Memory: Remembering and Forgetting be studied in of the first phenomena to wus 1864), Without memory Cepblae = each occurrence fog noe com t cart memory. he curren’ Bor" Cognition concerns the internal pro- s, One aspect of this 5 - system =Information Processing Maemo ncmory that emphasize the processing ofinformaton Heevageo oF steps are known ao information processing theories ‘Reeotalng to psychologist, John Kihlstron, university of Arison Aco ee modelled after the high speed comp e987 te PP pmorizing process are organized in the form o traces which functions like a computer. mentioned "Memory is said to consist of three cognitive prncesses rnitionencoding, storage and reieval 9 stored, ‘can be {ransformi the coded information factually putting Storage is the process of i 0 Ts the process of gaining access to the encoded, stored is the mm when it is to be use ‘TYPES OF MEMORY : ep emmation, mainly three kinds of storage are destribed. They are for ainly three kinds of storage y i my Memory: Remembering and Forgetting 219 ———aeneirrmoting and Forgetting 219 1, Sensory memory (SM) or immediate memory 2. Short term memory (STM), and 3. Long term memory (LTM). Sensory Memory or Immediate Memory Stores incoming inform capacity {Trformation it duration: ina sensory register which has large sensory register lasts for a very short iging from fraction of a second toa few seconds\Sensory the flash of letters on a screen or the auditory image 'word. The materials of sensory memory may be processed sm or long term memory or they may be discarded, Types of Sensory Memory Sensory memory is of two types: a. Iconic memory Photographic or picture image memory) b. Echoie memory, [leonic memory is form of sensory memory that holds visual information for almost quarter of a second or mof@]lt makes things your Visual world appear smooth and continuois despite frequent blinks and an eye movements. For example, iconic memory holds sparks in an electric sign as individual images as it travels in a circle, as a result you see a continuous circle of light rather than single dots of light: memory A momentary sensory memory of audit stimulus; tention is else , sounds and words can still be recalled Ie lets you to play back oe and gives you time to recognize sounds as words Functions of Sensory Memory 1._Prevents from being overwhelmed: Sensory memory keeps you from being overwhelmed by too many incoming stimuli. Anything you do not attend to, will vanish in seconds. Gives decision time sensory memory gives you a few seconds {decide whether some incoming information is interesting or important Information o youpay attention will automaticaly be transferred to STM. | 3 Provides stability, playback and recognition. fe vides stability, playback a220 Psychology tor Graduate Nurses Short Term Memory (STM) or Working Memory Ghort term memory holds a relatively small amou St seven fem chunks, for a short period of 15-30 secon) formation stored consists of sounds, images, words formation is lost from STM by being displaced by. formation from STM may be transferred to LTM ‘maintenance oF elaborative rehearsa) If you pay ing the information such as humming the song, notes. Whether or not recall the s memory (LTM) depends partly on how it is encoded. 1s result in poor encoding ing makes new association w! ‘and poor recall on examination. Good yhich increases the chances of LTM has the unlimite mati ; fears and even a life time) Information may be lost, oF ongiten 5 difficulties rast not retrieved, from, Tong term memory because o in the search process or because of interference by other long term ‘memories, Ame, father’s Lis by LTM that youalways remember your name, your! ease ‘ther personal data. CTMis offfwo type and Memory: Remembering and Forgetting 221 Episodic Memory Episodic memory isthe memory related to our personal aftais ‘name, qualification, date ofitth and personallexperienced Ge arecordofwhathashappened ous ourremesberancescpast ing Itis less organized and hence will be forgotten faster) es Semantic Memory Cleompriss our knowledge and information ‘or example, 2 2 = 4 or Barth is round and goes round the meanings of words and concep! je(Semantic memory is not e z semantic isodic memory whi others have good semantic memory (rig, 213)? “uesome Thelevelsofprocessing theory ofmemory emp! of analysis and elaboration of incomin, superficial depth on Ievelis that of perce 'sthestructural level and the deepestlevelinvol heinput. Information reaching the meaning level and elabor at this level has the best chance of being reained. Catogoros in LTM B rsx. : i. : Eo “Amount of informaton recalled . Fig. 21.2: Curve of forgeting When we speak of memory itis usuall ion 1 ‘memory itis usually the LTM. Information LIM ized, categorized and Gina ied like in a large rary with a good cross-indexing system)The tip of tongue (TOT)222 _ Psychology for Graduate Nurses phenomenon indicates that information is organized in LTM, eg. 2 person is searching for the word ‘sampan’ but cannot quite come ut words with meanings similar to sampan are being, FACTORS INFLUENCING MEMORY tion and Memory Network Theory Memories are pattems of iigms, woven together by organization. ‘words or other materials are studied, greater the jegree of organization that the tae ‘can develop on the material, the better the subsequent recal Tn an experiment to learn words, the experimental group was given the words organized in an hierarchical tree as shown below: ce at mara © [ous suainan) [Gomer "| | Sew | | Eom | | Grant srr] | fog Seal || Gtmere [| tene ES fur | [Siw Fig, 21.3: Organization tee .¢ control group also studlied the same words for the same tion chart Fig. 21.3). f Recitation During Practice ractice usually takes the form of reciting to oneself, ion increases the retention of the mater suppose stent hast our ta ana that can Beread through in 30 minutes. Rereading the assignment four times is likely to be much less effective than reading it once and asking himself questions about the material he has read. He tar up the points that was unclear when he can then reread attempted to recall heli] _ greater the retention al Memory: Remembering and Forgetting 223 Ghepercentage of study time selfnecita ‘of study time that should be: i depends on the material and cre aE Ter Tara acne Preparing) The percentage iy us = aes laboratory experiment, the grea ae eat o be remen tation represent Ppctiein the etieva ofinfrnaton nthe form key to dea ed ‘on, Time spent is ee spent is active recall with book closed, is time well Qvertearming and Retention oonething lobe long reamed ae be overleamed, that is learned point of ba in an experi tj ea ot bare real) In an experiment, thee groups to mémorize alist of words by the anticip ch group learned to a diferent ester ot overiearing (Fig, 21.4). For eit i he peas Be LeatniNg Practice was terminated after one perfet recall. For Tele Roe aoe, Sting group, member of wials were increased by Tne Oot over earning group the numberof tials was doubled s of the recall tests during 1-28 days were as shown in graph below: Sec dors of ovr eaing 0%) ey) Fist eo0 oF overieaing ee a) afer bare mastory (0% ver learning) Retenon (saving score percntane) idea ote 2s lapsed ine sina laring (i dys) Fig. 21.4: Overieaming The curves indicate that the greater the degree of overlearnin, ime intervals, .224 Psychology for Graduate Nurses 1e Method of Loci Gyroviutize sa ‘You enter the front hall, move next to the living room, room, the kitchen and to the bedrood}. If you were to ‘use these loci to memorize a shoppin; g, Bread, Eggs, Bear, Milk and Bacon, then you would try to form a series of ments ‘mages. A loaf of bread hanging from a gg siting as “Humpty Dumpty” on the palm a spilled can of beer on the dining table, a cow in the anda pigsleeping in the bedroom(When ready to recall the shopping, Iist, you would Like an imaginary walk trying to recall the image associated with each room, Memory: Remembering and Forgetting 225 $$$ arr tramembering and Forgetting 225 told to: stucly and rehearsal. When tested, theimagery group showed 80% recall, whereas the c the werd pig) control group remembered only 30% of REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING Theact of remembering presuy cectotremenberingprespposes previous leming and involves Recognizing the requ the request to recall and preparing to search the ‘memory files 2. association and selecting ciation and selecting de particular items and sant, watngorgotres The pester eo ‘perience, the more readily it is remembered. Cera Imagery as an Aid to Memory and Recall imagery is a powerful aid to memory. It has practical applications as an aid to learning, Recent experiments demonstrate that mental imagery may be applied with extraordinary effect to teaching foreign languages vocabulary. (Subjects who did not know Spanish studied a list of Spanish weds fora fixed time period. They would hear each Spanish word. pronounced and see its English translation on a screen, Later they erok a test in which they gave the English translation as each Wword was pronounced. The experimental group, using mental Imagery, averaged 88% correct as compared to 26% correct forthe ie a at ued Te pe extrinsic and intrinsic aspect atlas the quilty of beg 1e material to be fotivation sical fa ak Physical factors such as fatigue, cold and Intrinsic Factors Gecording to Bruner, what a person perceives and how he: ‘may also be determined to some extent by his needs an object Part vs whole learning al value The value an individual places pe ae eee le tan spaced learning e. Interference from previous learning Sense modalities involved. shown that children from poorer homes Size of coins than do children of well to do homes. (ina laboratry epesine the experimental group was presented switira deck of 100 cards; each card printed with an arbitrary pair ef unrelated conerote nouns such as cog bicycle, The experimental fo associate the words on each card by wual scene in which they are interacting in some structed to form bizarre or unusual images and Include as many details as possible, For example, picturing a dog ‘inewwed in a Clown’s outiit, pedalling an old fashioned bicycle ‘The control group was given the same learning task but simply ‘THE PROCESS OF MEMORY AND RECALL ’erception of the Stimulus Material (S : jensory Memo! sto be memorize, the stimulus must be feng almost instantaneous and occupies only a very short ie eDhe ‘more unusual or complicated the material, the Cnty te . it i be recognized as a meaningful stimuluS> we stimuli appear in series or chains agains ackground of sensory experiences. For example, when reading ‘They were226 Psychology for Graduate Nurses, a passage in a book the reader may recognize in div rate of reading is dete: the background s xl and selective atten! to some important words on the pageyeat jents listening to doctors soil cimilar characteristics, Certain words oF i ‘Smilar personal meaning for the patient may be aneffortmade tomake sense of these particular informati requires the material easy filing. Adults usually achieve jense experiences may be retained ‘example, the recollection of strong, odours o ofautonomic functioning, during a panic attack. oung children are as a Kind of mental picture over @ referred to as EIDETIC and this abil 0 store detailed visual information ig period of time. This is disappears with in Short Term Memory. Quite in Short Term Mi continuous presentation of more ‘varies from person fo person ang also according to the type of material cing held {0 er orekto overcome this problem individuals employ varie‘ icliberate attempts fo cut teehusmoous materials while retailing the gist or principle of ova is necessary to be remembered) nena doctor gives advice to the pation he STM, The problem o' - Gfinstructionsand in addition, by presenting Stage li: Transfer to Long Term Store (LTM) he final step involves the use of symbols, us Janguage when a terial to be telained is filed. The permanency of long UGE slure (LTM) is related to the member of association attached {0 ;rning, that has gone into ‘can interfere with the old Memory: Remembering and Forgetting 227 Ceara RE anna pata aga iB forgottentn +has never encoded rae bso fad stored inthe fs studs compin tt ey not fea ne seasons e class or for; ter ee eee fore after reading the text. ster or due to nad information may nt have been tasted ok, STM to LIM, There are{four theories of of forgetting * Consolidation Theory: ae ‘aulty memory process: Mi Faulty : Many times we forget as gat match events which had occured, (This happens aes theconsrutie proce. cranmatetalsmayPesipied ex chained ngencding Werementer the gtrmeing ace ad of heard, but not the actual. words Decay theory: We forget because of deca ith lapse of time. It is lke rusting of ion. supposes that w al jormed, This trace will gradu Tit ocrclonalyeactiraled The ayes ¥E memory traces 1e decay theory badh is poor recall of recent ex, ee cperiences. By memories of long past events cial stale nts may not be affected at e forget zene process in the meee tee hat a patient may have forgotten ; n what happen ao however important the event, but can eat aon perionces of a decade earlier) ee new learning. fected and there228 Psychology for Graduate Nurses ‘held better in explaining morbid forgetting fant to remember by processing, wa pression, scoring iss that automatically hides, Memory : 221204 Remembering and Forgoting_229 ‘An experimental design ri ——— for the proactive inhibition is giver Suppose you learn E (A) Poems You Tear English (A), then French (B) you would French due to proactive inhibi pera tee : "nce with subsequent Repression theory is -olumpleasantevents: We do! them into our unconscious Sigmund Freud is a mental p: threatening or anxiety producing information in tbe recalled jo} Repressed memories canto Table 21.2: Proactive intibtton Groups Interference [Learning new things interfere wi arlier and pri ‘emory of things learned. later] STM has a limited ‘capacity(Childhood experiences are well tae mberec! because the stores were large, empty and aveilable iy Oh usrse, the stores fill up and material is re ‘competing, Jost and some retained) smory of what is learned Giboth types cndotatinets meaning some mastery in the subje ‘ime Siualeal elles eee ‘This is a technical name for new learning viously learned. This is a backward jg for the retroactive inhibition is given. ‘effect, An experiment in Table 21.1 Tobie 21.1: Revoacve inhi actical nursing then anatomy. At the beginning of beginning of your acive nhtton ‘course you should try to; a ee gure youshould pe different study times to similar subjects 1 oe inn 4 Other Type of Interferences geting occurs owing to several oer types of interference lke : ther thus are con forgotter)Gvetendstorememberitems at thestart of ss Pnimary ffect) and at the en fe me op” “no ete ae ae with each other, old items can be (Goetpusa ged by the new input.) pensar ike thereon Be ee. woleipetan HM oti tira are For example, you may learn one chapter of physiolagy. activity J then learn one chapter of anatomy in activity 1 Ht try to recall what you have leamed in physiology. The Oo TY Mormation you forgot would be due to retroactive inhibi caused by learning anatomy. "The control group leams the same chapter of physiology, for sometime, and afterwards find the recall much better as ig no retroactive inhibition. b. Pronctive inhibition When prior I earning and recall of a new material, econ caion and Retrieval Problems Uthe store infomation noted wel o organiza a he tis forgotte) Retrieval cues are important in th. “interferes, is proactive fi230 Psychology for Graduate Nurses ory as we may not be able to recall an inf jormation in one mother situation? ed material and at can guide our search through the absence of proper relgieval cues mem m eatin but may spontaneously remember ion of the s .d(Sometimes, f yor after giving up formation. Forgetting Forgeting involves two proses a, Trace dependent forgetting b. Cue dependent forgetting Traces are conceived in t fashion. When these traces are it results in forgetting (may be ‘not available at the time of rec due to lapse of time’. ivated Forgetting Wye men daly ereduero mast rst Bene nabs SE ye haa asked 1 nu articular edible Ba probably Because i isnot to Our ids that we forget because the retriev painful or unacceptable in some way. ‘Visitors to patients sometimes in the sad and unfortunate experience: he association with hosp) See Ry nave to help vistors to ‘and hopeful types of conversation| ear to forget y an his may Fenember ony the evens which oor in 1 conversation is about the wards, the Sppears to have forgotten hig 5 Children in hos ‘hed degres a marked degree: +o a unt factors also play/an important role in fo we encode while in one emotional state and try to rec: jother, our recall suffers. ig epson hey ‘memories would be ‘by their own cheerful, optimist Memory: Remembering and Forgetting 231 re rrmeig ad Povpetiing 231 Anxiety or guilt producing material are more often forgotten than pleasant experiences. Suppose in a particular class, instructor. You are likely to forget most class that day. This is why punishment is in the long run, effective in promoting learning, Psychologists have also found that some persons cannot forget unpleasant experiences easily and this is related to personality. Amnesie—Forgetting during Sickness Amnesia refers to loss of memory due to disease, The person may forget his past experiences or may have impaired al store and to retrieve making new memory difficult, Amnesia is a profound memory deficit due to cit oss of what has been stored or to the inability to form new memories. Amnesias are classified into two types: biological and psychological. a. Biological amnesias These are caused by brain malfunctions. Examples are transient global amnesia, alcohol induced amnesia and the amnesia caused by certain diseases of the brain, Transient Global amnesia is a shortlived amnesia attack due_to change in ormal blood flow to the brain and characterized by retrograde and anterograde amnesia) High doses of alcohol result in amnesia for the events that occurréd while drunk. In addition, heavy drinking ‘over a period of years can produce brain damage and a pattern ofsystems known as the Korsakoff syndrome) Anterograde amnesia and some loss of remote memory characterizes the memory problems of this syndrome. Senil s young, children and older people encode and store information. As adults, much of our memory is encoded verbally and tied into networks or schemata that are language based. But the without language encodes memories in a nonverbal form, perhaps storing information as images or feelings. Early childhood memories are thus said to be stored232 Psychology for Graduate Nurses al cues appropriate memories of carly child Perhaps the memory machine its maturation is essentially finished. ¥y and memory develop together because both ‘brain maturation. Repression is another Yor childhood and dream amnesias Dorin anmesia In dream amnesia, the difference between he symbol system in dreams and in waking makes the waking retrieval of any information encoded curing dren idered to be psychologic While usually consi ‘dream amnesia have a biological basis—the in childhood amnesia and the difference dreaming and in waking for dreamn sive amnesia protects the ‘accompany intense, ‘Language bi depends on explanation given amnesia. The forg’ amnesiac from the g {intolerable life situations and conflicts. Memory and Brain Damage When the brain is damaged by accident, operation, drugs or toxins rene abering, is impaired. The amount of forgeting is related Tre extent of brain damage. Because forgetting takes place most 'y immediately after learning, before consolidation has tak place and much more slowly later on, the material Wrst recent Place jomost completely forgotten ater head injury.Old knowledge remains intact. Patients who suffer from conet they were doingat the time oftheaccident. On convulsive therapy, epilep forget where he placed his he ate or which part of the ward he is in may have forgotten what ery from electro, METHODS TO IMPROVE MEMORY Proper Learning Method Proper learning method with train memory can be improved. Learniny 9g, Similarly rect ding of the same material improves le: better than continued re-rea\ ing, practice and motivation, 3y whole rather than by parts sn method helps to memorise Memory: Remembering and Forgetting 233 Our recall process ca cess can be = can be improved by keepin away frombarmful emotional factors, Linge candiconcseet nuaking the right associations, Learner's WAL sues are ofatenton and height ering ethos have vil mac oy fs ing. Memory training aims to achiove pennies or Memory Tricks inemonics, comes from the Greek wi reer f0 the speci memory improvement secugene’ Mg niques, Most and organized set of Fan prbvide PomInae Cen e neeY Meallty end therefore can provide reminder cues, Use mnemonic devies to remember Memory Pegs lemory pegs with the Memory pexs with the analogy of clockroom in mind, thereming gues clot memory peso hing that ob emembered ne tg the letters ofthe word VIBGYOR can be used as“ pr ig the names of rainbow colours violet, indigo blue, sn, yellow, orange and red. separ aie The Method of Loci The word loci means “ means “places’, Be ts ol Sus cg cbc Goce ee ee vate © of a scene. The scene can be a street, a bullding wit roads the layout ofa college campus a aoe anything that can be visualized clasly and contains a numb af crete tens in speci locations fo serve at temor : Supposing you want to remember for examination Jaseical sontiioning, Then start by imagining a do, exper pal foe bell and any person a an experimenter. Rehea th over and ver unt its wel established in your hove formed your image, associate the subsntion and extinction with ths, The kk to make assoc ny concepts as needed. ae at rhyme with numb i ers Lisa bun,2is he tee, 43 a door and so on, Now Shanon ls remember, you can associate the items on the ist with ju