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    8 Learning

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    200 _ Psychology for Graduate Nurses wsencler’s words and phrases. A nurse worked with rious cultures who speak different languages. Those ly fun or a favourite cress or try. Adolescents often use words in unique ‘ways that are unfamil Clarity and brevity: Effective communication is simple, shor to the point to mi i words that express an idea simply and directly. Denotative aid conmotative meaning: A single word can have several meanings. The denotative meaning is shared by individuals who use a common language. The word baseball has the same ‘meaning for all individuals who speak English, but the word “code” denotes cardiac arrest to health care staff. The connotative ‘meaning is the interpretation of a word’s meaning by the thoughts, feeling orideas people have about that word. Families ‘who are told a loved one is in serious condition may behave that death is near but to nurses the term “serious” simply describe the nature of the illness. Hon: Tone of voice affects the meaning of a message and, emotions directly influence tone of voice. A simple question rent can express enthusiasm, anger or concern. Talking using awkward pauses can convey an unintended ‘message. Long pauses and rapid shift to another subject m: the impression that one is trying to hide the truth. Speak ly to enunciate clearly and use pauses to stress a particular ‘Timing is critical in communication: The best time for interacti is when a client expresses an interest in communicating. Whi a client is facing emergency surgery, discussing the risk smoking is less relevant than explaining preoperative procedures The Learning Process MEL One of the most import Sr characteristics of human being is their learn. Our personality—our habits, skills, kn ‘abits, skills, knowledge, ests and characteris largely the result of learning, DEFINITION Gearing has been defined as a permanent change in beha That occurs as a of practice or experience le girl, being indlisposed is taken to a h Prepares the syringe which the little ‘nurse injects the medicine and the gil istakentothe urge next time, she stars : ‘akes the syringe. She had learned by experience th painful ing caused changes inher behavior. is central to all our behavior as we learn to spéa think and perceive. Ouratttudes and emotional expressions dhe dun leamed behaviors. (There are three important factor» 1 the definition of lenin: @ a _ Learning brings change in behavior (usually for the better) 2: Change takes place through practice or experience and vet ces to maturation 2 be relatively permanent lasting 3. The change in behavior sl for years, months or weel MODES, METHODS OR THEORIES OF LEARNING 1, Trial and error 2. Theory of conditioned reflexes a. Classical conditioning b. Operant conditioning. 3. Cognitive learning a. Insight leaming b. Sign learning. 202 _ Psychology for Graduate Nurses Trial and Error Method Edward Lee Thorndike (1874 considered as the father of educs series of experiments (19117 on tiaTand error method of by animals. Experiment ry rat was set free at the entrance of a wooden maze which contained many pathways from the entrance to the centre. But 1 Ways except one were blocked somewhere in the middle. ‘A piece of bread was placed in the center of the maze. Seeing he bread, the hungry rat rushed to g happened to enter ith which was obstructed in was able to identify the righ: very first glance ying out other parts. Thorndike ted similar experiments on a number of animals, e.g, monkeys, dogs, hens and cats. The errors were reduced as the trials were repeated, ie. SR connections were made. B rai's experiment and several other similar experiments. ‘Thorndike formulated certain laws of learning, According to ‘Thorndike all learning is trial and error. Laws of Etfective Learning . Law of effect Any response followed by a reward (Food) will “be strengthened. Any response which is unsuccessful will be ‘weakened. Law of exercise ‘The law of exercise states that there is a direct, relationship between repetition and the strength of the stimulus- response bond. The Jaw of exerci ‘on the law of use and law of disuse. @s perthe law of use, any task thatis repeated. shows a tendency for the strengthening of the bond and as ted shows a per the law of disuse any task that is not 72 tendency for the weakening of the bon: (reading, writing, typing, singing, drawing, dancing, et learned by constant practice over a long period, 3. _Law of readiness Learning takes place best when a person is Teady to learn. If a person is ready to act, acting gives him ———________TheLeaming Process _203 satisfaction. A person cannot learn if he i mnot ¢ is not ready to learn, Readiness incies motivation, inclination, tide ceamindet lige ight learning. discoveries have taken place suddenly without eae land errr. Quit oft individuals lar suddenly rather than by trial and error which is e consuming process, een Learning by Trial and Error The method of trial and error is used when: & The leamer is completely motivated and sees the goal cléaiy, e ze only because it is hungry and the maze. ies alone are not suffici tion to the problem throt perception, understanding, intelligence and language. Then he Proceeds blindly, tries in various directions, commits errors, eliminates them and finally arrives at the correct responsé) Classical Conditioning we study of classical conditioning began i re had already won the Nobel prize (1904) for research on digestion, {umed his attention to learning. While studying digestion Paviow, oticed that a dog began to salivate at the mere sight of the food. Aish. Pavlov decided to see whether a dog could be taught to associate food with other things, such as a light or a tone’ Baton Experiments lov's experiment, a researcher first attached a capsule to 4 dog’ salivary gland wo measure salivary fow. Abas sone every time, the dog Sam was given the meat powder. This wae repeated several times. Later Pavlov observed thatthe dog salivated atthemere sound ofthe bell, without the meat powder being followed. the dog had been conditioned to respond to a new stimulus ilus (CS) and salivation at the sound of the conditioned response (CR). 204 _ Psychology for Graduate Nurses Pavlov's theory is that CS (bell) simply as a result of pairing with the UCS (meat powder) acquires for the UCS in evoking the response. This me: anass is formed between the CS and the UCS, so that CS becomes equivalent of the UCS in eliciting response. Pavlov believed that this association took place in the brain. Two areas of the brain, one for the UCS and the other for the CS became activated during classical conditioning and the activation of UCS area resulted in a reflex or automatic response. Pavlov showed us how a significant internal process such as learning can be studied objectively. tinction and Spontaneous Recovery (When a CS is presented alone without the UCS for a number of Trials, the strength of the CS gradually decreases. This process is the meat powder for a number of trials, salivation gradually decreases(A fter a response has been extinguished, it recovers some ofits strength with the passage of time. This is nown agspontaneous recover} This implies thatthe extinction procedure whi decreasing the strength of a conditioned response does not entirely remove the tendency to respond to CS. Reconditioning is more rapid than original conditioning, Recon« ig occurs when CS and UCS. from original conditions is paired again. lar in some way to the conditioned stimulus but have never been paired with the unconditioned stimulu$)The Stimulus generalizations are responsible for developing phobias in people. Ad lop a fear for furred animal beard. These irrational fears can be of extinction, nated by the principle Deserimination 2 This is a process that is complimentary to generalization. It occurs ‘when the individual learns to distinguish between similar stimuli Piven te fect a Jeet feist Sh been Sela ea ————yy_— The Leaming Process 206 and to respond different While generalization occurs ue to similarities, discrimination rests due to differenees Selects reinforcement and extinction cause discrimination. For example, inan experiment with animals, lights, and S, on adjacent windows llowed by an air puff first day only S, was presented and When on the second day trials with $, and S; intermingled and presented when only 5; was reinforced, conditioned blinking, occurred only for S,. This shows that the animal has discriminated betyeen S, and S,. Discrimination i the opposite of (Crocesses like extinction, spontaneous recovery, get and discrimination are being successfully used in behavior therapy Many of the unpleasant emotional responses that are the causati factors for many abnormal behavior can be the principles of classical conditioning, e Learning by Classical Condhtioning (Table 20.1) ‘The principles of classical conditioning can be used in the followin areas of animal and human leaming: Developing good habits Good habits such as cleanliness, respect Tor elders, and punctuality, etc. can be brought about by using principles of classical cond Breaking of bad habits and elimination of conditioned fears All learnings acquired in the social environment. Acquired leaning may be deconditioned by using the principles of classical conditioning, e.g. for deconditioning anxiety and fear in maladjusted children, Animals trainers have been using the Principle of classical conditioning for long without being much aware of the underlying mechanism. 4. _Use in psychotherapy In deconditioning emotional fears in mental "patients ——— 5. Used to develop favorable or unfavorable attitude towards learning and the school. i ich is a common symptom of emotional disorder ‘fear thatis induced through classical conditioning. Forfxample) person develops fear of automobiles because of his painful experience of an accident) 206 _ Psychology for Graduate Nurses #Fthe behaviorist school, showed. iren in the same way as dogs. child Albert to become afraid of furry animals by frightening him with a loud noise, every time he ple wk previ bred fry to ‘A number of activities we perform in our day-to-day life are merely conditioned reflexes learned through the process of conditioning, Some psychiatric symptoms may be the result of conditioning, Fear of open undefined spaces, of sharp objects, of blood, of carrying out certain treatments may have occurred as a result of conditioning without the person’s knowledge. Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Conditioning (Table 20.1) Instrumental conditioning is associated with the works of EL. ‘Thorndike (1874-1947) and BESkinner (1904- the first to conduct 0) Thorndike was bboratory experiments (1898) on operant to the formulation of the Jaw of effect whiel formed thebasisof the principle of reinforcement Butt was Skinner conditioning popular with experiments on pige beings. (Su de a glass box (Skinner box) containing, a lever and food tray. The animal was free to explore the box. Whenever the ever in the box was pressed, automatically a pellet of food was dropped on the tray. By a mechanical device the number of times the rat pressed on the lever was recorded, Pressing of was the response to be learned (the operant response) 3 food was the stimulus consequence (reinforcement). The rate of presses increased notably with the rewarding of the rat pressed the lever. By reinforcement the I response. Reinforcement can be either re (rewards) or negative (unishmend) Operants are actions which animals and human beings do like walking, smiling, watching televisions, etc. The learner has to “operate” on his environment. The term “instrumental” points to some control over his circumstances trumental the fact that the learner His action is instrumental to what happens to him. action. Intention and achievement are important in this kind of learning, The Leaming Process 207 "a Gp i os lw pt en Classical coma es Operant Response is. elicited Response is emitted or not UCS ‘wil be presented "™* Time interval between C$ and the Bane CS and th Time interval depends on the ‘organism's ‘own behavior ‘The reward is contingent upon the ocurrence of response ‘Association between stimulus response Seettin Nee i Association between stimulus ‘nd space’ get assocated) ‘There is pairing of UCS and CS No pairing of UCS and CS but Pairing of a response and the ‘einforcing stimulus which follows Reinforcement comes firt as food Reinforcement is provided ater the fst to elicit the response response is made by the organism ne is Stiuts i preted resented regardless of ver the organs th co {Gi condoned pone ocean SEN mA the si Stimulus oriented Response orieated Jeaming is stimulus ‘The essence of learning is response Voluntary response Involves autonomic nervous system Involves central nervous system Organism is_passive Organism is active Types of Instrument Conditioning By this method, -ment is used in reward training. wl his due allowance when he mn rewards are used to withhold is called omission training. For a response that is not desired, ample) if a child is offered a candy for giving up nail by ing) For Bampla giving an makes the desired respon: 208 Psychology for Graduate Nurses training refers tothe use of negative reinforcement to increase response. For example, «Shaping. Shaping refers to the reinforcing of closer approximation Yor performing a desired response, This consists of learning graduated steps, when each following step has a resemblance to known as the method of successive approximations. For example, in language teaching, the child may atthe beginning say “Maaa”—Mrr— the desired performance andit ‘Maar—and finally “mother” Behavior Modification Operant conditioning is used in a form of treatment known as ‘ion. Patients with behavior disorders have successfully leamt to use socially acceptable behavior within a relatively short time, Mentally retarced children have learnt self- help skills such as use of toilet and dressing and undressing previously considered too difficult. There are many techniques which can be used and their application to specific patients has to be so carefully planned that many colleges of nursing now offer many post basic courses in behavior therapy. For behavior modification, one must complex the desired behavior is. To eat with a spoon, for example, putting the hands on the table and not into the soup, holding the spoon by the handle such as sitting down, scan be separately rewarded without waiting u of soup has been eaten. This is known as “behavis ‘While nurses should know what reward pleases a patient most, he must also learn to ignore inappropriate responses of her patients, ‘A systematic attempt to decondition by making new associ ‘with pleasure stimuli is being done in psychotherapy. have been helped by this method to overcome disabl open spaces, sharp objects and other phobias. Alcoholism and sexual deviation have bee process, of establishing, @ c drinking or sexually deviant bel ated by the reverse nk betweer! nausea and Principle of instrument conditionin, '§ and in personalized system is used in program of instruction, Cognitive Theories of Learning tami complex forms of lea cognition process theorist ean eatnod be Perception and knowledge or role. According to cognitive meee explained in terms of SR (stimulus. Tpnene, [They propose that a lexmer forms gute stu memo which organizes information into Rintorsips and meanings without any kaown reinforcers] wrong lations are formed and new relationships are perceived ngs ents simply a aresult of having experienced these events, § are made among stimuli so that stimulus-stimulus (6: associations are learned. Een heat of Leaming by Insight developed by a group of Gestalt estalt psychologists, Kurt Kot and Max Wertheimer who concided thet the known as insight and not by blind. 2m, a person can deduce thesolution on asa whole The sl iewed a awhdle wll dainty lok dufent om tet oe ot object or situation is not merely «quite different from ts elements of the parts may create a new sum total ofits parts like water hydrogen and oxygen. Sum tot entity which is called as Gestalt. The emergence Jn an individual an insight into the problems TOOE® ‘The most famous experiments conducted by Kohler i insight were those conducted wit if Some bananas were placed was then given two sticks 80 cor together, he hungry Sultan tried to 4 red to get the bananas by extending out his Pands. Then he took up one ofthe sticks and tied to pull ee eamgnas, an effort which hé kept up for one hour Thad e and started to play with the sticks. Meanwhi of one stick got incidentally fast "rng Bas on es len tened i in Ga of other stick with the result that both te sic nese eg together. Now Sultan used this joi acs used this joined stick to pull 210 Psychology for Graduate Nurses ‘The Gestalt psychologists made a number of such experiments and concluded that individuals learn by insight which emerges Suddenly asa result of perceiving the situation asa whole, Sultan's sudden learning was due to insight developed from his perception Of the total situation consisting of the cage, sticks and bananas as a whole ‘The gestalists tried (o interpret learning as a purposive, exploratory and creative enterprise instead of trial and error or simple stimulus response mechanisms. Characteristics of Learning by Insight 1 sudden. 2. ‘ue fo understanding. 3. Insight yerception. 4, Old neat pes ‘new patterns and organization due to insight. 5. Higher species of animals including man has mote insight than, members of lower 5 6. Insight develops usually after some trial and error While classical conditioning and operant conditionin; and error) belong to the stimulus-response (S-R) theories ing, insight learning belongs to the cognitive learning stinmulus- ulus (SS) theories. Insight is often used in problem solving, puzzles and riddles. “To emphasise the suddenness of the solution, itis also called as “Aha experience” or Archimedes’ “Ureka”. sl ‘Tolman’s Theory of Sign Learning ‘Aucording to Tolman, (1930) learning, i a total process. It takes Pic copntin ognon es cng ke ow inking, planning, inference and Rae ‘The learner through his experience recognise some gles or signs and then relationships with goals. Learning consists in the recognition of signs and their meanings in relation to. goals. Tolman argued thal ‘organism follows certain signs and clues to-reach a goal, It learns its ways by following a sort of mental map and it does not learn only some movements but also, their significance and meanings. Hence, this théory is called sign learning theory. The Leaming Process 211 In a typical ex : periment by investi ; comparison was madebetween torre ree eaening, a " two groupsot hus Jone group eachsubjectreceived eodoniimaite ns steady improvementwas noticed. Intheother, cache Access o the maze withoutfindinga food reward and mmentoceuredin time oreror sce cena lowever, when food was introduced atthe tenth t mance soon approxi iy Tastee anges ee Social Leaming: Albert Bandura Dies ie many forms of learr conditioning, we also leam thro and Richard Walters (1963) focus ofleaning isons cboavatonalesninger inion is defined a5 a response that is like the stimu "Ponse; a person or animal watches or hears something; then responds in the same wai that nearly all learni i ing that can tak instrument le Ene ig which cannot be explained by h observation, Albert Bandura lus triggering another do or say Bandura maintains ice direct behaviot§ like aggression is é + Television ca ave go a8 well as bed — ‘cial behavior through positive

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