrows associated with the crossing taxiway as shown below. In this case, the
location sign is located to the left of the direction sign.

Direction Sign Array for Simple Intersection

51

Destination Signs
Destination signs also have a yellow background with a black inscription indicating a
destination on the airport. These signs always have an arrow showing the direction of the
taxiing route to that destination. The illustration below is an example of a typical destination
sign. When the arrow on the destination sign indicates a turn, the sign is located prior to the
intersection.

Destination Sign for Military Area

Destinations commonly shown on these types of signs include runways, aprons,
terminals, military areas, civil aviation areas, cargo areas, international areas, and fixed base
operators. An abbreviation may be used as the inscription on the sign for some of these
destinations.
When the inscription for two or more destinations having a common taxiing route are placed on
a sign, the destinations are separated by a "dot" () and one arrow would be used as shown
below.

Destination Sign for Common Taxiing Route to Two Runways

When the inscription on a sign contains two or more destinations having different taxiing
routes, each destination will be accompanied by an arrow and will be separated from the other
destinations on the sign with a vertical black message divider as shown below.

Destination Sign for Different Taxiing Routes to Two Runways

52

Information Signs
Information signs have a yellow background with a black inscription. They are used to
provide the pilot with information on such things as areas that cannot be seen from the control
tower, applicable radio frequencies, and noise abatement procedures. The airport operator
determines the need, size, and location for these signs.
Runway Distance Remaining Signs
Runway distance remaining signs have a black background with a white numeral inscription
and may be installed along one or both side(s) of the runway. The number on the signs
indicates the distance (in thousands of feet) of landing runway remaining. The last sign, i.e.,
the sign with the numeral "1," will be located at least 950 feet from the runway end. The
illustration below shows an example of a runway distance remaining sign.

Runway Distance Remaining Sign Indicating 3,000 feet of Runway Remaining

53

Tax i w a y L i g h t i n g

Philadelphia International Airport. The white lighting of the 3 runways is clearly visible, while
the taxiways are lit in blue.
Taxiway Edge Lights. Taxiway edge lights are used to outline the edges of taxiways during
periods of darkness or restricted visibility conditions. These fixtures emit blue light.
NOTEAt most major airports these lights have variable intensity settings and may be adjusted at pilot
request or when deemed necessary by the controller.
Taxiway Centreline Lights. Taxiway centreline lights are used to facilitate ground traffic under
low visibility conditions. They are located along the taxiway centreline in a straight line on
straight portions, on the centreline of curved portions, and along designated taxiing paths in
portions of runways, ramp, and apron areas. Taxiway centreline lights are steady burning and
emit green light.
Clearance Bar Lights. Clearance bar lights are installed at holding positions on taxiways in
order to increase the conspicuity of the holding position in low visibility conditions. They may
also be installed to indicate the location of an intersecting taxiway during periods of darkness.
Clearance bars consist of three in-pavement steady-burning yellow lights.
54

Runway Guard Lights. Runway guard lights are installed at taxiway/runway intersections.
They are primarily used to enhance the conspicuity of taxiway/runway intersections during low
visibility conditions, but may be used in all weather conditions. Runway guard lights consist of
either a pair of elevated flashing yellow lights installed on either side of the taxiway, or a row of
in-pavement yellow lights installed across the entire taxiway, at the runway holding position
marking.
NOTESome airports may have a row of three or five in-pavement yellow lights installed at
taxiway/runway intersections.
Stop Bar Lights. Stop bar lights, when installed, are used to confirm the ATC clearance to
enter or cross the active runway in low visibility conditions (below 1,200 ft Runway Visual
Range). A stop bar consists of a row of red, unidirectional, steady-burning in-pavement lights
installed across the entire taxiway at the runway holding position, and elevated steady-burning
red lights on each side. A controlled stop bar is operated in conjunction with the taxiway
centreline lead-on lights which extend from the stop bar toward the runway. Following the ATC
clearance to proceed, the stop bar is turned off and the lead-on lights are turned on. The stop
bar and lead-on lights are automatically reset by a sensor or backup timer.
CAUTIONPilots should never cross a red illuminated stop bar, even if an ATC clearance has been
given to proceed onto or across the runway.

55

Airport Layout
Aviation is controlled by an agency of the United States' government known as the
Federal Aviation Administrationor the FAA. This agency mandates identification
standards for airport layout that is meant to assist pilots ineasily recognizing runways
from the air and to taxi safely from the runway to the gate. From runway numbers
andpainted stripes to airport and runway lights and signs, the FAA regulates the
National
Airspace
System.
In navigationand surveying, all measurement of
direction is performed by using the numbers of a
compass. A compass is a 360circle where
0/360 is North, 90 is East, 180 is South, and
270 is West. Runways are laid outaccording to
the numbers on a compass. A runway's compass
direction is indicated by a large number painted
at theend of each runway. Preceding that number
are 8 white stripes. Following that number by 500
feet is the "touchdownzone" which is identified by
6 white stripes. A runway's number is not written
in degrees, but is given ashorthand format. For
example, a runway with a marking of "14" is
actually close to (if not a directheading of) 140
degrees. This is a southeast compass heading. A
runway with a marking of "31" has a
compassheading of 310 degrees, that is, a northwest direction. For simplicity, the FAA
rounds off the precise headingto the nearest tens. For example, runway 7 might have a
precise heading of 68 degrees, but is rounded off to 70degrees.

Each runway has a different number on each end. Look at the diagram below. One end
of the runway is facing due west while the other end of the runway is facing due east.
The compass direction for due west is 270 degrees ("27").The compass direction for
due east is 90 degrees ("9"). All runways follow this directional layout. This runway
would be referred to as "Runway 9-27" because of its east-west orientation.

56

The FAA includes over 20 different runway layouts in their advisory materials. There are 4
basic runway configuration swith the rest being variations of the original patterns. The basic
runway configurations are the following:
Single Runway
This is the simplest of the 4 basic configurations. It is one runway optimally positioned for
prevailing winds, noise, land use and other determining factors. During VFR (visual flight rules)
conditions, this one runway should accommodate up to 99 light aircraft operations per hour.
While under IFR (instrument flight rules) conditions, it would accommodate between 42 to 53
operations per hour depending on the mix of traffic and navigational aids available at that
airport.

57

B) Parallel Runways
There are 4 types of parallel runways. These are named according to how closely they are
placed next to each other.Operations per hour will vary depending on the total number of
runways and the mix of aircraft. In IFR conditionsfor predominantly light aircraft, the number of
operations would range between 64 to 128 per hour.

58

C) Open-V Runways
Two runways that diverge from different directions but do NOT intersect form a shape that
looks like an "open-V" are called open-V runways. This configuration is useful when there is
little to no wind as it allows for both runways to be used at the same time. When the winds
become strong in one direction, then only one runway will be used. When takeoffs and
landings are made away from the two closer ends, the number of operations per hour
significantly increases. When takeoffs and landings are made toward the two closer ends, the
number of operations per hour can be reduced by 50%.

D) Intersecting Runways
Two or more runways that cross each other are classified as intersecting runways. This type of
configuration is used when there are relatively strong prevailing winds from more than one
direction during the year. When the winds are strong from one direction, operations will be
limited to only one runway. With relatively light winds, both runways can be used
simultaneously. The greatest capacity for operations is accomplished when the intersection is
close to the takeoff end and the landing threshold as shown below (with the configuration on
the left).

59

The capacity for the number of operations varies greatly with this runway configuration. It really
depends on the location of the intersection and the manner in which the runways are operated
(IFR, VFR, aircraft mix). This type of configuration also has the potential to use a greater
amount of land area than parallel runway configurations.
Airports also use standardized lighting and ground markings to provide direction and
identification to all air and ground crews. To assist pilots in differentiating at night between
airport runways and freeways, airports have rotating beacon lights. These beacons usually
flash green and white lights to indicate a civilian airport. They are visible from the air long
before the entire airport is recognizable. To help pilots at night quickly identify the beginning of
a runway, green threshold lights line the runway's edge. Red lights mark the ends of runways
and indicate obstructions. Blue lights run alongside taxiways while runways have white or
yellow lights marking their edges. All these markings and lights serve to set a safety standard
for all pilots to follow.

60

61

AI R F I E L D M AR K I N G S

In the good old, bad old days, airfields were just that..... a field. A pilot may well have
found it by following a road or railway line, and just to make sure, the name of the airfield was
often painted in large letters on the hanger roof. A low and slow pass over the field to see the
wind sock and the pilot would then land into the wind.
Like everything else in this world, things have got a lot more complicated than that.
Trainee pilots at first become very concerned that they can never identify an airfield from the
air. Rest assured that after only a short time, you will notice even long defunct airstrips with no
trouble at all. In any case, with the use of radio navigation equipment including of course the
GPS system it is not at all hard to locate any published airfield. A dying practice to
communicate with pilots in the air is the use of the signals square. A 12 metre square on the
ground has movable symbols that if remembered will give information about the airfield. If they
exist at all, they are always marked on the airfield plate as a 'T'. In the current environment
they are quite difficult to see, and the use of radio communication and the provision of good
airfield data makes them largely unnecessary. Many pilots would agree that their eyesight is
better employed keeping a lookout for other aircraft.

Airfield plate of Shobdon (UK)

62

SIGNALS SQUARE KEY

63

These Ground Signals Are Used Outside The Signals Square

Additional Signals On Military Fields

64

Signs for aircraft on the ground

The pilot reporting point is just about always present, often at the control tower or office.
That's where they collect the landing fee! As for the rest, they hardly exist at all, although one
is supposed to know about them to pass the exam.

65

The Windsock

Last but definitely not the least is the windsock. Installed on every airfield, they are the
most direct indication to the pilot of wind direction. Due to local conditions, some airfields may
have more than one, and they may very well show different wind direction. The most famous
example is the airfield of Gibraltar. Not only does the runway bisect the main Gibraltar road,
but wind direction may be completely opposite at one end of the runway to the other due to the
effect of the 'Rock'.

Gibraltar Field
The position of the windsock is always published on airfield plates. They may be 20 knot or 30
knot socks. It is rather important to know which they are, and sadly, not every airfield plate will
specify. If the sock is completely horizontal, the wind strength will be 20/30 knots or more.

66

AT C L I G H T S I G N A L S
In the event that aircraft radios have failed or the that the pilot is silly enough to fly with
a non radio equipped aircraft, the ATC unit can communicate with the pilot by light signals.

from ATC (probably tower)

light signal

to aircraft in flight
give way to other
aircraft and
continue to circle

to aircraft on
ground
Stop

do not land - wait

for permission

do not land - airfield is

not available for
landing

move clear of
landing area

return to
aerodrome: wait for
permission to land

to an aircraft
you may move on
manoeuvring area
and apron
to a vehicle
you may move on
the manoeuvring
area

you may land

you may take off

you may land after

receiving
continuous green
light, then after
receiving green
flashes proceed to
apron

return to your
starting point on
the airfield

67

in the highly unlikely event that your aircraft is suitably

equipped you can communicate with the ground by using light
signals
light signal

from aircraft to airfield

immediate assistance is
required (which is probably
because you have just set
your aircraft alight!)

red pyrotechnic or red flare

by night
may I land?
by day
may I land in a direction
different from that indicated
by the landing T

steady green flashes or

pyrotechnic

white flashes, switching on

and off landing lights or
irregular flashing of
navigation lights

I am compelled to land

Tax i i n g H a n d S i g n a l s
FIG 4-3-7
Signalman Directs Towing

FIG 4-3-8
Signalman's Position

68

FIG 4-3-9

FIG 4-3-10

FIG 4-3-11

Start Engine

Pull Chocks

All Clear (O.K.)

69

FIG 4-3-12
Proceed Straight Ahead

FIG 4-3-13
Left Turn

FIG 4-3-14
Right Turn

FIG 4-3-15

FIG 4-3-16

FIG 4-3-17

Slow Down

Flagman Directs Pilot

Insert Chocks

70

FIG 4-3-20
Stop

FIG 4-3-18
Cut Engines

FIG 4-3-19
Night Operation

71

AIRCRAFT
An aircraft is a vehicle which is able to fly by being supported by the air, or in general,
the atmosphere of a planet. An aircraft counters the force of gravity by using either static lift (as
with balloons, blimps and dirigibles) or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil (as with vehicles
that plane the air with wings in a straight manner, such as airplanes and gliders, or vehicles
that generate lift with wings in a rotary manner, such as helicopters or gyrocopters).[1]
Although rockets and missiles also travel through the atmosphere, most are not
considered aircraft because they use rocket thrust instead of aerodynamics as the primary
means of lift (A cruise missile may be considered to be an aircraft because it relies on a lifting
wing).
The human activity which surrounds aircraft is called aviation. Manned aircraft are flown
by an onboard pilot. Unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by
onboard computers. Target drones are an example of UAVs.

Lighter than Air - Aerostats

Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the
water. They are characterized by one or more large gasbags or canopies, filled with a relatively
low density gas such as helium, hydrogen or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding
air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, it adds up to the
same weight as the air that the craft displaces.
Small hot air balloons called sky lanterns date back to the 3rd century BC, and were
only the second type of aircraft to fly, the first being kites.
Originally, a balloon was any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large,
powered aircraft designs - usually fixed-wing [ - though none had yet been built. The advent of
powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in
size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats,
characterized by a rigid outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas
bags, were produced, the Zeppelins being the largest and most famous. There were still no
fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, so "airship" came to
be synonymous with these aircraft. Then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in
1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a "balloon" is an unpowered aerostat,
whilst an "airship" is a powered one.
A powered, steerable aerostat is called a dirigible. Sometimes this term is applied only
to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship
(which may then be rigid or non-rigid). Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately
aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back. These soon became known as blimps.
During the Second World War, this shape was widely adopted for tethered balloons; in windy
weather, this both reduces the strain on the tether and stabilizes the balloon. The nickname
blimp was adopted along with the shape. In modern times any small dirigible or airship is
called a blimp, though a blimp may be unpowered as well as powered.
72

Heavier than air - aerodynes

Heavier-than-air aircraft must find some way to push air or gas downwards, so that a
reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This dynamic
movement through the air is the origin of the term aerodyne. There are two ways to produce
dynamic up thrust : aerodynamic lift, and powered lift in the form of engine thrust.
Aerodynamic lift is the most common, with fixed-wing aircraft being kept in the air by the
forward movement of wings, and rotorcraft by spinning wing-shaped rotors sometimes called
rotary wings. A wing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross-section as an aerofoil.
To fly, the wing must move forward through the air; this movement of air over the aerofoil
shape deflects air downward to create an equal and opposite upward force, called lift,
according to Newton's third law of motion. A flexible wing is a wing made of fabric or thin sheet
material, often stretched over a rigid frame. A kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the
speed of the wind over its wings, which may be flexible or rigid, fixed or rotary.
With powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrust vertically downwards.
The initialism VTOL (vertical take off and landing) is applied to aircraft that can take off
and land vertically. Most are rotorcraft. Others, such as the Hawker Siddeley Harrier, take off
and land vertically using powered lift and transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight. Similarly,
STOL stands for short take off and landing. Some VTOL aircraft often operate in a short take
off/vertical landing mode known as STOVL.
A pure rocket is not usually regarded as an aerodyne, because it does not depend on
the air for its lift (and can even fly into space); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have
been powered or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles which obtain
aerodynamic lift at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies, are a marginal case.
Fixed-Wing Aircraft

Airbus 340-500
73

A size comparison of some of the largest fixed-wing aircraft. The Airbus A380-800
(largest airliner), the Boeing 747-8, the Antonov An-225 (aircraft with the greatest payload) and
the Hughes H-4 "Spruce Goose" (aircraft with greatest wingspan).
Airplanes or aeroplanes are technically called fixed-wing aircraft.
The forerunner of the fixed-wing aircraft is the kite. Whereas a fixed-wing aircraft relies
on its forward speed to create airflow over the wings, a kite is tethered to the ground and relies
on the wind blowing over its wings to provide lift. Kites were the first kind of aircraft to fly, and
were invented in China around 500 BC. Much aerodynamic research was done with kites
before test aircraft, wind tunnels and computer modeling programs became available.
The first heavier-than-air craft capable of controlled free flight were gliders. A glider
designed by Clayey carried out the first true manned, controlled flight in 1853.

Besides the method of propulsion, fixed-wing aircraft are generally characterized by their
wing configuration. The most important wing characteristics are:

Number of wings - Monoplane, biplane, etc.

Wing support - Braced or cantilever, rigid or flexible.
Wing platform - including aspect ratio, angle of sweep and any variations along the span
(including the important class of delta wings).
Location of the horizontal stabilizer, if any.
Dihedral angle - positive, zero or negative (anhedral).

A variable geometry aircraft can change its wing configuration during flight.
A flying wing has no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods. The opposite
of this is a lifting body which has no wings, though it may have small stabilizing and control
surfaces.
Most fixed-wing aircraft feature a tail unit or empennage incorporating vertical, and often
horizontal, stabilizing surfaces.
Seaplanes are aircraft that land on water, and they fit into two broad classes: Flying
boats are supported on the water by their fuselage. A float plane's fuselage remains clear of
the water at all times, the aircraft being supported by two or more floats attached to the
fuselage and/or wings. Some examples of both flying boats and float planes are amphibious,
being able to take off from and alight on both land and water.
Some people consider wing-in-ground-effect vehicles to be fixed-wing aircraft, others do
not. These craft "fly" close to the surface of the ground or water. An example is the Russian
ekranoplan (nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster"). Man-powered aircraft also rely on ground
effect to remain airborne, but this is only because they are so underpoweredthe airframe is
theoretically capable of flying much higher.
74

Rotorcraft

The AH-64 Apache

Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil section blades (a
rotary wing) to provide lift. Types include helicopters, autogyros and various hybrids such as
gyrodynes and compound rotorcraft.
Helicopters have powered rotors. The rotor is driven (directly or indirectly) by an engine
and pushes air downwards to create lift. By tilting the rotor forwards, the downwards flow is
tilted backwards, producing thrust for forward flight.
Autogyros or gyroplanes have unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to
provide thrust. The rotor is tilted backwards. As the autogyro moves forward, air blows
upwards through it, making it spin.(cf. Autorotation)

75

Military aircraft

AV-8B Harrier
Combat aircraft divide broadly into fighters and bombers, with several in-between types
such as fighter-bombers and ground-attack aircraft (including attack helicopters).
Other supporting roles are carried out by specialist patrol, search and rescue,
reconnaissance, observation, transport, training and Tanker aircraft among others.
Many civil aircraft, both fixed-wing and rotary, have been produced in separate models
for military use, such as the civil Douglas DC-3 airliner, which became the military C-47/C53/R4D transport in the U.S. military and the "Dakota" in the UK and the Commonwealth. Even
the small fabric-covered two-seater Piper J3 Cub had a military version, the L-4 liaison,
observation and trainer aircraft. Gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft;
for example, balloons were used for observation during the American Civil War and World War
I, and military gliders were used during World War II to land troops.

76

Civil Aircraft

Airbus 340-600
Civil aircraft divide into commercial and general types, however there are some overlaps.
Commercial Aircraft

Commercial aircraft include types designed for scheduled and charter airline flights,
carrying both passengers and cargo. The larger passenger-carrying types are often referred to
as airliners, the largest of which are wide-body aircraft. Some of the smaller types are also
used in general aviation, and some of the larger types are used as VIP aircraft.

77

General aviation

General aviation is a catch-all covering other kinds of private and commercial use, and
involving a wide range of aircraft types such as business jets (bizjets), trainers, homebuilt,
aerobatic types, racers, gliders, warbirds, firefighters, medical transports, and cargo transports,
to name a few. The vast majority of aircraft today are general aviation types.
Within general aviation, there is a further distinction between private aviation (where the
pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial aviation (where the pilot is paid by a
client or employer). The aircraft used in private aviation are usually light passenger, business,
or recreational types, and are usually owned or rented by the pilot. The same types may also
be used for a wide range of commercial tasks, such as flight training, pipeline surveying,
passenger and freight transport, policing, crop dusting, and medical evacuations. However the
larger, more complex aircraft are more likely to be found in the commercial sector.
For example, piston-powered propeller aircraft (single-engine or twin-engine) are
common for both private and commercial general aviation, but for aircraft such as turboprops
like the Beech craft King Air and helicopters like the Bell Jet Ranger, there are fewer private
owners than commercial owners. Conventional business jets are most often flown by paid
pilots, whereas the new generation of smaller jets is being produced for private pilots.

78

Experimental Aircraft

Experimental aircraft are one-off specials, built to explore some aspect of aircraft design
and with no other useful purpose. The Bell X-1 rocket plane, which first broke the sound barrier
in level flight, is a famous example.
The formal designation of "experimental aircraft" also includes other types which are "not
certified for commercial applications", including one-off modifications of existing aircraft such
as the modified Boeing 747 which NASA uses to ferry the space shuttle from landing site to
launch site, and aircraft homebuilt by amateurs for their own personal use.

79

PHILIPPINES CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY

The Philippines Civil Aviation Authority formerly Air Transportation Office abbreviated as
CAAP, is an agency of the Philippine government under the Department of Transportation
and Communications responsible for implementing policies on civil aviation to assure safe,
economic and efficient air travel. The agency also investigates aviation accidents. The
agency's main office is in Pasay City.
History
Legislative Act No. 3909 passed by the Philippine Legislative on November 20, 1931 created
an Office under the Department of Commerce and Communications to handle aviation matters,
particularly the enforcement of rules and regulations governing commercial aviation as well as
private flying. It was amended by Act 3996 to include licensing of airmen and aircraft,
inspection of aircraft concerning air traffic rules, schedules and rates and enforcement of
Aviation Laws.
From 1932 to 1936, there were no standard procedures as to the licensing of airmen,
registration of aircraft and recording of various aeronautical activities connected with
commercial aviation. There were attempts made to register planes and their owners without
ascertaining their airworthiness and to record names of pilots, airplane mechanics and other
details.
In 1933, the office of Technical Assistant of Aviation matters was enlarged into the Aeronautics
Division under the Department of Commerce and Industry, the functions of which were
embodied in Administrative Order No. 309, a joint Bulletin issued by the Department of Public
Works and Communications and the Department of Finance.
In October 1934, Act 4033 was passed to require a franchise from the Philippine government
in order to operate an air service and to regulate foreign aircraft operations.
On November 12, 1936, the Philippine Legislative passed Commonwealth Act No. 168, better
known as the Civil Aviation Law of the Philippines which created the Bureau of Aeronautics.
After the liberation of the Philippines in March 1945, the Bureau was reorganized and placed
under the Department of National Defense. Among its functions was to promulgate Civil
Aviation Regulations.
On October 1947, Executive Order No. 94 which reorganized the government transferred
Bureau of Aeronautics to the Newly created Department of Commerce and Industry and
renamed Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA).
On June 5, 1948, Republic Act 224 created the National Airports Corporation which was
charged with the management and operations of all national airports.

80

On June 20, 1952, Republic Act No. 776, otherwise known as the Civil Aeronautics Act of the
Philippines reorganized the Civil Aeronautics Board and the Civil Aeronautics Administration. It
defined the powers and duties of both agencies including the funds, personnel and the
regulations of Civil Aviation.

On October 19, 1956, Executive Order No. 209 placed the Civil Aeronautics Administration
under the administrative supervision and control of the Department of Public Works,
Transportation and Communications
On January 20, 1975, Letter of Instruction No. 244 transferred to the Department of Public
Highways the responsibilities relative to airport plans, designs, construction, improvement,
maintenance as well as site acquisition. The responsibilities related to location , planning
design and funding were later returned to the CAA.
On July 23, 1979, Executive Order No. 546, the CAA was renamed the Bureau of Air
Transportation (BAT) and placed under the Ministry of Transportation and Communications.
On April 13, 1987, Executive Order No. 125-A renamed the Bureau of Air Transportation the Air
Transportation Office headed by the Assistant Secretary of Air Transportation.
On December 3, 2007, Senator Edgardo J. Angara filed senate bill number 1932, otherwise
known as CIVIL AVIATION AUTHORITY ACT OF 2007, authorizing the appropriation of funds
therefor, and for other purposes. The bill abolishes the Air Transportation Office (ATO) and in
its stead creates the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), which is mandated to set comprehensive,
clear and impartial rules of the aviation industry. Under the new law, the CAA shall be an
independent regulatory body with quasi-judicial and quasi-legislative powers with corporate
attributes and on March 4, 2008, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo sign into law.

FAA downgrade
On January 17, 2008, the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) downgraded the
Philippines' rating to Category 2 from Category 1, since its Air Transportation Office
(Philippines) (ATO) did not follow international safety standards. Consequently, Philippine
Airlines (PAL) president Jaime Bautista stated that its 2008 growth targets would be lowered.
Just out of 8 years receivership last year, the FAA decision prevents PAL from increasing US
flights from 33 per week, inter alia.Meanwhile, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo dismissed
acting Air Transportation Office chief Danilo Dimagiba after the said FAA rating downgrade on
the Philippine aviation industry (after it "failed to comply with the aviation standards set by the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO): outdated aviation regulations, poor training
81

programs for safety inspectors and sub-standard licensing for air frame and engine
inspectors").
She designated DOTC [Department of Transportation and Communications] Secretary
Leandro Mendoza as concurrent Officer in Charge of ATO." Also, the Embassy of the United
States in Manila warned American in the Philippines "to refrain from using Philippine-based
carriers due to "serious concerns" about the ATO's alleged mishandling of the aviation
industry." Dimagiba blamed lack of funds for the FAA downgrade, alleging that ATO needs Php
1 billion ($1 = Php 40), roughly around $25,000,000.
Flight Service Station
A Flight Service Station (FSS) is an air traffic facility that provides information and services to
aircraft pilots before, during, and after flights, but unlike air traffic control (ATC), is not
responsible for giving instructions or clearances or providing separation. The people who
communicate with pilots from an FSS are referred to as specialists rather than controllers,
although in the US, FSS specialists' official job title is air traffic control specialist - station.
The precise services offered by stations vary by country, but typical FSS services may include
providing preflight briefings including weather and notices to airmen (NOTAM); filing, opening,
and closing flight plans; monitoring navigational aids (NAVAID); collecting and disseminating
pilot reports (PIREP); offering traffic advisories to aircraft on the ground or in flight; relaying
instructions or clearances from air traffic control; and providing assistance in an emergency. In
many countries, flight service stations also operate at mandatory frequency airports to help coordinate traffic in the absence of air traffic controllers, and may take over a control tower
frequency at a controlled airport when the tower is closed.
In most cases, it is possible to reach flight service stations either by radio in flight, or by
telephone on the ground. Recently, some countries, such as Canada and the United States,
have been consolidating flight services into large regional centre, replacing former local flight
service stations with remote communications outlets (RCO) connected to the centre.
Each week, Flight Service Specialists help provide a range of services to between 80,000 and
90,000 members of general aviation community. On behalf of the Federal Aviation
Administration, Lockheed Martin operates 10 flight services stations and three hubs across the
country and consolidation will be complete by 2010. AFSS provides users of the National
Airspace System - from Hawaii to Puerto Rico to every state in the contiguous US - with:

Pre-flight, In-flight, operational and special services

En route communications
Search and rescue
Pre-flight and in-flight meteorological and aeronautical briefings
Development, translation, processing and coordination of aeronautical, meteorological
and aviation information
Support of air shows, conventions and other aviation events

82

AIRSPACE
Airspace means the portion of the atmosphere controlled by a particular country on top of
its territory and Territorial waters or, more generally, any specific three-dimensional portion of
the atmosphere.

AIRSPACE CLASSES
Class A
Class A airspace extends from 18,000 feet (5,500 m) mean sea level (MSL) to FL600
(approximately 60,000 feet (18,000 m) MSL) throughout the United States.
Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, all flight operations in Class A airspace must be under
ATC control, and must be operating IFR, under a clearance received prior to entry.
Since Class A airspace is normally restricted to instrument flight only, there are no minimum
visibility requirements.
Class B
Class B airspace is defined around key airport traffic areas, usually airspace
surrounding the busiest airports in the U.S.A. according to the number of IFR operations and
passengers passing through. The exact shape of the airspace varies from one Class B area to
another, but in most cases it has the shape of an inverted wedding cake, with a series of
circular shelves of airspace of several thousand feet in thickness centered on a specific
83

airport. Each shelf is larger than the one beneath it. Class B airspace normally begins at the
surface in the immediate area of the airport, and successive shelves of greater and greater
radius begin at higher and higher altitudes at greater distances from the airport. Many Class B
airspaces diverge from this model to accommodate traffic patterns or local topological or other
features. The upper limit of Class B airspace is normally 10,000 feet (3,000 m) MSL.
All aircraft entering Class B airspace must obtain ATC clearance prior to entry and must be
prepared for denial of clearance. Aircraft must be equipped with a two-way radio for
communications with ATC and an operating Mode C transponder, furthermore aircraft
overflying the upper limit of any Class B airspace must have an operating Mode C transponder.
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) flights may proceed under their own navigation after obtaining
clearance but must obey any explicit instructions given by ATC. Some Class B airspaces
include special transition routes for VFR flight that require communication with ATC but may
not require an explicit clearance. Other Class B airspaces include VFR corridors through which
VFR flights may pass without clearance (and without technically entering the Class B
airspace).
VFR flights operating in Class B airspace must have three miles (5 km) of visibility and must
remain clear of clouds (no minimum distance).
Class B airspace has the most stringent rules of all the airspaces in the United States. Class B
has strict rules on pilot and student certification. Pilots operating in Class B airspace must have
a private pilot's certificate, or have met the requirement of CFR 61.95. These are often
interpreted to mean "have an instructor's endorsement for having been properly trained in that
specific Class B space." However, it does not apply to student pilots seeking sport or
recreational certificates. Some Class B airspaces prohibit student pilots entirely and are listed
in the AIM section 3-2-3(b)2.
In addition to this, some Class B airspaces prohibit Special VFR flights. Certain Class B
airports have a Mode C veil, which is airspace within thirty nautical miles of the airport in which
all aircraft must have an operating Mode C transponder (up to 10,000 feet (3,000 m) MSL).

Class C
Class C space is structured in much the same way as Class B airspace, but on a
smaller scale. Class C airspace is defined around airports of moderate importance that have
an operational control tower and is in effect only during the hours of tower operation at the
primary airport. The vertical boundary is usually 4,000 feet (1,200 m) above the airport surface.
The core surface area has a radius of five nautical miles (9 km), and goes from the surface to
the ceiling of the Class C airspace. The upper shelf area has a radius of ten nautical miles,
and extends from as low as 1,200 feet (370 m) up to the ceiling of the airspace.
All aircraft entering Class C airspace must establish radio communication with ATC prior
to entry, generally about 20 miles (32 km) out. The aircraft must be equipped with a two-way
radio and an operating Mode C (altitude reporting) radar transponder, furthermore aircraft
overflying above the upper limit of Class C airspace must have an operating Mode C
84

transponder. VFR flights in Class C airspace must have three miles (5 km) of visibility, and fly
an altitude at least 500 feet (150 m) below, 1,000 feet (300 m) above, and 2,000 feet (600 m)
laterally from clouds.
There is no specific pilot certification required. Aircraft speeds must be below 200 knots
(230 mph) at or below 2,500 feet (760 m) above the ground, and within 4 nautical miles (7 km)
of the Class C airport.

Class D
Class D airspace is circular in form and normally extends from the surface to 2,500 feet
(760 m) above the ground and to a variable radius (generally 5 statute miles) around airports
with an operational control tower and not otherwise in Class C or Class B airspace. Class D
airspace reverts to Class E during hours when the tower is closed, or under other special
conditions.
Two-way communication with ATC must be established before entering Class D
airspace, generally at 5 to 10 miles (16 km) out, but no transponder is required. VFR cloud
clearance and visibility requirements are the same as Class C.

Class E
In most areas of the United States, Class E airspace extends from 1,200 feet (370 m)
AGL up to but not including 18,000 feet (5,500 m) MSL, the lower limit of Class A airspace.
There are areas where Class E airspace begins at either the surface or 700 AGL that are used
to transition to/from the terminal or en route environment (around non-towered airports). These
areas are designated by VFR sectional charts.
In some areas of the western United States, class E airspace begins at 14,500 feet
(4,420 m) MSL. These areas are usually either very remote or very mountainous. (e.g. the
airspace over many areas of Montana).
Most airspace in the United States is Class E. The airspace above FL600 is also Class E.
No ATC clearance or radio communication is required for VFR flight in Class E airspace.
VFR visibility requirements are as they are for Class C and Class D airspaces, except that the
visibility requirement is extended to five miles (8 km) above 10,000 feet (3,000 m) MSL, and
the cloud clearance requirement above 10,000 feet (3,000 m) MSL is extended to 1,000 feet
(300 m) below, 1,000 feet (300 m) above, and one mile (1.6 km) laterally.
Class G
Class G airspace includes all airspace not otherwise classified below flight level 600.
There are no entry or clearance requirements for Class G airspace, even for IFR operations.
85

Class G airspace is typically the airspace very near the ground (1200 feet or less), beneath
Class E airspace.
Radio communication is not required in Class G airspace, even for IFR operations.
Class G is completely uncontrolled.
VFR visibility requirements in Class G airspace are one mile (1.6 km) by day, and three
miles (5 km) by night, for altitudes below 10,000' MSL. Beginning at 10,000' MSL, five miles
(8 km) of visibility are required, day and night. Cloud clearance requirements are to maintain
an altitude that is 500 feet (150 m) below, 1,000 feet (300 m) above, and 2,000 feet (600 m)
laterally below 10,000 feet (3,000 m) MSL; at or above 10,000 feet (3,000 m) MSL, they are
1,000 feet (300 m) below, 1,000 feet (300 m) above, and one mile (1.6 km) laterally. By day at
1,200 feet (370 m) AGL and below, aircraft must remain clear of clouds, but there is no
minimum distance.
It should be noted that there are certain exceptions where Class G is extended above
1,200 feet (370 m) AGL. This is usually either over very mountainous terrain (i.e. some areas
in the Rocky Mountains), or very sparse areas (i.e.,
SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE
Some airspace categories have no correlation with ICAO airspace classes but are
nevertheless important in United States airspace. The airspace class (A, B, etc.) in which
special use airspace is found still controls the requirements and procedures for flying
into/through it.
Alert and warning areas
Alert and Warning areas contain special hazards that pilots must take into consideration
when entering the areas. They do not require a special Air traffic control clearance, but ATC
can advise on the status of the area in some cases (whether or not hazardous activities are in
progress, for example).
Restricted airspace
Entry into restricted areas is prohibited under certain conditions without a special
clearance obtained from the controlling agency obtained directly or via ATC. Examples of
restricted areas include test firing ranges and other military areas with special hazards or
containing sensitive zones.
Prohibited airspace
Entry into prohibited areas is forbidden under all circumstances. Prohibited areas exist
over a handful of extremely sensitive locations, such as the White House.
Military operation area (MOA)
Military operation areas (MOA) are areas in which military activities are regularly
conducted. No special clearance is required to enter MOAs, but pilots should verify with ATC or
Flight service station that no hazardous activity is underway before entering an MOA.
86

Terminal radar service area (TRSA)

Terminal radar service area, or TRSA, is general controlled airspace wherein ATC
provides radar vectoring, sequencing, and separation on a full-time basis for all IFR and
participating VFR aircraft. Service provided at a TRSA is called Stage III Service. TRSA's are
depicted on VFR aeronautical charts. Pilot participation is urged but is not mandatory.
They are designated in high volume traffic areas where radar services are available but
not otherwise designated as B or C class airspace, such as the Palm Springs Valley in
Southern California where high mountainous terrain channels air traffic into the same busy
space.
When VFR, you need not contact TRACON prior to entry or while in any TRSA,
however it is recommended you do so. There are no specific equipment requirements to
operate VFR in a TRSA. If you ask for and receive radar services from TRACON, you must
comply with heading and altitudes assigned or cancel the service.
Temporary flight restriction (TFR)
Temporarily restricted airspace is designated by NOTAM and used to provide a safe
airspace environment for emergency aircraft operations in situations such as forest fires,
disasters, or during Presidential movement.
VFR chart notation
Specific conventions are used to indicate airspace boundaries on VFR sectional and
terminal area charts (TACs) for the United States.
Types of Airspace
Controlled airspace exists where it is deemed necessary that air traffic control has some
form of positive executive control over aircraft flying in that airspace.

Uncontrolled airspace is airspace in which air traffic control does not exert any
executive authority, although it may act in an advisory manner.

Airspace may be further subdivided into a variety of areas and zones, including those
where there are either restrictions on flying activities or complete prohibition of flying activities.

87

Which aircraft need separating?

It is a common misconception that air traffic controllers keep all aircraft separated. Whether
aircraft actually need separating depends upon the class of airspace in which the aircraft are
flying, and the flight rules under which the pilot is operating the aircraft. As stated by the U.S.
FAA, The pilot has the ultimate responsibility for ensuring appropriate separations and
positioning of the aircraft in the terminal area to avoid the wake turbulence created by a
preceding aircraft.[1]
There are three sets of flight rules under which an aircraft can be flown:

Visual Flight Rules (VFR)

Special Visual Flight Rules (SVFR)
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)

Public transport flights are almost exclusively operated under IFR, as this set of rules allows
flight in regions of low visibility (e.g. cloud). On the other hand a large amount of private flying
in light aircraft is done under VFR since this requires a lower level of flying skill on the part of
the pilot, and meteorological conditions in which a pilot can see and avoid other aircraft. As its
name suggests, SVFR is a special infrequently-used set of rules. For the purposes of
separation, controllers consider SVFR to be the same as IFR.
Airspace exists in seven classes, A to G, in decreasing order of air traffic control regulation.
Classes A to E are controlled airspace and classes F and G are uncontrolled airspace. At one
end of the scale in classes A and B airspace, all aircraft must be separated from each other. At
the other end of the scale in class G airspace there is no requirement for any aircraft to be
separated from each other. In the intermediate classes some aircraft are separated from each
other depending on the flight rules under which the aircraft are operating. For example in class
D airspace, IFR aircraft are separated from other IFR aircraft, but not from VFR aircraft, nor
are VFR aircraft separated from each other.
Air traffic control communications
In some countries, such as the United States, it is a requirement to suffix a heavy aircraft's call
sign with the word "heavy" when communicating with ATC in the Terminal Radar Area. If the
aircraft is operating on an Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) frequency, it is not
required to append "heavy" at the end of its call sign. For example, flight UAL342 operated by
United Airlines using a wide-body aircraft
Vertical separation
Between the surface and an altitude of 29,000 feet (8,800 m), no aircraft should come closer
vertically than 1,000 feet or 300 metres (in those countries that express altitude in metres),
unless some form of horizontal separation is provided. Above 29,000 feet (8,800 m) no aircraft
shall come closer than 2,000 feet (or 600 m), except in airspace where Reduced Vertical
Separation Minima (RVSM) can be applied.
Horizontal separation
88

If any two aircraft are separated by less than the vertical separation minimum, then some form
of horizontal separation must exist.

Procedural separation
Procedural separation is separation based upon the position of the aircraft, based upon reports
made by the pilots over the radio. It therefore does not necessarily require the use of radar to
provide air traffic control using procedural separation minima. In procedural control, any period
during which two aircraft are not vertically separated is said to be "level change". In some
cases, procedural separation minima are provided for use with radar assistance, however it is
important not to get this mixed up with radar separation as in the former case the radar need
not necessarily be certified for use for radar separation purposes, the separation is still
procedural.
Lateral separation
Lateral separation minima are usually based upon the position of the aircraft as derived
visually, from dead reckoning or internal navigation sources, or from radio navigation aids
('beacons').
In the case of beacons, to be separated, the aircraft must be a certain distance from the
beacon (measured by time or by DME) and their tracks to or from the beacon must diverge by
a minimum angle.
Other lateral separation may be defined by the geography of pre-determined routes, for
example the North Atlantic Track system.
Longitudinal separation
If two aircraft are not laterally separated, and are following tracks within 45 degrees of each
other (or the reciprocal), then they are said to be following the same route and some form of
longitudinal separation must exist.
Longitudinal separation can be based upon time or distance as measure by DME. The golden
rule is the 15 minute rule: no two aircraft following the same route must come within 15
minutes flying time of each other. In areas with good navaid cover this reduces to 10 minutes;
if the preceding aircraft is faster than the following one then this can be reduced further
depending of the difference in speed.
Aircraft whose tracks bisect at more than 45 degrees are said to be crossing, in this case
longitudinal separation cannot be applied as it will not be very long before lateral separation
will exist again.
Radar separation
Radar separation is applied by a controller observing that the radar returns from the two
aircraft are a certain minimum horizontal distance away from each other, as observed on a
suitably calibrated radar system. The actual distance used varies: 5 nmi (9 km) is common in
89

en route airspace, 3 NM is common in terminal airspace at lower levels. On occasion 10 NM

may be used, especially at long range or in regions of less reliable radar cover.
By US FAA Rules[2], when an aircraft is:
1. Less than 40 miles from the [radar] antenna, horizontal separtion is 3 miles from
obstructions or other aircraft.
2. 40 miles or more from the [radar] antenna, horizontal separation is 5 miles from
obstructions or other aircraft.
3. Terminal Area For single sensor ASR-9 with Mode S, when less than 60 miles from
the antenna, horizontal separation is 3 miles from other aircraft.
Reduced separation
In certain special cases, controllers may reduce separation below the usually required minima.
In the vicinity of an aerodrome
Aerodrome or "Tower" controllers work in tall towers with large windows allowing them, in good
weather, to see the aircraft flying in the vicinity of the aerodrome, unless the aircraft is not in
sight from the tower (i.e. a helicopter departing from a ramp area). Also, aircraft in the vicinity
of an aerodrome tend to be flying at lower speeds. Therefore, if the aerodrome controller can
see both aircraft, or both aircraft report that they can see each other, or a following aircraft
reports that it can see the preceding one, controllers may reduce the standard separation to
whatever is adequate to prevent a collision.
RVSM
Main article: Reduced Vertical Separation Minima
In certain airspace, between 29,000 and 41,000 feet (12,500 m), pairs of aircraft equipped with
more modern altimeter and autopilot systems can be vertically separated by minimum of
1,000 feet (300 m) rather than the standard 2,000 feet (600 m).
RVSM airspace encompasses Europe, North America, parts of Asia and Africa and both the
Pacific and Atlantic oceans.

90