lifornia

onal
ity

C^

kj^Ay^-^^^

'

THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
GIFT OF
Dr. Judd Marmor,

2002

THE INTERNATIONAL
PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL
LIBRARY
EDITED BY ERNEST JONES
No. 6

THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL LIBRARY

x\o.

GROUP PSYCHOLOGY
AND

THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO

BY

SIGM. FREUD, M.

D.,

LU. D.

AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION
BY

JAMES STRACHEY

THE INTERNATIONAL PSYCHO-ANALYTICAL

Y
LONDON
IMCMXXII
PRIf^TlD

t/lf

^r/f/!j/>f/v7"

PRESS
EN NA

Copyright 1922

TRANSLATOR'S NOTE

comparison of the following pages with the

German

original {Massenpsychologie

und

Ick-Analyse,

Internationaler Psychoanalytischer Verlag, Vienna, 192

will

in

show

that certain passages

1)

have been transferred

the English version from the text to the footnotes.

This alteration has been carried out at the author's

express desire.
All

technical

terms

have

been

translated

in

accordance with the Glossary to be published as a

supplement to the International Jo2irnal of PsychoAnalysis.

J.

s.

CONTENTS

Introduction

....

Le Bon's Description

Group Mind

of the

III

Other Accounts of Collective Mental Life

IV

Suggestion and Libido

V Two
VI

Vn

Vm
IX

X
XI
XII

Artificial

Groups: the Church and the

Further Problems and Lines of

Work

Identification

Being

in

Love and Hypnosis

The Herd

Instinct

The Group and

the Primal

....

Differentiating

Postscript

Horde

Grade

in the

Ego

Army

GROUP PSYCHOLOGY AND

THE ANALYSIS OF THE EGO
I

INTRODUCTION

The contrast between Individual Psychology and Social

Psychology, which at a first glance may
or Group
seem to be full of significance, loses a great deal
of its sharpness when it is examined more closel}^
^

It

true

is

that

Individual

with the individual

which he

man and

explores

is

the

concerned
paths by

seeks to find satisfaction for his instincts;

only rarely and under

is

Psychology

certain

exceptional

but

conditions

Individual Psycholog}' in a position to disregard the

relations of this individual to others. In the individual's

mental

life

someone

['Group'

is

else

is

invariably

used throughout

involved,

as a

this translation as equivalent

more comprehensive German ^I\fasse\ The author

uses this latter word to render both McDougall's 'group', and
also Le Bon's ''foule\ which would more naturally be translated

to

the

rather

'crowd' in English. For the sake of uniformity, however, 'group'

has been preferred in this case as well, and has been substituted
for 'crowd'

Le Bon.

even

in

the extracts from the English translation of

Translator?^

Group Psychology and

model,

an object,

as

and so from the

same time

the

extended but

The

have

social

an opponent,

as

Psychology

ver}^ first hidividual

Psychology as well

Social

at

is

in

this

entirely justifiable sense of the words.

and

been

hitherto

research

in fact

the

may

phenomena; and

and

to the object of his love,

sisters,

physician

his

analytic

as a helper,

Ego

relations of an individual to his parents

to his brothers

and to

the Analysis of the

the relations which

all

subject

chief

claim

be

to

as

may be

they

respect

in this

psycho-

of

considered

contrasted with certain other processes, described by

us

as

'

narcissistic

instincts

is

social

them
within

and
'

'

the satisfaction of the

totall}^

people.

narcissistic

autistic

the

or

other

of

influence

which

in

,
'

partially

withdrawn

The

Bleuler

mental

acts

from the

between

contrast

would

perhaps

therefore

falls

call

wholly

domain of Individual Psychology, and

not well calculated

to

differentiate

it

from

is

a Social

Group Psychology.
The individual in the relations which have already
been mentioned to his parents and to his brothers
and sisters, to the person he is in love with, to his
friend, and to his physician
comes under the influence
of only a single person, or of a very small number
of persons, each one of whom has become enormously

or

important to

Group Psychology
relations

Now

him.
it

has

in

speaking

become

on one side and to

of

Social

or

usual to leave these

isolate

as the subject of

Introduction

number
he

of people simultaneously,

many

in

Psychology

man

by a

individual

large

whom

people with

connected by something, though otherwise they

is

may

an

of

inquiry the influencing

is

respects be

to

Group

him.

therefore concerned with the individual

member

as a

strangers

of a race, of a nation, of a caste,

of a profession, of an institution,

component

or as a

who have been organised

some particular time for some definite

part of a crowd of people

group

into a

When

purpose.

severed

mena

at

this

in

once
way,

natural
is

it

that appear under

being expressions
further

reducible,

of

these

the

special

object that
of

by

number a
itself

that

is

pectation

primitive

seems

special

social

instinct

instinct

not

therefore

is

not

('herd instinct',

any

light in

venture

to

attribute to the factor

make it capable
our mental life a new instinct
brought into play. Our ex-

significance so great as to

otherwise
is

that

we may perhaps

difficult to

of arousing in

possibilities

it

it

Rut

been

conditions as

'group mind'), which does not come to

other situations.

has

continuity

easy to regard the pheno-

directed

that the social

towards

instinct

may

two

other

not

be a

one and insusceptible of dissection, and that

may be

possible to discover the beginnings

of

its

development in a narrower circle, such as that of the

family.

Although Group Psychology

it

embraces an immense

is

number

only in

its

of separate

infancy,
issues

Group Psychology mid

and

offers to investigators

one

from

another.

different forms of

of the mental

a great

countless

even been

not

have hitherto

the Analysis of the

problems

properly

The mere

Ego
which

distinguished

classification

of the

group formation and the description

phenomena produced by them

expenditure

and

of observation

and have already given

rise to

require

exposition,

copious literature.

Anyone who compares the narrow dimensions of

little book with the extent of Group Psychology
at

this
will

once be able to guess that only a few points chosen

from the whole material are to be dealt

And

they

which

will

the

in

fact only

be

depth-psychology

specially concerned.

a
of

few

with here.

questions with

psycho-analysis

is

II

LE BOX'S DESCRIPTION OF THE GROUP MIND

of

Instead

more

starting

begin

useful to

from

with

some

definition,

among

them

characteristic

attached.

facts

We

can

few

our

both

achieve

and to

specially

which

to

of

indication

range of the phenomena under review,

from

seems

it

the

select

striking

and

inquiry'

can

be

these

aims

by

of

Le Bon's deservedly famous

means
work Psychologie des foules}
of quotation from

Let us make the matter clear once

concerned

Psychology,
positions, the

instincts,

with
the

tions with

achieved

its

task,

these matters

with

then suddenly find

which would
^

lie

the

exploring

motives

man down to his

those who are nearest

an individual

again.

itself

before

it

predis-

and the aims of

and

actions
to him,

inter-connections,

confronted by
unachieved.

his rela-

had completely

and had cleared up the

their

If

a
It

whole of
it

would

new
would

task

be

The Crowd: a Sttidy of the Popular Mind. Fisher Unwin,

1 2th. Impression,

1920.

Group Psychology mid the Analysis of

condition

certain

understand

to

surprising

thought,

would have

this condition is his

How
a

does

individual?

is

over

influence

And what
it

then,

of a

'group'?

is

mental

the

nature

the

is

evidently to

is

Observation of the changes

the

of

life

the mental

of

The best way

in

of

start with the third.

the individual's reactions

what provides Group Psychology with

for

collection

forces

approaching them

is

characteristic

answer these three questions.

to

been expected.

upon the "individual ?

the task of a theoretical Group Psychology

change which
It

acquire the capacity for exercising such

it

decisive

What,

group'.

quite

in

into

insertion

of people which has acquired the

'psychological

had come

it

and acted

felt,

w^hat

that under a

fact

whom

individual

this

way from

different

And

the

explain

obliged to

Ego

the

material;

its

every attempt at an explanation must be preceded

by

description

the

of

thing

that

is

be

to

explained.
I

will

now

'The most

says:

Le Bon speak

let

striking

peculiarity

psychological group ^

is

the

compose

individuals

unlike

be

their

that

mode

of

character,

or their

have been

transformed

for

the

life,

however

the

[See footnote

page

i.]

like

fact

or

their

that they

group puts them

possession of a sort of collective mind

^

Whoever be

their occupations,

intelligence,

into

presented by a

following.
it,

He

himself.

in

which makes

Lc Bon' s
them

which

in

come

a state

in

and

them

of

individual

There are certain ideas

a manner quite different

in

each

and act were he

think,

feel,

and act

think,

feel,

from that

Group Alind

DescriptioiL of the

of isolation.

which

feelings

would
do not

do not transform themselves

into being, or

into

acts except in the case of individuals forming a group.

The psychological group

a provisional being formed

is

moment

of heterogeneous elements, which for a

combined,

exactly

body form by

living

displays

the

as

ver}^

possessed by each of the

take

shall

which

cells

the

singly.'

the individuals
unity, there

and

this

an

observ^ation

the

group

insert
in

own,

bond might be

question;

precisely

29.)^

Le

and

shall

this point.

at

combined

must surely be something

characteristic of a group.
this

are

(p.

those

of interrupting

Bon's exposition with glosses of our

accordingly

from

different

liberty

are

constitute a

new being which

their reunion a

characteristics

We

cells

into

If

to unite them,

the

thing

that

is

But Le Bon does not answer

he goes on to consider the alteration

in a group and

which the individual undergoes when

describes

in

it

terms which harmonize well with the

fundamental postulates of our own depth-psycholog}^

'

It

is

easy

forming part
individual,

but

of
it

to

prove

group

is

less

how much
differs

from

the individual
the

isolated

easy to discover the causes

of this difference.
^

[References are to

the English translation.

Translator.]

Group Psychology and

To

'

obtain at any rate a glimpse of

necessary

the

in

place to

first

phenomena play an
organic

in

scious

subtle

scarcely

is

number

a very small

that

determine his conduct.

the

truth

part

operations

mind

of the

life

with

the most acute

more

of the conscious^ motives

Our conscious

acts are

outcome of an unconscious substratum created

the mind in the main by hereditary influences.

substratum

of

consists

which

generation,

constitute

from
the

in

This

common

innumerable

the

down

handed

characteristics

is

uncon-

its

discovering

in

is

it

unconscious

the

in

analyst,

successful

than

them

mind the

that

comparison

in

The most

life.

observer,

but also

The conscious

importance

Ego

preponderating

altogether
life,

of the intelligence.
of small

to

call

by modern psychology,

established

not only

the Analysis of the

generation

to

of a race.

genius

Behind the avowed causes of our acts there undoubtedly

lie

causes

secret

behind these secret

more

secret

ignorant.^

the

observation.
^

reads

'

'

(p.

hidden

there

which

many

are

we

avow,

not

but

others

ourselves

are

motives

which

escape

our

30.)

[The German translation of Le Bon, quoted by the author,

the English translation has 'unconscious'; and

beiviisstcr'

the original French text

^

of

we do

greater part of our daily actions, are

of

result

causes

still,

The

that

"

inconscients\

Translator.]

[The English translation reads 'which we ourselves ignore'

Translator.]
French word 'ignorees'.

a misunderstanding of the

Le

Bo7i's Descriptio7i

Le Bon

thinks

Group Mind

tJie

of individuals

obliterated

that in this

distinctiveness

what

unconscious emerges;

racial

submerged
the

that

which

in

what

in

mental

is

shows

The

vanishes.

heterogeneous

We

may

is

say

the development of

superstructure,

individuals

and

group,

in

homogeneous.

is

particular acquirements

the

that

become
way their

of

such

dissimilarities,

is

removed, and that the unconscious foundations, which

are similar in everyone, stand exposed to view.

way

In this

to

But Le Bon believes

show an average character.

that thev also display

new

have

possessed,

not

group would come

individuals in a

previously

which they

characteristics

and

he

seeks

reason for

this

in

three different factors.

The

first

is

that the individual forming

'

the

part of

a group acquires, solely from numerical considerations,

power which allows him to

yield to instincts which, had he been alone, he would
He will be the
perforce have kept under restraint.
a sentim.ent of

less

that,

invincible

disposed to check himself from the consideration

a group being anonymous,

irresponsible,

the

sentiment

of

and

From
much importance

so

characteristics.

that in a group

For us

to
it

him

to

not

appearance

would
is

throw

which

entirely.' (p. 33.)

we need

the

the individual

ditions \\hich allow

consequence

responsibility

always controls individuals disappears

our point of view

in

attribute

of

new

be enough to say
brought under conoff the repressions

Group Psychology mid

lO
of

unconscious

his

he

the manifestations of
that

We

predisposition.

human mind
no

can find

sense of responsibility

are

is

which

in

all

contained as a

difficulty

in

under-

or

these circumstances.

in

fact

in

conscience

of

new

apparently

displays

unconscious,

disappearance

the

standing

then

this

the

in

evil

is

The

instincts.

which

characteristics

Ego

the Analysis of the

of a
It

has

long been our contention that 'dread of society \soziale

Angst]'

the essence of what

is

The

'

second

cause,

intervenes to determine

is

called conscience.^

which

is

contagion,

manifestation

the

of their special characteristics, and at the

they

the trend

menon

are

of which

it

to take.
is

easy

Contagion

in

also

groups

same time
is

a pheno-

to establish the presence,

must be classed
among those phenomena of a hypnotic order, which
we shall shortly study. In a group every sentiment
but that

it is

and act

is

not easy to explain.

contagious,

There

is

seme

and

difference

It

contagious

to

such

between Le Bon's view and

ours owing to his concept of the unconscious not quite coinciding

with the one adopted by psycho-analysis.

more
racial

especially contains the

mind, which as a matter of fact

We

Le Bon's unconscious

most deeply buried features of the

lies

outside the scope of

do not fail to recognize, indeed, that the

ego's nucleus, which comprises the 'archaic inheritance' of the
human mind, is unconscious; but in addition to this we
distinguish the
'unconscious repressed', which arose from a
portion of that inheritance. This concept of the repressed is not

psycho-analysis.

to

be found

in

Le Bon.

Le

Bo7i*s Description

Mind

of the Grotip

degree that an individual readily sacrifices

his personal

interest to the collective interest.

an aptitude

This

is

very contrary to his nature, and of which

scarcely capable,

except

when he makes

man

part

is

of a

group.' (p. 33.)

We
upon
'

later

shall

this

last

third

cause,

determines

in

racteristics

w^hich

and by

far the

most important,

the individuals of a group special chaare

contrary

quite

by the

presented

those

on base an important conjecture

statement.

isolated

at

times

individual.

to

allude

to that suggestibility of which, moreover, the contagion

mentioned above
'

To understand

to bear in

We

is

mind

only an effect.
this

phenomenon

it

is

necessary

certain recent physiological discoveries.

know to-day that by various processes an individmay be brought into such a condition that,

ual

having entirely lost his conscious personality, he obeys

all

the suggestions of the operator

him of
with

and commits acts

it,

his

character

and

in

who

has deprived

utter

contradiction

The

habits.

most

careful

seem to prove that an individual imsome length of time in a group in action

investigations

mersed

for

soon finds

either

himself

consequence

in

the

of

magnetic influence given out by the group, or from

some other cause of which we

special

state,

fascination

in

which

much

are

resembles

ignorant
the

in

state

a
of

which the hypnotised individual finds

Group Psychology and

himself

hands of the

the

in

conscious

has

personality

and discernment
bent

are

are

hypnotiser.

Ego

will

and thoughts

feelings

by

determined

direction

The

vanished

entirely

All

lost.

the

in

the Analysis of the

the

hypnotiser.

'Such

also

approximately

is

the

of the

state

He

individual forming part of a psychological group.

is

in

no longer conscious

of his acts.

In

case of the hypnotised subject,

the

case,

his

at

same

the

time that certain faculties are destroyed, others

be brought
the

to

accomplishment
of

for

all

by

strength
'

certain

We

in

see,

then,

irresistible

more

personality,

conscious

personality,

irresistible

identical direction, the

in

that of the hypnotised

it

gains in

34.)

the

disappearance

of the

predominance of the un-

the

by means of sugof feelings and ideas in an

turning

the

contagion

im-

the suggestion being the

(p.

that

may

Under

undertake the

will

with

the

is

that,

reciprocity.'

and

he

the individuals of the group,

conscious

gestion

of exaltation.

acts

groups than

from the fact

subject,

same

of

This impetuosity

petuosity.

case

high

of a suggestion,

influence

the

degree

as

tendency to immediately trans-

form the suggested ideas into acts; these, we see, are

the principal
part

of a

characteristics

group.

He

is

of the individual forming

no longer himself, but has

become an automaton who has ceased

by

his will.'

(p.

35.)

to

be guided

Le Bon' s

have quoted

make

Description of ike Group

quite clear that

it

passage so

this

Le Bon

Mind

fully

in

order to

explains the condition

of an individual in a group as being actually hypnotic,

and

does

the two

merely make a comparison between

not

We

states.

objection

at

the

that

fact

this

point,

two

the

becoming altered

have no intention of raising any

in

but

v.'ish

last

causes

only to
of

an

emphasize
individual

a group (the contagion and the

heightened suggestibility) are evidently not on a par,

be a manifestation
Moreover the effects of the two

seems

since the contagion

of the suggestibility.
factors

do not seem to be sharply differentiated

best
v-.ith

in

Le Bon's remarks. We may perhaps

interpret his statement if we connect the contagion
the eftects of the individual members of the

text

:he

actually to

of

group upon one another, while \ve point to another

source

for

those manifestations

group whicli are put on a

of

hypnotic

level wdth the

But

influence.

of suggestion

to

the

in

phenomena

what source?

We

cannot avoid being struck with a sense of deficiency

when we

notice

that

one

of the

the comparison, namely the person

chief elements

who

the hypnotist in the case of the group,

in

Le Bon's

tinguishes

exposition.

between

this

But

he

is

is

of

to replace

not mentioned

nevertheless

dis-

influence of fascination which

remains plunged in obscurity and the contagious effect

which the individuals exercise upon one another and

by which the

original suggestion

is

strengthened.

and

Gro7ip Psychology

14

Here

Ego

the Analysis of the

yet another important consideration for

is

helping us to understand the individual in a group:

'

Moreover, by the mere fact that he forms part of

an organised group,

man descends

cultivated individual; in a crowd, he

that

the

the

by

a creature acting

is,

the violence,

the

ferocity,

enthusiasm

heroism

of

primitive

in

the group mind, as

shows not a

from

its

source.

Le Bon
its

primitive people

A
is

single feature
difficulty

to

group

in

Compare

man

Jeder, sieht

Sind
[Ever^'^one,

placing

similarity with

impulsive,

or in

deriving

the

(p.

mental

way

life

of

40).

changeable and irritable.

by the unconscious.^ The

Schiller's couplet:

ihn einzeln,

ist

leidlichklug und verstandig;

sie in corpore, gleich

seen by himself,

When

which a psycho-analyst

and of children

is

Le Bon.

himself shows us the

led almost exclusively

^

in

and turn to

individual,

has been outlined by

it

any

by pointing

also

beings.

a group.^

Let us now leave the

find

and

which an individual experiences when

he becomes merged

would

possesses

then dwells especially upon the lowering

intellectual ability

It

He

instinct.

and

He

rungs

a barbarian

is

spontaneity,

(p. 36.)

It

several

he may be a

Isolated,

in the ladder of civilisation.

is

wird euch ein

Dummkopf daraus.

passably shrewd and discerning;

they're in co7-pore,

then straightway you'll find

he's an ass.]

'

Unconscious is used here correctly by Le Bon in the

where it does not only mean the repressed

descriptive sense,

'

'

'.

Le Bon' s

Description of

which

impulses

group

Group Mind

tJie

may

obeys

according

to

circumstances be generous or cruel, heroic or cowardly,

are always

they

but

Though

it

never

may

so

verance.

for

desire
long,

cannot

It

and the

sense

Nothing about

(p. 41).

itself felt

desire

things
for

group

is

this

of perse-

desires.

It

its

has

no

has

for

always
a

it.

and

faculty,

in states

very

group

the

thinks in images,

It

up by association

another

by any reasonable function

that

and open

credulous

critical

and whose agreement with

are

a group.

in

extraordinarily

it

one

call

So

it

yet

between

delay

of what

they arise with individuals

ated.

incapable

any

tolerate

fulfilment

improbable does not exist

a group

passionately,

omnipotence; the notion of impossibility

of

influence,

which

make

premeditated.

is

it

is

it

disappears for the individual

to

no personal

that

not even that of self-preservation, can

interest,

is

imperious

so

(just

as

of free imagination),

reality

is

\Instanz\?'

never checked

The

feelings of

simple and very exagger-

knows

neither

doubt

nor

uncertainty.^

Compare Totem tmd Tabu, III., 'Animismus, Magie, und

[Totei/i and Taboo. New York, Moffat, 191 8.
London, Kegan Paul, 1919.]
^

Allmacht der Gedanken.'

[See footnote p. 69.]

In

the

interpretation

of dreams,

to

which,

owe our best knowledge of unconscious mental

life,

indeed,

we

we

follow a

technical rule of disregarding doubt and uncertainty in the narrative

Group Psychology mid the Analysis of

goes directly to extremes;

It

expressed,

it is

certainty;

a trace

hatred

changed

instantly

if

the

Ego

suspicion

is

an incontrovertible

into
is

turned into furious

all

extremes, a group

of antipathy

56).^

(p.

Inclined

as

it

itself

is

to

can only be excited by an excessive stimulus. Anyone

who wishes

to

produce an

adjustment

logical

it

needs no

arguments; he must paint

his

in

upon

effect

and of treating every element of the manifest

We attribute doubt and uncertainty to the influence of the censorship to which the dream-work
is subjected, and we assume that the primary dream-thoughts are
not acquainted with doubt and uncertainty as critical processes.
They may naturally be present, like everything else, as part of
the content of the day's residue which leads to the dream.
(See Die Tratimdeutung, 6. Auflage, 1921, S. 386. \The Interpretation of Dreams. Allen and Unwin, 3rd. Edition, 191 3,
of the

dream,

dream

as

being quite certain.

p. 409.])
^

The same extreme

every emotion

and

it

of the

is

is

also

unmeasured

and

present as well in dream

single

emotions

during the day

will

intensification

a feature of the affective

the

in

express

life.

Thanks

unconscious,

itself in

dream

life

to the isolation

a slight annoyance
as a wish for the

offending person's death, or a breath of temptation

impetus

of

of children,

may

give the

dream of a criminal action.

Hanns Sachs has made an appropriate remark on this point: 'If
we try to discover in consciousness all that the dream has made
known to us of its bearing upon the present (upon reality), we
need not be surprised that what we saw as a monster under the
to

microscope

the

of

portrayal

analysis

in

the

now reappears

as

Trauvidettttmg, S. 457. [Translation p. 493.])

an infusorium.' {Die

Le Bon' s
most

the

in

and

forcible

must

he

Group Mhid

Dcscriptioji of the

he

must

same

thing

colours,

repeat

the

exaggerate,

and

again

again.

Since a group

or error, and

stitutes truth

own

its

great

obedient

to

be

only

regards

strength,

merely
its

heroes

is

Fundamentally

and

it

and

unbounded

an

What

and to

entirely

has a deep aversion from

advances
(p.

is

it

all

it

it

even violence.

or

strength,

can

which

weakness.

of

is

it

and

force

wants to be ruled and oppressed

masters.

as

by kindness,

form

intolerant

respects

influenced
as

as

is

It

what con-

to

conscious, moreover, of

is

it

authority.

slightly

demands of
It

no doubt as

in

is

fear

its

conservative,

innovations and

respect

for

tradition

62).

In order to

make

one must take

morals of groups,
the

fact

group
the

the.t

when

cruel,
in

are stirred

brutal

and destructive

only

up to find

achievements

and

motive

force,
It

is

in

groups
the

are

shape

personal
with

interest

groups

possible to

it

epoch,

capable

also

abnegation,

of

While with
almost

is
is

lie

But under

free gratification.

devotion to an ideal.

individuals

prominent.

w^hich

instincts,

individuals as relics of a primitive

unselfishness,

isolated

come together in a
fall
away and all

individuals

the influence of suggestion

of high

consideration

into

their individual inhibitions

all

dormant

a correct judgement upon the

very

speak of an

the

rarely

individual

Gro^ip Psychology

and

the Analysis of the

Ego

having his moral standards raised by a group

Whereas
far

the intellectual capacity of a group

below that of an

may

below

as

his

may

it

always

is

conduct

ethical

its

65).

deep

sink

it.

Some
show

above

high

as

rise

individual,

(p.

other

features

a clear light

in

In

description

is

the identi-

groups the most contradictory ideas can

by

exist side

Le Bon's

in

well justified

group mind with the mind of primitive

fication of the

people.

how

any conflict

and tolerate each

side

arising

between them.

But

conscious mental

life

from

the

other,

also the case

this is

without

contradiction

logical

in

the un-

of individuals, of children and of

neurotics, as psycho-analysis has long pointed out.^

^

young

In

children,

attitudes towards those

long

side for a

the

without

emotional

them exist side by

of them interfering with

either

to

contrary one.

breaks out between the two,

making

ambivalent

instance,

for

are nearest

of the other and

expression

conflict

time,

who

often

is

it

eventually a

settled

by

the

change of object and displacing one of the

ambivalent emotions on to a substitute. The history of the develchild

opment of a neurosis
pressed emotion

may

in

an

adult

also

will

frequently persist

conscious or even in conscious phantasies,

naturally runs directly counter

to

tolerated for quite a long

is

the content of which

it

any proceedings

has repudiated.

time,

the

until

The

suddenly one

affective

cathexis

page 48] of the phantasy, a conflict breaks out

and the ego with all the usual consequences. In the

[see footnote
it

that a sup-

long time in un-

result in

day, usually as a result of an increase in

between

show

some predominant tendency,

and yet that this antagonism does not

on the part of the ego against what
phantasy

for

Le Bon's

Description of the Groiip

group, further,

Mind

19

subject to the truly magical

is

of words; they can evoke the most formidable

power

tempests

the group mind, and are also capable of

in

them

stilling

'Reason and arguments are

117).

(p.

incapable of combating certain

They

and formulas.

w^ords

solemnity

with

are uttered

the

in

presence of

and as soon as they have been pronounced

groups,

an expression of respect
tenance,

and

are considered

powers.'

(p.

nection to

heads

all

natural

as

117.)

It

remember

on

visible

is

necessary

only

is

the

taboo

they

supernatural

as

forces,

every coun-

By many

are bowed.

in

this

con-

upon names among

primitive people and the magical powers w^hich they

ascribe to

And,

names and words.

groups

finally,

They demand

truth.

have

illusions,

process of a child's development into

more and more extensive

never

thirsted

after

and cannot do without

a mature adult there

integration of

its

personality,

is

a co-

ordination of the separate instinctive feelings and desires which

have grown up

him independently of one another. The analogous

domain of sexual life has long been known to us

in

process

in the

as

co-ordination of

the

all

the sexual instincts into a definitive

Abhandlungen zicr Sexiialtheorie, 1905.

the Sexual Theory. Nervous and ^Mental

genital organisation. (Drei

\Three Contributions
Disease

Monograph

unification of the

of the
that

libido

of

men

and the

Bible,
^

is

ego

to

Series,
is

No.

liable to

1910.])

same interferences

shown by numerous

of science

See Totem

familiar

who have preserved

like.

tmd Tabu.

Moreover, that the

7,

the

as that

instances, such as
their

faith

in

the

Group Psychology and

20

the Analysis oj the

them. They constantly give what

over what

they

real;

is

fluenced by what

is

We
the

have pointed out that

wish

unfulfilled

by

is

this

of the

found

have

hysterical

was never carried

dreams and in hypnosis,
which

of a group
things

falls

the
into

an

of

function

the

an

in

but

based

is

obsessional

evil

Indeed,

out.

for

reality

symptom

of an

fact

in

neurotics

the repetition of real

experience, and the sense of guilt

based upon the

what

objective

upon phantasy instead of upon

is

born

illusion

that

ordinary

not

psychological reality.

neurosis

predominance of

the ruling factor in the psychology

is

We

of neuroses.
are guided

They

true.

is

not to distinguish between

"j"]^.

of phantasy and

life

as strongly in-

untrue as by what

have an evident tendency

the two (p.

unreal precedence

is

almost

are

Ego

testing

background

just

mental

the

in

intention
as in

operations

the

reality of

comparison with

the strength of wishes with their affective cathexis.^

What Le Bon
groups

make

is

an

thinks that as

together

exhaustive, and does not enable us to

less

out

in

says on the subject of leaders of

underlying

soon
certain

as

principle

living

numbers,

so

gathered

matter

whether

they are a herd of animals or a collection of

beings, they place themselves instinctively

[See footnote p. 4S.]

He

are

beings

no

clearly.

human

under

the

Lc

authority of a chief
ient

with

it

held

in

in

his personal

Bon then

that

of

master.

its

must

faith

(in

can

accept

himself be

an

idea) in

from him.

Le

discusses the different kinds of leaders, and

the means by whicli they work upon the group.

the whole he believes that the leaders

by means of the ideas

felt

in

must possess

he

faith;

fit

which the group, which

will,

own,

its

submits

it

He must

qualities.

a strong and imposing

will

without a master.

leader, yet he too

by a strong

fascination

w'ay the needs of a group carry

this

in

meet the

order to awaken the group's

has no

live

an obed-

is

anyone who appoints himself

Although
half-way to

gi'oup

obedience

for

thirst

instinctively to

it

134).

(p.

which could never

licrd,

has such a

It

Group Mind

Bo7i's Dcscriplion of tJw

On

make themselves

which they themselves

in

are fanatical believers.

Moreover, he ascribes both to the ideas and to

the leaders a mysterious and irresistible power, which

he

calls

'

prestige

'

Prestige

is

a sort of domination

exercised over us by an individual, a work or an idea.

It

entirely paralyses our

astonishment

with

arouse a feeling
(p.

critical

faculty,

and respect.
that

like

of

and

would

It

fascination

in

fills

us

seem

to

hypnosis

He distinguishes between acquired or artiand personal prestige. The former is attached

148).

ficial

to persons in virtue of their

ation,

name, fortune and reput-

and to opinions, works of

of tradition.

Since

in

everv

art,

case

it

etc.,

harks

in

virtue

back to

22

Group Psychology and

the

past,

it

cannot be of

standing this

attached to a

few people,

magic.

dependent upon
failure

(p.

We

much

puzzling influence.

means of it, and

thing obey them
magnetic

the Analysis of the

has

it

as though

All

help to us in under-

Personal prestige

who become

the

Ego

effect of

leaders

is

by

making every-

by the operation of some

however,

prestige,

success, and

is

lost in

the

is

also

event of

159).

cannot

feel

that^Le Bon

has

brought

the

function of the leader and the importance of prestige

completely into harmony with his ^brilliantly

picture of the group mind.

executed

ni

OTHER ACCOUNTS OF COLLECTIVE

MENTAL LIFE

We

have

way

of introduction,

our

own Psychology

made

use

of

Le Bon's

because
in

upon unconscious mental

the
life.

it

fits

description
in

by

so well with

emphasis which

it

lays

But we must now add

that as a matter of fact none of that author's state-

ments bring forward anything new. Everything that he

says to the

detriment and depreciation of the mani-

festations of the group mind had already been said

by others before him with equal distinctness and
equal hostility, and has been repeated in unison by
thinkers,
statesmen and writers since the earliest
periods of literature.^ The two theses which comprise the most important of Le Bon's opinions, those
touching upon the collective inhibition of intellectual
functioning and the heightening of affectivity in groups,

B.

Kraskovic jun.

Die Psychologie der Kollektivitdten.

the Croatian by Siegmund von
See the body of the work as well as

Translated [into German] from

Posavec.

Vukovar,

the bibliography.

191

5.

24

Group Psychology and

had been formulated

bottom,

all

that

Bon

are

the

comparison

the two

with

Ego

At
Le

Sighele.*

over as being peculiar to

of the unconscious and of

notions

even

and

people,

by

shortly before

left

is

the A?ialysis of the

mental

the

had

these

of

life

primitive

been

often

naturally

alluded to before him.

what

But,

more, the description and estimate

group mind as they have been given by Le

of the

Bon and

the

rest

There

undisputed.

have not by any means been

no doubt that

is

all

the

left

phenomena

group mind which have just been mentioned

of the

have been
to

is

correctly observed, but

formation, which operate

in

also possible

the

of

manifestations

other

distinguish

is

it

group

a precisely opposite sense,

and from which a much higher opinion of the group

mind must necessarily follow.

Le Bon himself was prepared
circumstances

certain

only

that

dem-ce

of

isolated

individuals

prominent.'
that

is

it

collectivities

unselfishness

motive

only

to admit that in

morals of a group can be

than those of the individuals that compose

higher

and

the

with

interest

groups

of a

high

'While

with

capable

and devotion.

personal

force,

are

it

is
is

it,

almost

very

the

rarely

Other writers adduce the fact

only society which prescribes any ethical
(p.

65.)

See Walter Moede

'Die Massen- und Sozialpsychologie im

Meumann and Scheibner's Zeitschrift fiir

piidagogische Psychologie und experivientelle Pddagogik. 191 5, XVI.
kritischen Oberblick.'

Other Accoimts of Collective Mental Life

standards
rule fails

at
in

the

Or they

high demands.

circumstances

phenomenon

for

all

individual,

one way or
there
of

another to

indeed,

regards
that

he

while

come up

as
to

a
its

point out that in exceptional

ma\'

arise

in

which

enthusiasm,

most splendid group achievements

As

25

work

intellectual

communities

the

made

the

has

possible.
it

remains a

great decisions in the realm of

fact,

thought

and momentous discoveries and solutions of problems

are only possible to an individual, working

But even the group

mind

is

capable

in

of

solitude.

genius

in

as is shown above all by language

by folk-song, folk-lore and the like.
remains an open question, moreover, how much

intellectual creation,

as

itself,

It

well as

the individual thinker or writer owes to the stimulation

of the group in which he

more than

lives,

perfect a mental

or whether he does

work

in

which the others

have had a simultaneous share.

In face of these completely contradictory accounts,
it

looks

as

were bound
is

easy

dilemma.

to

though the work

of

Group Psycholog\'

come to an ineffectual end. But it

find a more hopeful escape from the
number of very different formations have
to

probably been merged under the term

may

assertions of

require

Sighele,

to

be distinguished.

Le Bon and

the

short-lived character, which

hastily

The

group

'

and

rest relate to

groups of a

some passing

interest has

agglomerated out of various sorts of individuals.

Group Psychology and

26

The

the Analysis of the

of

characteristics

French Revolution, have

The op-

unmistakably influenced their descriptions.

opinions [owe their origin to the consideration

posite

those

groups

stable

mankind pass

or

associations

same

the

first

choppy sea to a ground

in

kind stand

swell.

book on The Group Mind^

out from the same contradiction that has just

McDougall,
starts

in

been mentioned,

his

and finds a solution

group

'

possesses no organisation at

'

scarcely jdeserving the name.

of this

crowd

kind
of

without

for

as

'

crowd

'

human beings can

possessing

an organisation,

at

and

it

In the simplest case,

factor of organisation.

the

which

of relation to those of the second

sort

as a high but

in

and which are embodied

their lives,

the institutions of society. Groups of the

in

and

groups,

revolutionary

especially those of the great

of

Ego

all

that

He

in

the

he says,
or one

all

describes a group

But he admits that a

come

hardly

events

the

precisely

in

together

rudiments
these

of

simple

groups many of the fundamental facts of Collective

Psychology can be observed with special ease

Before the

members

of a

can constitute something

in

random crowd

(p. 22).

of people

the nature of a group in

the psychological sense of the word, a condition has

to

be

in

common
^

fulfilled;

these individuals must have something

with

one another, a

Cambridge University

common

Press, 1920.

interest

in

Other Accounts of Collective

an object, a similar emotional bias

or

and

other,

interpolate)
(p.

The

23).

homogeneity

degree

higher
the

,
'

degree

like

to

influence

'this

of

do

readily

27

situation

should

reciprocal

of

the

more

some

in

('consequently',

some

'

Life

A'Ie7ttal

the

mental

individuals

form a psychological group, and the more striking

are the manifestations of a group mind.

The most remarkable and

portant
'

or

exaltation

in

that

and

who

are

unreservedly to

merged

the

in

it

is

in

the

produced

'

a group to a

attain

pleasurable

is

McDougall's

In

24).

stirred

seldom or never

they

conditions;

are

group

emotion

of

(p.

it

men's emotions

opinion

those

of

of

most im-

the

also

formation

intensification

member

every

pitch

of the

result

under other

experience

for

concerned to surrender themselves so

their

passions

and thus

to

become

group and to lose the sense of the

The manner in which

individuals are thus carried away by a common impulse is explained by McDougall by means of what
limits

he

of their

calls

the

'

individuality.

principle of direct induction of emotion

by way of the primitive sympathetic response' (p. 25),

that is, by means of the emotional contagion with
which

we

perception
calculated
in

are

of

number

the

signs

automatically to

the person

The

already familiar.

who

of people

of

an

is

emotional

that the
state

is

arouse the same emotion

The greater the

same emotion can

perceives them.
in

fact

whom

the

Group PsycJiology and

28

the Analysis of the

be simultaneously observed, the

effect

this

of

the

other

people,

this

individual loses his

power of criticism, and lets himself

same emotion. But in so doing he
excitement of the

does

stronger

The

automatic compulsion grow.

Ego

into

the

increases

the

slip

who had produced

upon him, and thus the emotional charge

becomes intensified
Something is unmistakably

by

individuals

interaction.

compulsion

the nature of a

to

mutual

work

at

in

do the same as the

harmony with the many. The

coarser and simpler emotions are the more apt to
others,

remain

to

in

spread through a group

this

in

way

(p.

39).

This mechanism for the intensification of emotion

is

favoured by some other influences which emanate

from groups.
a

sense

of

group impresses the individual

power and of insurmountable

unlimited

peril.

For

human

society,

moment

the

which

is

whose punishments the

to

and

it,

it

for

will

the

In

put

former

'

surrender to the
that

is

hibitions.

and

individual fears,

many

safer to

of

whole

for

whose

inhibitions.
in

follow the

and perhaps even

'

certainly

On

conscience
attraction

obtained

the

whole,

'

out

of

of

authority,

It

is

opposition

example of

hunt with the

obedience to the new authority he

pack'.
his

wielder

him to put himself

be

those around him

the

replaces

it

sake he has submitted to so

clearly perilous

w^ith

action,

may

and so

of the increased pleasure

from the removal of

in-

not

so

therefore,

it

is

OtJicr Accounts of Collective Meiital Life

remarkable

group

we

that

doing

an individual

see

approving

or

have avoided

should

which

things

the normal conditions of

in

this

way we may even hope

to

the

mystery

which

often

so

is

29
a

would

he

and

in

little

of

life;

up a

clear

in

by

covered

the

enigmatic word 'suggestion'.

McDougall
the
(p.

does

collective

He

41).

level.

because

dispute
of

inhibition

those

of

latter

are

general

in

as

thesis

intelligence

order

higrher

obstructed

an

to

groups

in

their

activity,

of

emotion

sound

for

own

their

to

in

intensification

unfavourable conditions

creates

the

says that the minds of lower intelligence

down
The

brincr

not

intellectual

and further because the individuals are intim-

work,

by the group and their mental activity is

not free, and because there is a lowering in each
idated

sense

of his

individual

of responsibility

for

own

his

performances.

The judgement

up the psychological behaviour of a simple

nised

group

'

no

is

Le Bon.

Such a

impulsive,

violent,

extreme
tions

in

and

suggestible,

ment,

less

of

refined
in

than

friendly
is

excessively

the

displaying only

careless

incapable

'

inconsistent,

fickle,

action,

the

more

group

but

imperfect forms of reasoning;

easily

unorgathat

of

emotional,

and

coarser emo-

hasty

the

'

irresolute

sentiments;

deliberation,

any

sums

McDougall

which

with

extremely
in

judg-

simpler

swayed and

and
led,

30

Group Psychology and

Ego

the Analysis of the

lacking in self-consciousness, devoid of self-respect and

of sense of responsibility, and apt to be carried

by

consciousness

the

tends

produce

to

learnt to expect

Hence

power.

of

the

all

any

of

own

its

and

in

like that of

an unruly

rather than like that of

the worst cases

its

human

average member;

beings.'

McDougall contrasts

Since

in a strange

like that of a wild beast,

it is

rather than like that of

it

absolute

child or an untutored passionate savage

situation,

that

and

irresponsible
is

away

we have

manifestations

behaviour

its

so

force,

the

45.)

(p.

behaviour

of a

highly organised group with what has just been des-

we

cribed,
in

what

factors
'

particularly

conditions

'

interested to

learn

and

what

consists,

by

The author enumerates

produced.

is

it

be

organisation

this

principal

life

shall

raising

for

collective

live

mental

to a higher level.

The

and fundamental condition

first

that there

is

should be some degree of continuity of existence

the

group.

the

former,

group

for

This
if

may be

the

same

some time;

either

material or formal:

individuals

and

the

in

persist

latter,

the

in

there

if

is

developed within the group a system of fixed positions

which are occupied by a succession of individuals.

The second

condition

member

of the group

formed

of

capacities of

the

is

some

nature,

the group,

that

the

individual

idea

should be

in

definite

composition,
so

that

from

functions

and

he

may

this

Other Accounts of Collective Mental Life

an

develop

emotional

relation

the

to

31

group

as

whole.

The

third

(perhaps

into interaction

other groups similar

many respects.
The fourth

group should be brought

that the

is

but

it

with

rivalry)

differing

group

the

that

is

form of

in the

to

from

should

in

it

possess

customs and habits, and especially such as

traditions,

determine

the

of

relations

members

its

one

to

another.

The

fifth

is

that the group should have a definite

structure, expressed

in

the specialisation

entiation of the functions of

According
are

the

fulfilled,

McDougall,

to

these

if

of

intellectual

ability

seems

It

McDougall
group

the

'

of

it.

which

condition

organisation

'

of

more justification be described in

The problem consists in how to pro-

the

group

characteristic

precisely

of the

extinguished in him by

For the

from the group

the

that
as

lower-

with

another way.

were

us

of the

collective

members

for individual

designates

can

cure for

to

conditions

avoided by withdrawing

is

the performance of intellectual tasks

and reserving them

differ-

disadvantages

psychological

group formation are removed. The

ing

and

constituents.

its

individual,

possessed his

own

those

and

individual

the formation

outside
continuity,

the
his

features

which

which are

of the

primitive

group.
group,

self-consciousness,

Group Psychology

32
his

traditions

and

tions

Owing

a^id the Analysis of the

and customs,

position,

and

to his entiy into an

lost this

'

own

of

of a valuable

aim
the

unorganised

is

to

equip

individual,

remark of

If

the

we

'

his

we

thus recog-

group

shall

rivals.

group he had

be

with

the

reminded

Trotter's,^ to the effect that

the tendency towards the formation of groups

logically a continuation of the

of

func-

particular

from

apart

distinctiveness for a time.

nise that the

attributes

his

kept

Ego

multicellular

is

bio-

character

the higher organisms.

all

Instincts

of the Herd

m Pence andWar.

Fisher Unwin, 1916.

IV

SUGGESTION AND LIBIDO

We

started

individual in a
to

what

from

the

group

is

fundamental

subjected through

often a profound

is

alteration

mental

reduced,

both

being

processes

inten-

becomes markedly

while his intellectual ability

sified,

influence

its

in his

His emotions become extraordinarily

activity.

an

that

fact

evidently

the

in

direction of an approximation to the other individuals

in

the group;

and

result

this

by the removal of those

which are peculiar

to

We

instincts

his

and

individual,

of his

be reached

by

inclinations

heard

have

that

his

which
these

unwelcome consequences are to some extent

of the
organisation
prevented by a higher

often

'

at least

group;
fact

upon

inhibitions

each

resigning those expressions

are especially his own.

can only

of

'

but

this

does not contradict

Group Psychology

the intensification
of the

intellect

the

the fundamental

two

theses

of the emotions and the

in primitive

groups.

Our

as

to

inhibition

interest
3

is

Ego

34

G^'oup Psychology a?id the Atialysis of the

now

directed to discovering the psychological explanof this mental change which

ation

experienced by

is

the individual in a group.

It

that rational factors (such

clear

is

which has

timidation of the individual

mentioned,

that

the action of his

is,

the

as

in-

been

already

instinct of self-

preservation) do not cover the observable phenomena.

Beyond this what we are offered as an explanation

by authorities upon Sociology" and Group Psychology
is

always the same,

and that

names,

Tarde

calls

it

agreeing with

is
'

even though

the

magic

imitation

writer

;
'

who

is

given various

word

'suggestion'.

it

we

but

protests

cannot
that

help

imitation

comes under the concept of suggestion, and is in

Le Bon traces back all the
fact one of its results.^
puzzling features of social phenomena to two factors:
the mutual suggestion of individuals and the prestige
of leaders.

by

But prestige, again,

capacity

its

moment

for a

ciple of

'

evoking

for

is

only recognizable

McDougall

suggestion.

gives us an impression

primitive induction of emotion

that
'

his

us to do without the assumption of suggestion.

on

further

that this
assertions

consideration

principle

about

'

says

no

imitation

Brugeilles: 'L'essence

Revue philosophique,

we

191 3,

'

are forced

'

contagion

du phenomene

XXV.

But

perceive

to

more than the

or

prin-

might enable

familiar
,

'

except

social: la suggestion.'

Suggestion and Libido

for

decided

no

upon

stress

doubt

35

emotional factor.

the

something

There

is

which,

when we become aware ot signs

someone else, tends to make us

tion

in

that

same emotion; but how

oppose

resist

it,

Why,

opposite way?

obey

induces the emotion

influence.

us

is

are

does not enable

to

a group?

in

what com-

that

imitation,

and what

the

group's

suggestive

Moreover, quite apart from

us

quite an

is

tendency
in

successful!}
in

do we invariably give

therefore,

this

emo-

into the

fall

and react

way to this contagion when we

Once more we should have to say
pels us to

us

in

of an

do we not

often

emotion,

the

exists

evade

jNIcDougall

this,

suggestion;

from him as well as from other writers

we

that

hear

groups

are distinguished by their special suggestibility.

We

therefore be prepared for the statement

shall

that suggestion

actualh^ an

(or

more

correctly

irreducible, primitive

damental fact

in

the

mental

life

suggestibility)

phenomenon, a
of man.

is

fun-

Such, too,

was the opinion of Bernheim, of whose astonishingarts I was a witness in the year 1889. But I can

remember even then

feeling

muffled

hostility

to

When

patient who
a
the shout:
with
met
showed himself unamenable was
'What are you doing? Voiis voiis co7itresuggestionnez!\
to myself that this was an evident injustice
I said
and an act of violence. For the man certainly had
this

tyranny

a right

to

of suggestion.

counter-suggestions

if

they were trying to

3*

Group Psychology and the Analysis

36

subdue him with suggestions.

Ego

of the

my

Later on

resistance

took the direction of protesting against the view that

was

which explained everything,

suggestion,

be preserved

from

Thinking

explanation.

repeated the old conundrum

itself

of

it,

to
I

^
:

Christoph trug Christum,

Christus trug die ganze Welt,

Sag'

wo

Damals

hat Christoph
hin

den Fuss

gestellt?^

sed Christus

Christophorus Christum,

orbem:

sustulit

Constiterit pedibus die ubi Christophorus?

Now

that

once more

suggestion after having kept

thirty years,

To

this

find there

statement

ception, which

away

from

no change

is

can

approach the riddle of

discover

in

only

need not mention,

it

some

for

the situation.

ex-

a single

since

it

one

is

which bears witness to the influence of psyciio-analysis.

1

notice

that

formulate
is,

the

particular

concept

efforts

being

are

suggestion

of

made

Konrad Richter:

1896, Acta Germanica, V,

'Der

deutsche

S.

And

Christoph.'

world; Say, where did Christopher then put

^

Thus,

and

this

Berlin,

I.

^[Literally: 'Christopher bore Christ; Christ bore the

Netirology

that

correctly,

to fix the conventional use of the name.^

to

McDougall: 'A Note on Suggestion.'

Psychopaihology,

920, Vol.

I,

whole

his foot?']

No.

I.

Journal of

Suggestion and Libido

37

by no means superfluous, for the word is acquiring

a more and more extended use and a looser and
looser meaning,
and will soon come to designate
is

any sort

where

'

whatever, just

influence

ot

to suggest

and

'

'

suggestion

as
'

English,

in

correspond to

our 7iaJiclegcn and Anregung. But there has been no

explanation

nature

of the

of suggestion,

that

of

is,

the conditions under w^hich influence without adequate

foundation

logical

takes

place.

should

not

avoid

the task of supporting this statement by an analysis of

the

literature

of the

aware that an exhaustive

hand which has

close at

thirty years,

last

inquir}^

if

were not

being undertaken

is

view the fulfilment of

in

this

very task.
Instead of this

concept

the

make an attempt

shall

of libido

purpose of throwing

the

for

at using

Group Psychology, a concept which has

done us such good service in the study of psychoupon

light

neuroses.

Libido
of

the

an expression taken from the theory

emotions.

(regarded
at

is

as

present

We

actually

the

mean by
commonly
in

word
love

that

love,

sexual love with

those

not

instincts

that

naturally consists

called

of

the energ\'

though

may be comprised
The nucleus of what we

all

'love'.

name

magnitude,

mensurable)

which have to do with

under

by

call

quantitative

(and

this

is

what

is

and what the poets sing

of)

But

we

sexual union as

its

aim.

and

Grotip Psychology

38

do not separate from

share

and

the

in

on

the

friendship

expression

way towards
they

are

in

from reaching

that

of their

original

nizable

(as

general, and also

these tendencies

all

same

from

instinctive

in

are

activities;

in

force their

instincts

other circumstances

aim or

this

though

it,

children,

and to abstract ideas.

sexual union, but

diverted

and

parents

between the sexes these

relations

any case has a

in

the fact that psycho-analytic

in

us

the

Ego

the one hand, self-love,

for

objects

lies

of

'on

humanity

for

concrete

justification

what

love

other,

research has taught

an

this

love

'

and love

devotion to

Our

name

the Analysis of the

always

prevented

are

preserving

enough

nature to keep their identity recog-

such

in

features

as

longing

the

for

proximity, and self-sacrifice).

out

We

are of opinion, then, that language has carried

an

entirely

creating the

we

that

of our

loose

word

to

'

love

'

with

its

of

decision,

as the basis

it

this

to

done nothing

'wider' sense.

In

sexual love, the

coincides

exactly

P-^VCho-analysis,

'

the

has

in

'

of the
love

been

had been

taking love in

origin, function,

its

Eros

with
as

original

it

let

Yet psycho-

guilty of an act of outrageous innovation.

has

well.

psycho-analysis has

a storm of indignation, as though

analysis

in

and

uses,

and expositions as

discussions
this

unification

numerous

do better than take

cannot
scientific

By coming

piece

justifiable

and relation

philosopher Plato

force,

shown

the libido, of
in

detail

by

Suggestion and Libido

Nachmansohn and
famous

his

in

above
'

take

always

not

But

sense. ^

'

when they

name

in the

it

same

shows that men do

thinkers

seriously,

even

gives

then,

these

love

instincts

of sexual instincts, a potio7'i and by reason

The

regarded

have taken

majority

'

educated
an

as

people

'

insult,

and

revenge by retorting upon psycho-

sex

considers

of

nomenclature

this

their

analysis with the reproach of

vv'ho

Corinthians, prizes love

only

great

P^aul,

profess most to admire them.

of their origin.

have

this

their

Psycho-analysis,

the

the

to

he certainly understands

else,

all

wider

and when the apostle

Pfister;^

epistle

39

as

'

pan-sexualism

Anyone

'.

something mortifying and hu-

to human nature is at liberty to make use

more genteel expressions 'Eros' and 'erotic'.

miliating

of the
I

might have done so myself from the

have spared myself much opposition.

want

for

to,

like

to

avoid

and thus

first

But

concessions

did not
to

One can never tell where that road

one gives wav first in words, and then

faint-

heartedness.

ma}'

lead one;

little

by

little

Eroslehre
1915,

of

sex;

cannot see any merit

the

Greek

in

word 'Eros',

Nachmansohn: 'Freuds Libidotheorie verglichen mit der

ibid.,

substance too.

in

ashamed

being

Bd.
1

Internationale

Platos'.

Pfister:

Ill;

'Plato

als

ZeitscJirift fiir

Vorlaufer

Psychoanalyse,

der Psychoanalyse',

92 1, Bd. VII. ['Plato: a Fore-Runner of Psycho-Analysis'.

International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 1922, Vol.

^

'Though

have not love,

speak with the tongues of

am

men and

III.]

of angels, and

become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal.'

Group Psychology and

40

which

soften the affront,

to

is

more than a
and

[love];

the Analysis of the

the end nothing

in

is

Ego

German word Liebe

he who knows how to wait need
of our

translation

finally,

make no concessions.

We

will

that

position

our

try

love

relationships

emotional

expression,

neutral

What would
Our

support

from two passing thoughts.

to

power

what

than to Eros,

distinctiveness

influence

him

pression

that

of being

in

to

position
''ihnen

who

Secondly,

world?

it

could

in

that

if

the

in

feat

it

first

that

First,

group

some

instance
is

kind: and

be better ascribed
in

the

an individual gives up

his

together everything

by suggestion,
he does

con-

evidently

is

a group and lets

it

other

its

gives

because he

members

one the
feels the

im-

need

harmony with them rather than in opthem so that perhaps after all he does

zu Liebe'}

[An idiom meaning

of them'.

this

holds

more

of any such relations.

held together by a power of

clearly

the screen, of suggestion.

the shelter,
finds

sup-

also constitute the

correspond to them

hypothesis

the

Let us remember that

make no mention

cealed behind

use

to

(or,

ties)

essence of the group mind.

the authorities

with

then,

fortune,

Translator.\

'for their sake'.

Literally: 'for love

TWO

CHURCH

ARTIFICIAL GROUPS: THE

AND THE ARMY

We

may

we

what

from

recall

morphology of groups that

it

is

know

of

possible to distinguish

very different kinds of groups and opposing

There

development.

their

very

are

lines

sorts

made

unhomoge-

of individuals, and

neous ones; natural groups, and

artificial

ones, requiring

an external force to keep them together;

groups,

and

But

structure.

explained

highly

we

should

too

leaderless

like

which

to

distinction

given

groups

with

have

primitive

definite

yet

to

to lay particular stress

the

attention;

little

which

reasons

for

ones

organised

have

authorities
I

refer

to

that

and those with leaders.

not

choose

our

point

organised,

a
of

relatively

departure, but

lasting

and

upon
rather

And,

in

shall

group formation as

shall

artificial

be

between

complete opposition to the usual practice, we

simple

in

groups

fleeting

and extremely lasting ones; homogeneous ones,

up of the same

the

begin with

groups.

highly

The most

Gronp PsycJiology and

42

the Analysis of

tJie

Ego

example of such structures are churches

communities of believers and armies.

interesting

A
a

is,

church and an army are

them from
is

enter

no

such

We

are

that

certain

other

not consulted,

is

whether he wants to

to

attempt

leaving

at

it

is

groups

in

the

church

however

in

(and

different

same
the

group

depends upon
then both

more concealed

far

which
that

the

illusion

Catholic

with
this

illusion;

those

from

with advantage take

well

as

as

two may be

in

in

an

other

holds good of there being

Church

who
an

in

has been mentioned.

type)

in

are protected

we may

as

Commander-in-Chief
the

are

manner

Church

respects, the

head

enquire

to

interest

can be observed very clearly

Catholic

army,

which

facts,

organised

In

present

it.

attracted by one circumstance, namely

only

dissolution

equal
if

Christ,

loves

it

all

in

an army

the individuals

love.

Everything

were to be dropped,

Church and army would

as the external force permitted

love

alterations in

need such special safeguards.

associations

cases,

highly

in

as

any

our

outside

quite

is

these

its

choice,

to prevent

or has quite definite conditions attached to

why

and to check

a rule a person

group;

groups, that

artificial

employed

is

met with persecution or with severe punish-

ment,

the

As

given

usually

It

force

disinteerating

structure.

rheir

or

external

certain

them

was expressly enunciated by

dissolve,
to.

Christ:

so

far

This equal

'Inasmuch

as

ye have done

my
to

the

individual

in

the

relation

upon

the

eveiyone
in

that

the

and

is

equal,

his

love.

family

themselves

is

love

no

doubt

It

not without a deep reason

is

and

Christ

the

tie

has

good
father

who

reason

army
built
is,

army.

an

loves

they

are

of his
officer

it

his

brothers

is,

unites

cause

The

like

and

from

the

Church

of such groups.

tie

holds
is

for that

comrades among themselves.

series

each

the

of

Commander-in-Chief

soldiers equally,

structurally

differs

up of a

as

all

The

call

them. There

for

which
the

also

is

believers

that

Christ,

in

which

Christ

that

which unites them with one another.

of

Christ

between the Christian community

that

with

individual

of

through

runs

reason that before

invoked,

is

made

love

this

and that everyone has an equal

brothers

the

character

their

is

are

that

from

derived

very

the

for

similarity

through

demands

the

are

stands

he

elder brother;

democratic

Church,

share

All

He

unto me.'

it

of these

least

of the group of believers

kind

of a

individual

Christ's.

the

members

surrogate.

father

unto one of the

it

ye have done

brethren,

Army 43

Groups: the C/nnrh and tlic

Tiijo Artificial

in

The
being

Every captain

were, the Commander-in-Chief and the father

company,
of

his

and so
section.

is

It

every non-commissioned
is

hierarchy has been constructed

true
in

that

similar

the Church, but

it

for
does not play the same part in it economically;
more knowledge and care about individuals may be

and

Gro2ip Psychology

44

the Analysis of the

to Christ than to a

attributed

Ego

human Commander-in-

Chief.'
It

be noticed that

to

is

groups each individual

An

of the

in

these two

bound by

artificial

libidinaP

ties

on

objection will justly be raised against this conception

libidinal [see

ground

is

that

no

next foot-note] structure of an army on the

place

has been found in

it

for

such ideas as

those of one's countn,% of national glory, etc., which are of such

importance
that

in

simple

one;

The answer is that

and no longer such a

holding an army together.

a different instance of a group

is

for

the

tie,

examples of great generals,

Wallenstein, or Napoleon, show that such

pensable to the existence of an army.

upon

the

possibility

of a

We

ideas

Caesar,

like

are

not indis-

shall presently

touch

leading idea being substituted for a

and upon the relations between the two. The neglect of

an army, even when it is not the only factor
operative, seems to be not merely a theoretical omission but
also a practical danger.
Prussian militarism, which was just as
unpsychological as German science, may have had to suffer the
consequences of this in the great war. We know that the war
leader

this libidinal factor in

neuroses which ravaged the German army have been recognized

being a protest of the individual against the part he was exin the army; and according to tlie communication
of E. Simmel {Kriegsnetirosen unci Psychisches Trauma\ Munich,
as

pected to play

""

the hard treatment of the

191 8),

considered as foremost
the

importance

of the

among

men by

libido's

may be

their superiors

the motive forces of the

claims on this score

disease.

If

had been

better appreciated, the fantastic promises of the American Presi-

fourteen points would probably not have been

dent's

so easily, and the splendid instrument

the hands of the
^

as

an

German

believed

would not have broken

in

leaders.

[Here and elsewhere the German ^libidinos' is used simply

Libido'
adjectival derivative from the technical term
^

and

T7V0 Artificial Groups : the Church

one hand to the leader

the

in-Chief)

and

members

of the

on

kind and the same value,

described
resei'ved

psychologically
for

now upon

authorities

for not

mild

leader

own

while our

are

ties

thev

are

But we

reproach

be

to

must

questions

be
ven-

shall

the

against

in

psychology

the

choice

of

the

of

the

object

first

for

brought us into a more favourable

investigation

has

position.

would

It

two

having sufficiently appreciated

importance of the
group,

and how

these

subsequent enquiry.

ture even

other

the

to

these

whether they are of the same

to each other,

related

hand

How

group.

45

Commander-

the

(Christ,

other

the

Army

the

appear as

we were on

though

the right road towards an explanation of the principal

phenomenon
lack

of freedom in

bound

Psychology
group.

the

each

If

individual's

individual

is

two directions by such an intense emotional

in

we

tie,

Group

of

no

shall find

difficulty

to that

attributing

in

circumstance the alteration and limitation which have

been observed

A
a group
to

same

in

be found

in

the

in

military

studied

group

'libidinal' is

to avoid

dinous'.

the

of

that

effect,

that

phenomenon

kind

highly-coloured

Translator.^

it,

is

also

which

arises

becomes
the

connotation

in

of panic,

groups.

accordingly introduced in

essence of

the

the libidinal ties existing

lies

best
a

in his personality.

to the

hint

panic

disintegrated.
translation

of

the

in

English

is
if

Its

order
'libi-

Group Psychology and the Analysis of

46

are

characteristics

by

each

individual

The mutual

longer
only

listened

[Angst]

objection

the

point, again,
is

dread

set

is

the

for

and

own
rest.

At this
be made

free.

naturally

way round;

rather the other

his

and a gigantic

exist,

w^ill

given

to,

on

solicitous

have ceased to

ties

and senseless

it

is

orders

the

of

and without any consideration

account,

that

none

any

are

superiors

that

that

Ego

the

and that the

dread has grown so great as to be able to disregard

all

and

ties

feelings

all

McDougall has even

consideration

of

made

24)

(p.

of panic (though not of military

instance

But

emphasis.

of explanation

so

gigantic.

quite

The

a victim

equally

great

success;

it

is

panic

to

the

of

If

breaks

out

an individual

only

on

his

in

own

may

very

bears no relation to the

often

upon

why

is

made

the

the dread has

of

previously

danger
essence

the

danger

most

have

faced

complete

with
of panic

danger that
the

that

threatens,

trivial

it

and

occasions.

panic dread begins to be solicitous

account,

he

bears witness

doing to the fact that the emotional

hitherto

method
The very

inadequate.

greatness

greater

or

so

lays

the same army which novr

cannot be responsible, for

falls

typical

by con-

emotion

upon which he

question that needs explanation

become

as

nevertheless this rational

here

is

panic)

of

intensification

('primary induction')

tagion

much

of that

for others.

use of the case

danger seem

ties,

small

in

so

which have

to him,

have

Two

ceased to

may

that he

is

surely think

by himself

in

facing

The

greater.

it

47

fact

therefore, that panic dread presupposes a relaxation

is,

the libidinal structure of the group

in

it

Now

exist.

the danger, he

in

and the Army

Artificial Groups: the CJrarck

that the

libidinal

owing to dread

and

manner,

a justifiable

of

ties

the

in

group

the

destroyed

are

danger can be

of the

face

and reacts to
contrary view

the

refuted.

The contention
ed

enormous proportions by means

to

(contagion)

is

not

the danger

is

a really great one and

group has no strong emotional

are

fulfilled,

theatre

or

when a

for instance,

place

instructive case

of

ties

by these

that

when

the

which

breaks out

fire

amusement.

is

entirely

conditions

and the one which

ployed for our purposes

increas-

induction

of

the least contradicted

in

is

McDougall's view meets the case

remarks.

when

group

that dread in a

But the

in

really

can be best em-

mentioned above,

in

which a body of troops breaks into a panic although

the danger has not increased
is

usual and has

be

not to

often

expected

bevond a

degree that

been previously faced.

that

the

usage

of

the

It

is

word

and unambiguously
Sometimes it is used to describe any collective dread, sometimes even dread in an individual
when it exceeds all bounds, and often the name
seems to be reserved for cases in which the outbreak
'

panic

'

should be clearly

deter-

mined.

of dread

is

not warranted

by the

occasion.

If

we

48

Group Psychology and

word

the

take
dread,

we can

Dread

in

'

panic

the Analysis of

the

in

'

establish

sense

Ego

tJie

of

collective

far-reaching

analogy.

provoked

by the
greatness of a danger or by the cessation of emoan

individual

is

either

tional ties (libidinal cathexes^ [Libidobesetzunge?i\)] the

latter

is

the

of

case

same way panic

neurotic

common danger

of the

either

arises

dread. ^

owing

In

to

latter case

is

the

or owing to the disappearance

of the emotional ties which hold the group

and the

just

an increase

analogous

to that

together;

of neurotic

dread.^
['Cathexis',

German word
in the

from

the

^Besetzung' has

Greek

become

'Katexcu',

'I

occupy'.

The

of fundamental importance

exposition of psycho-analytical theory.

Any attempt

at a short

be misleading, but speaking

\e.r\ loosely, we may say that 'cathexis' is used on the analogy
of an electric charge, and that it means the concentration or
accumulation of mental energy in some particular channel. Thus,
when we speak of the existence in someone of a libidinal cathexis
of an object, or, more shortly, of an object-cathexis, we mean
that his libidinal energy is directed towards, or rather infused
into, the idea {Vorstellung) of some object in the outer world.
Readers who desire to obtain a more precise knowledge of the
term are referred to the discussions in 'Zur Einfuhrung des
Narzissmus and the essays on metapsychology in Kleine Schriften
definition or description

is

likely to

'

zur Neurosenlehre, Vierte Folge.

^

XXV,

Translator?^

See Vorlesungen zur Einfuhrung in die Psychoanalyse.

3. Auflage, 1920. [Introductory Lecttircs on Psycho- Analysis.

Lecture
^

fantastic

XXV. George

Allen and Unwin, 1922.]

v. Felszeghy's interesting though somewhat

paper 'Panik und Pankomplex'. Imago, 1920, Bd. VI.

Compare Bela

Two

Groups :

Artificial

Anyone who,
a
'

panic

one

as

group mind

'

the

group mind does away with

this

most

manifestations.

striking

(1.

plainest

Army

49

describes

c),

of

functions

the

at the paradoxical position that

arrives

McDougall

like

of

Church and the

tJie

itself

It

one of

in

its

impossible

is

to

doubt that panic means the disintegration of a group;

the

involves

it

cessation

of

all

members

sideration which the

the

feelings

con-

of

of the group otherwise

show one another.

The typical occasion of the outbreak of a panic
is

much

very

of Hebbel's
soldier

as

it

play
out:

cries

and thereupon

all

is

and Holofernes. A
'The general has lost his head!'

though the

mutual

ties

some sense

the

the

flask

The

birth

outbreak of

same;

the

between the members of the group

leader.

Bologna

same time

The group
when its top

dissolution of a

easy to observe.

my

on

brings

the

or other,

danger remains

as a rule, at the

appear,

The

the xA^ssyrians take to flight.

about him,

of misgivings
panic,

Nestroy's parody

in

about Judith

loss of the leader in

their

represented

vanishes
is

in

broken

religious

the

as

with

tie

dust,

dis-

like

off.

group

not

is

short time ago there

so

came

into

hands an English novel of Catholic origin, recom-

mended by

When

It

the

Bishop

Was Dark.

of
It

London,

gave a

with

clever and,

seems to me, a convincing picture of such

bility

and

its

consequences.

The

the

novel,

title

as

it

a possi-

which

is

50

Group Psychology and

Ego

the Analysis of the

present

supposed to relate to the

day,

how

tells

and of

conspiracy of enemies of the figure of Christ

the

Christian

sepulchre

faith

be

to

an inscription,

is

mathaea

confesses

removed

on the third day

in

The

spot.

this

divine nature are

body

after

its

reasons

this

European

in

all

civilisation

this

of Ari-

he

piety

grave

its

entombment and buried

Christ and

of

means disposed

result of this archaeological discovery

in

of

from

of Christ

resurrection

by

In

which Joseph

for

for

Jerusalem.

in

in

that

the

arranging

in

discovered

sepulchre

secretly

succeed

is

it

his

and the

of,

a convulsion

and an extraordinary increase

crimes and acts of violence, which only ceases

when

the forgers' plot has been revealed.

The phenomenon which accompanies

lution that

group

is

here supposed

is

to

overtake

not dread, for which the occasion

Instead of

ruthless

it

make

other people

and

the

religious

is

towards

owing to

their appearance, which,

the equal love of Christ,

they

wanting.

impulses

hostile

had

disso-

previously

been

kingdom ot
Christ those people who do not belong to the com-

unable

to

But

do.^

even

during

the

munity of believers, who do not love him, and

he does not
^

Compare

abolition
P.

love,

the

stand

explanation of similar

of the paternal

Federn's

Verlag, 1919.

Die

outside this

vaterlose

authority

of the

Gesellschaft.

tie.

Therefore

phenomena
sovereig^n

Vienna,

whom

after the

given

in

Anzengruber-

Two

Church and the Aryny

Artificial Groups: the

even

a religion,

if

it

the

itself

calls

of love,

religion

must be hard and unloving to those who do not

Fundamentally indeed every religion is
belong to it.
in

same way

this

whom

embraces;

it

of love

religion

while

towards those who do not belong

to every religion.

we ought

personally,

not

in this respect.
itself

turies,

we can

be found

them.
relicrious

one

same
the

libidinal

and

in

scientific

of

it

are unbelieving

off psychologically

no longer

intolerance

cruel

as

former

in

The cause

so

which

takes

tie

the

doing

ties

is

cen-

rather

socialistic

-,

then

depend

the

place

tie

seems

there

intolerance towards outsiders as in

Wars

find

the undeniable weakening of religious

another group

succeeding

we may

who

better

human manners.

in

and the
If

are natural

it

scarcely conclude that there has been

a softening in

feelings

much

to-day that

so violent and

shows

to

so

If

intolerance

reproach believers too

to

severely on this account; people

or indifferent are

to

difficult

those

all

and

cruelty

However

for

and

Religion;

opinions

could

if

the

differences

of
to

be

the

be
the

age of

between

ever attain a similar signifi-

cance for groups,

the

same

repeated with

new

motivation.

this

will

upon

result

would again be

VI

FURTHER PROBLEMS AND LINES OF WORK

We

have

hitherto

and

have

found

emotional

seems

One

ties.

(at

two

considered
they

that

of these, the tie with the leader,

events for these cases) to be

all

groups

artificial

dominated by two

are

more of

a ruling factor than the other, which holds between

the

members of
Now much

described

have to

in

the group.

start

We

to

form

in

or less stable,

to

the

fact that a

mere

in

it;

but

we

should

any collection of people the

psychological

become prominent.

our attention

should

not a group, so long as these

is

have to admit that

easily

be examined and

from the ascertained

have not been established

tendency

to

the morphology of groups.

collection of people
ties

remains

else

We

group

may

very

should have to give

different kinds of groups,

that arise spontaneously,

more

and to study

the conditions of their origin and of their dissolution.

We

should above

all

be concerned with the

distinction

Further Problevis and Lines of Work

53

between groups which have a leader and leaderless

We should consider whether groups with
groups.

may

leaders

whether
not be

not be the

primitive and complete,

an idea,

others

the

in

substituted

more

which religious groups, with

to

(a state of things

their

invisible

or

in

might

varieties

abstraction,

w'ould

also,

the

really

the

figure

of what

and interesting

from the relation between the

arise

The

person

same

or

leader or the leading idea

institution

might

and might

unifying way,

same kind of emotional

Then the question would
is

so to speak, be negative; hatred against

particular

just

in

as

might be more

again,

secondary leader,

call

idea and the leader.

might

same way serve

the

completely embodied

less

we

not

This

substitute.

ten-

which a number of people can have

in

may

share,

head,

common

form a transition stage), and whether a

dency, a wish

may

an abstraction,

leader

the

for

as

ties

the

call

in

up the

positive attachment.

also arise

indispensable to

operate

whether a leader

essence

of a group

and other questions besides.

But
have

been

questions,

these

all

with

dealt

Group Psychology,
interest

that

will

in

which may, moreover,

part

not

in

succeed

the
in

literature

of

diverting our

from the fundamental psychological problems

confront

our attention

us

in

the structure of a group.

will first

And

be attracted by a consideration

which promises to bring us

in

the most direct

way

Group Psychology and

54
to

proof that

the Analysis of the

libidinal

ties

are

Ego

what characterize

a group.

Let us keep before our eyes the nature of the

emotional relations which hold between

men

According to Schopenhauer's famous

in general.

of

simile

the

freezing porcupines no one can tolerate a too intimate

approach to

his neighbour.^

The evidence

of psycho-analysis shows that almost

every intimate emotional relation between two people

which

for

lasts

relations

some time

between

marriage,
and

parents

children^ leaves

sediment of feelings of aversion and

have

first

less

disguised

friendship, the

hostility,

be eliminated by repression.

to

the

in

common

wrangles

which

This

is

between

business partners or in the grumbles of a subordinate

close

'A

company

together

one

of

cold

porcunines
winter's

crowded

day

so

very

themselves

as

to

profit^

by one

warmth and so save themselves from being frozen to

But [soon they felt one another's quills, which induced

another's

death.

them to separate again. And now, when the need for warmth
brought them nearer together again, the second evil arose once
more. So that they were driven backwards and forwards from
one trouble to the other, until they had discovered a mean
distance at which they could most tolerably exist.' {Parerga und
Paralipomena, II. Teil, XXXI., 'Gleichnisse und Parabeln'.)
^

mother

Perhaps
to

her

with the solitary exception of the relation of a

son,

which

is

based upon

disturbed by subsequent rivalry, and

attempt at sexual object-choice.

is

narcissism,

reinforced

by

is

not

a rudimentary

and Lines of IVork

Fu7-ther Problems
at

his

come

superior.

The same

together

in

thinks

than
is

the

the

most jealous

down upon

looks

one

Englishman casts

the

better

every

rival;

another

German cannot endure

the South

of

little

the others with contempt.

keep

races

related

or

to

each of

marriage,

two

time

birth

Of two neighbouring towns each

other.

other's

Every

units.

superior

itself

when men

thing happens

become connected by

families

them

larger

55

ever}'^

Closely

arm's

at

canton

length;

the North German,

kind

upon

of aspersion

the Scotchman, the Spaniard despises the Portuguese.

We

are no longer astonished that greater differences

should

such

lead
the

as

Ar}'an

almost

people

Gallic

the

for

an

to

Semite,

repugnance,

insuperable
feel

for the

German, the

and the white races

for the

coloured.

When
who
of

hostility

this

are otherwise loved

occasions

precisely

undisguised

towards

we

may

of the

rence

as ambivalence

fact,

conflicts

of

such

intimate

relations.

and

the

interest

aversions

whom

which

of

the

hi

they have

expression

which
people
to

self-love

do

of

This self-love works for the self-assertion

individual,

of

it

people

is
in what
by means of the

the

a manner,

strangers with

recognize

describe

against

for

antipathies

feel

narcissism.

in

we

explain

far too rational

numerous
arise

we

and

feeling;

probably

directed

is

any

and behaves as though the occur-

divergence

from

his

own

particular

Group Psychology and

56

development

of

lines

and a demand

why such
takable

involved

We

details

that

in

them

of

criticism

for their alteration.

do not know

should have been directed to

sensitiveness

these

just

Ego

the Analysis of the

of differentiation;

whole

this

but

connection

it

unmis-

is

men

give

evidence of a readiness for hatred, an aggressiveness,

is

of which

source

the

tempted

unknown, and to which one

is

to ascribe an elementary character.^

But the whole of

this intolerance vanishes,

tem-

porarily or permanently, as the result of the formation

of

and

group,

in

So long

group.

formation persists or so far as

it

as a

group

extends, individuals

behave as though they were uniform, tolerate other

people's peculiarities, put themselves on an equal level

with them,

Such a

them.
to

and have no

be produced by one
Love for
with other people.

libidinal

tie

only

knows only one barrier love for others, love

objects.^
The question will at once be raised

oneself
for

towards

limitation of narcissism can, according

our theoretical views,

factor,

feeling of aversion

(1920)

In a recently ^published study,

{Beyond

the

Pleasure

yenseits des Lustprinzips

Principle,

International

Psycho-

Library, No. 4], I have attempted to connect the

polarity of love and hatred with a hypothetical opposition between

Analytical

instincts

of

and death, and to establish the sexual instincts

examples of the former, the instincts of life.

life

as the purest

^See 'Zur Einfuhrung des Narzissmus', 1914. Kleine Schrifteu

znr Neurosenlehre, Vierte Folge, 1918.

Further Problems and Lines of Work

whether community of
addition

in

without any

itself,

must not necessarily lead to the

of other people and to considerateness for

of libido,

toleration

them.

interest

57

may be met by

This objection

no

nevertheless
effected

way,

this

in

of

limitation

lasting

since

the reply that

narcissism

does not

tolerance

this

is

longer than the immediate advantage gained

from the other people's collaboration. But the practical

persist

importance
supposed,

of the

less

is

libidinal

are

ties

might be

than

experience has shown that

for

collaboration

discussion

cases of

in

formed be-

recrularlv

tween the fellow-workers which prolong and

the
is

relation

between them

merely profitable.
as

relations

social

research

analytic

solidify

beyond what

to a point

The same thing occurs in men's

has become familiar to psycho-

in

the

course of the

The

of the individual libido.

libido

development

props

itself

upon

the satisfaction of the great vital needs, and chooses as

its

objects the people

first

And

process.

whole,
the

just

civilizing

change
both

from

of

the

the

in

as

in

factor

obligations which

are

fond

of,

and

homosexual love

work

in

common.

it

love

individuals,
in

the

egoism to
sexual

who have

a share in that

development of mankind as a

love

sense

altruism.
for

involves

alone

that

And

it

brings

this

women, with

of sparing

as

acts

is

all

true

the

what women

also of the desexualised, sublimated

for

other men,

which springs from

and

Gro2ip Psychology

58

therefore

If

subject

to

that

formation

self-love

narcissistic

question as
w^hich

exist

of neuroses

is

which do not operate outside

consists

in

new kind

members of the group.

But our interest now leads us on to

ties

Ego

cogent evidence that the essence of a

them,

group

among

groups

in

limitations
is

the Analysis of the

of libidinal

the

the pressing

what may be the nature of these

to

groups.

in

we have

the

In

ties

psycho-analytic study

been occupied almost

hitherto

exclusively with ties that unite with their objects those

love instincts which

pursue directly sexual aims. In

still

groups there can evidently be no question of sexual

We

aims of that kind.

instincts

which have been diverted from

that

within

version

and

Now^ we

account.

the

of

the

from

them

as

recognized

upon

the

our

more

closely

attention
in

love,

in

the

its

degrees

that

encroachment
being

less

energy

observed

already

phenomena which represent a

instinct

described

have

have

range of the usual sexual object-cathexis

[Objektbesetzting]

have

their original

though they do not operate with

aims,

on

are concerned here with love

they

ego.

firm

to

sexual

aim.

of being
involve

We
these

shall

in

di-

We
love,

certain

now

turn

phenomena of

expectation of finding in

them conditions which can be transferred to the ties

that exist in groups.
But we should also like to

know whether this kind of object-cathexis, as we

know it in sexual life, represents the only manner

Further Problems and Lines of Work

of

emotional

tie

with

other

people,

must take other mechanisms of the

As
that

a matter of fact
there

ties,

the

do

exist

so-called

we

learn

or

59

whether we

sort into account.

from psycho-analysis

other mechanisms
identifications^

for

emotional

insufficiently-known

processes

and hard to describe, the investigation of

which

some time keep

Group Psychology.

will

subject of

for

us

away from the

VII

IDENTIFICATION

Identification

known

is

expression of an emotional

earliest

person.

plays

It

interest

in his

and be

like

part

Oedipus complex.

may

psycho-analysis

to

with

the

another

the early history of the

in

boy
he would

little

father;

tie

as

will

exhibit a special

like to

grow

like

him, and take his place everywhere.

him

We

say simply that he takes his father as his ideal.

This behaviour has nothing to do with a passive or

feminine

males

general);

in

masculine.

complex,

At

towards

attitude

It

for

the

fits

which

on

it

is

in

very

it

(and

towards

contrary

typically

with

Oedipus

father

his

the
well

the

helps to prepare the way.

same time

as this identification with his

boy has begun to develop

a true object-cathexis towards his mother according
father,

to

the

'I

lean

or a

little

anaclitic

later, the

type

\Anlehnungstypus\}

[Literally, leaning-up-against type

'

up

against'.

In

the

first

';

He

then

from the Greek' dYouc>.{vcu

phase of their development the

Identification

two psychologically

therefore,

exhibits,

sexual

straightfor\vard

mother and a typical

identification

by

ties:

towards

object-cathexis

The two

subsist side

distinct

towards

his

his father.

side for a time without any

mutual influence or interference.

consequence

In

oi

the irresistible advance towards a unification of mental

come

they

life

complex

Oedipus

The
way

together

little

with

identical

to

his

that

mother.

his

on a

and

last;

from

originates

boy notices

father then takes

at

his

His

confluence.

their

stands

father

identification

as

Identification,

well.

ambivalent from the

very

first;

it

in

his

with

his

and becomes

hostile colouring

with the wish to replace his father

mother

normal

the

can

regard

in

in

turn

fact,

is

into

an

expression of tenderness as easily as into a wish for

someone's removal.
the
in

first

behaves

like

derivative

of

oral phase of the organisation of the libido,

which the

assimilated
as such.

It

object

we

that

by eating and

The

cannibal, as

is

long for and prize

in that

we know,

way

is

annihilated

has remained at

sexual instincts have no independent means of finding satisfaction;

they do so by propping themselves upon or Meaning up against'

the

self-preservative

sexual object
this

path;

is

that

is,

The

when he choses

same person who has

full

instincts.

individual's first choice of a

said to be of the 'anaclitic type'

discussion of the

satisfied his early

anaclitic

and

when

it

follows

as his first sexual object the

non-sexual needs. For a

narcissistic

choice compare *Zur Einfuhrung des Narzissmus'.

t^^es

of

object-

Translator?^

62

Group Psychology and

this

standpoint;

and

enemies

the Analysis of the

Ego

he has a devouring affection

devours

only

people

for his

whom

of

he

is

fond.^

the

The subsequent history

father may easily be lost

that
that

the

father

an

attitude,

is

sight of.

object

and

inverted,

from

which

the

in that

directly

sexual

event the identi-

become the precursor of

father. The same holds good,

the father has

fication with

an object

may happen

taken as the object of a feminine

look for satisfaction;

instincts

It

becomes

complex

Oedipus

the

of this identification with

with the

tie

with the necessary substitutions, of the baby daughter

as well.
It

easy to

is

between

an

state

identification

in

a formula the distinction

with

the

choice of the

father as an object.

one's father

what one would

second

he

is

to

what

that

distinction,

taches

is

the

The former

is

is,

In the

like to be,

one would

like

and

father

to

first

and

or

therefore

to

the

case

in

the

The

have.

depends upon whether the

subject

the

tie

at-

object of the ego.

already possible before any

sexual object-choice has been made.

It is

much more

^
See Drei Abhandhmgen znr Sexualtheorie, and Abraham's
^Untersuchungen iiber die friiheste pragenitale Entwicklungs-

stufe

der Libido', Iittcrnationate Zeitschrift fur Psychoanalyse,

1916, Bd. rV; also included in his Klinische Beitrdge zzir Psycho-

analyse
1921).

(Internationale

psychoanalytische

Bibliothek.

Nr.

10,

IdentiJi.catio7i

to give a clear metapsychological representa-

difiicult

the

distinction.

identification

endeavours

of

tion

ego

'

model

Let us disentangle

we

only

see

that

mould a person's own

to

one that has been taken

identification

occurs

it

its

Supposing that a

keep to her

will

as

symptom from

of a neurotic

complicated connections.
(and

can

'.

structure

the

We

after the fashion of the

as a

63

for the

in

rather
girl

little

develops

present)

same painful symptom as her mother for instance,

same tormenting cough.
Now this may come
about in various ways.
The identification may come

the
the

from
a

the

hostile

mother's
object
a

love

of

You

are

that

in

on

the

girl's

and

the

symptom

desire
place,

case

signifies

it

take

her

expresses

her

part to

and

towards

her

father,

under

the

influence

of

take

mother's

realisation,

guilt,
'

Oedipus complex;

her

desire

wanted

anyhow

to

be your

to
as

far

the

as

her

about

brings

mother,

and

pain

goes'.

sense

of

place:

now

3^ou

This

is

mechanism of the structure of a

hysterical symptom.
Or, on the other hand, the
symptom may be the same as that of the person
the

complete

who
'

is

loved

Bruchstiick

father's

(so,

einer

cough);

in

\Klei7ie Schriften

for

instance,

Hysterieanalyse'^
that

case

we can

Dora

in

the

imitated

her

only

describe

zur Neiiroscniehre. Zweite Folge.]

Group Psychology and

64
the

appeai'ed

by saying

things

of

state

instead

the Analysis of the

oj

that identification has

and

object-choice,

identification

that

We

choice has regressed to identification.

that

Ego

object-

have heard

the earliest and original form of

is

often happens

emotional

tie;

ditions

which symptoms are constructed, that

in

where there

are

dominant,

turned back into identification

sumes the

cases

ego, that

characteristics of the object.

the person

who

loved.

is

object-choice

the

that in these identifications the

who

under the con-

that

the

is

must

It

ego sometimes copies

also
is

us

strike

partial

one and only borrows a single

person

who

portant

its

is

case

of

is

being

that

and

in

both

extremely

trait

from the

frequent

and im-

object.
third

particularly

symptom

identification leaves

who

as-

noticeable

It is

limited

is

is,

is

not loved and sometimes the one

identification

There

is,

repression and where the mechanisms

is

unconscious

the

of

it

formation,

in

which

the

any object relation to the person

copied

entirely out of account.

Sup-

posing, for instance, that one of the girls in a boarding

someone with whom she

love which arouses her jealousy, and

school has had a letter from

is

secretly

she

that

some

in

reacts

to

of her friends

we

it

with

fit

of hysterics;

who know about

it

will

then

contract

by means of mental infection.

The mechanism is that of identification based upon
the possibility or desire of putting oneself in the same
the

fit,

as

say,

Identification

situation.

The

other

would

girls

65

have a secret

to

like

love affair too, and under the influence of a sense of

they

guilt

accept

also

would be wrong
S3^mptom

out

sympathy

only

this

is

pain

the

involved

in

It

it.

suppose that ^they take on the

sympathy.
On the contrary, the

to

of

arises

out

of the

proved by the

fact

that infection or imitation

and

identification,

of this kind takes place in circumstances where even

sympathy

pre-existing

less

usually exists

between

ego has perceived a

upon

one

readiness

point
for

constructed
of

the

example

our

and,

point,

the

one

w'ith

upon

an identification

pathogenic situation,

symptom which

analogy

significant

in

this

assumed than

friends in a girls' school.

emotion;

on

be

to

is

is

another

similar

thereupon

under the influence

displaced

is

ego

One

on to the

produced.

has

The

by means of the symptom has thus

become the mark of a point of coincidence between
the two egos which has to be kept repressed.
identification

What we have
may be summarised
is

learned from these three sources

as

follows.

the original form of emotional

secondly, in a regressive

way

for a libidinal object tie,

as

introjection
it

may

of the object

it

into

First,
tie

identification

with an object;

becomes a substitute
were by means of the

it

the

ego;

and

thirdly,

new perception of a common

some other person who is not an
sexual instinct.
The more important

arise with every

quality shared with

object

of the

Gronp Psychology and

66
this

common

quality

successful

become, and

sent the beginning of a

We

more

the

is,

identification

partial

the Ajialysis of the

new

it

may

Ego

may

this

thus repre-

tie.

mutual

already begin to divine that the

tie

between members of a group is in the nature of an

identification of this kind, based upon an important

the

common quality; and we may suspect that

common quality lies in the nature of the tie with
Another suspicion may tell us that we
leader.

are

far

emotional
this

from having exhausted the problem of

psychology

calls

'

empathy [Einfiikhing]
our

plays the largest part in

is

to our

here

ourselves

shall

tional

side

limit

Psycho-analytic

psychoses,

tification

us

to

immediately

shall leave

in

in

has

already

exhibit

to

some other cases which

detail

as

shall

material

on one

problems of

difficult

been able

also

emo-

life.

vv'hich

more

comprehensible.

cases

these

the immediate

and

research,

has

of what

other people. But

in

significance for our intellectual

occasionally attacked the

the

to

effects of identification,

its

and which

'

understanding

ego

inherently foreign

we

identi-

and that we are faced by the process which

fication,

are not

two

treat
for

iden-

our

of

further

consideration.

The

genesis of male

cases

class

of

been

unusually long

mother

in

the

is

as

sense

homosexuality

young

intensely

fixated

follows.

and
of

in

the

large

man
upon

Oedipus complex.

has
his

But

67

Identification

for

end of

after the

at last,

exchanging

mother

his

some

for

Things take a sudden turn:

object.

does not abandon

about

for him,

mother,

his

for

which

objects

sexual

other

young man

the

but

he transforms himself

with her;

looks

puberty, the time comes

his

identifies himself

into

can

and no.v

her,

replace

care as he has experienced from his mother.

and which

as one likes,

ation

of

is

its

its

ample

important

is

naturally quite independent

and the

force

transformation.

is

may be made

of any hypothesis that

driving

This

which can be confirmed as often

a frequent process,

cranic

ego

his

and on which he can bestow such love and

motives

scale;

it

the or-

of the

sudden

about

striking thing

features

to

as

this

identific-

remoulds the ego

in

sexual

its

one

in

character

upon the model of what has hitherto been the object,

hi this process the object itself
entirely

the

unconscious

is

question

discussion.

Identification

nounced or

lost

this

to

directly

outside

process

obser\'ed

of the
in

ago an obser^^ation of

small
this

only

it,

in

present

the

with an object

is

whether

preser\'ed

as a substitute for

object into the ego,

us.

renounced

is

of being

or in the sense

that

re-

is

introjection of

indeed no longer a novelty

kind

may sometimes be

children.

sort

l7zter?iationale Zeitschrift fiir

was published

Psychoanalyse.

who was unhappy over the loss of a

straight out that now he himself was

time

short

kitten

the

in

child

declared

the kitten,

and
S*

68

Group Psychology and

on

piccordingly crawled about

at table,

the Analysis of the

Another

such

an

instance

which

affection

remarkable of
nal

of

of these cases

of

the

of melan-

analysis

among

most

the

exciting causes the real or emotio-

its

leading characteristic

a cruel self-depreciation

is

combined with

introjection

the

counts

of a loved object.

loss

would not eat

etc.^

object has been provided by

cholia,

fours,

all

Ego

and

relentless self-criticism

of the ego
bitter self-

reproaches. Analyses have shown that this disparage-

ment and these reproaches apply at bottom to the

object and represent the ego's revenge upon it. The
shadow of the object has fallen upon the ego, as I have
said elsewhere.^

The

introjection of the object

is

here

unmistakably clear.

But these melancholias

else,

which

may be

two pieces,

the

is

us

either.

Marcuszewicz

Kindern.

'

fallen

dis-

into

the one w^hich has been altered

But the piece which behaves

to

our later

ego divided,

and which contains

introjection

known

for

one of which rages against the second.

This second piece

by

show us something

of importance

They show us

cussions.

also

It

lost

cruelly

is

object.

not un-

comprises the conscience,

'Beitrag

Internationale

so

the

zum

Zeiischrifi

autistischen Denken bei

fur Psychoanalyse, 1920,

Bd. VI.
^

['Trauer und Melancholie.' Kleine Schrifien zur Neurosen-

lehre, Vierte Folge,

191 8.]

69

Identification

facultv

critical
in

\l7tstanz\-

On

the

some such

that

may cut
ego and come into
which

ego

called

'ego

the

it

we have

ascribed

We

influence in repression.
to

the

ego found

its

self-sufficiency;

from the influences

which

that

be able
which has been

rise to;

find

to

and has thus revealed

\^Instanz'

instance'

was

like

its

'instance'

origin

in

cholie

'.

'Zur Einfiihrung

out

des

may

itself,

in

the ego

of the

ego.

have further shown,

in

become

It is

'court

now used

or functions.

Narzissmus',

patent,

the influence of

the phrase

originally a legal term.

of one of a hierarchy of authorities

^

we

and

so that a man,

ego

faculty has

of this

the

childish

ego

the

satisfaction

differentiated

In delusions of observation, as

the disintegration

upon

satisfied with his

nevertheless

is

it

gathers up

gradually

environment makes

which the ego cannot always

ideal

and the chief

which the

in

it

moral

environment the demands

ot the

when he cannot be

have

the

have said that

narcissism

original

We

it.

self-observation,

it

in

and by way of functions

ideal',

to

driven to

from the rest of

with

conflict

unjusti-

develops

faculty
off

itself

the censorship of dreams,

conscience,

heir

we have been

previous occasions

the hypothesis^

our

towards

attitude

critical

though never so relentlessly and so

the ego,
fiably.

which even

within the ego,

normal times takes up a

of

first

in the sense

Translator.]

'Trauer und Melan-

Group Psychology and

yo

the Analysis of the

and above

superior powers,

all

Ego
But we

of parents.^

have not forgotten to add that the amount of distance

between

this

from

able

many

ego ideal and the

one individual to

real

ego

very vari-

and that with

another,

people this differentiation

is

the

within

ego does

not go further than with children.

But

we can employ

before

understanding the

material

this

for

organisation of groups,

libidinal

must take into account some

other

we

examples of the

mutual relations between the object and the ego.^

'Zur Einfuhrung des Narzissmus.'

We

are very well aware that

we have

not exhausted the

nature of identification with these examples taken from pathology,

and

that

we have consequently

left

part of the riddle of group

more fundamental and comprehensive psychological analysis would have to inter\'ene at this point.
A path leads from identification by way of imitation to empathy,
that is, to the comprehension of the mechanism by means of
formations untouched.

far

which we are enabled to take up any attitude at all towards

another mental life. Moreover there is still much to be explained
in the manifestations of existing identifications. These result among
other things in a person limiting his aggressiveness towards those
with whom he has identified himself, and in his sparing them
and giving them help. The study of such identifications, like
those, for instance,

Robertson Smith
recognition of a

which

lie

at

the

root

to the surprising result

common

of

clan feeling,

that they rest

substance \J\inship

led

upon the

and Marriage,

1885),

and may even therefore be brought about by a meal eaten

common.

This feature makes

it

identification with the early history of the

constructed in Totem

und Tabu.

in

possible to connect this kind of

human

family which

VIII

BEING

Even

in

true

name

some

of

but

love;

this

love

'

a whole scale

one

In

than

Thus

many

it

remains

gives

the

kinds of emotional

too group together theoretically

again

true,

actual

doubt

feels

it

and so

love,

whether
hints

at

of possibilities within the range of the

phenomena of love. We
making the same discovery
m.ore

of language

reality.

great

we

then

real,

is

of
a

to

which

usage

the

kind

love

'

relationship

as

caprices

its

to

LOVE AND HYPNOSIS

IN

class

of cases

shall

have no

difficulty in

empirically.

being

love

in

is

nothing

on the part of the sexual

object-cathexis

instincts

with a view to directly sexual satisfaction, a

cathexis

which expires, moreover, when

been reached;
love.

But,

this

as

is

what

we know,

remains so simple.

It

is

called

common,

the libidinal

was possible

this

aim has
sensual

situation rarel}'

to calculate with

certainty

upon the

revival of the

expired;

and

must no doubt have been the

this

need which had

just
first

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

72

motive for directing a lasting cathexis upon the sexual

object and

for

'

loving

it

'

the passionless intervals

in

as well.

To

this

must ,be added another factor derived

from the astonishing course of development which

pursued by the erotic

life

of man. In his

first

which has usually come to an end by the time he

years

five

old,

a child has found the

one or other of

his

love

his

sexual instincts with their

in

have been united upon

which

then

greater

sets

number

in

this

demand

compels

of these

and

him

infantile

to

all

of

for satisfaction

The

object.

is

object for

first

parents,

his

is

phase,

repression

renounce the

sexual

aims,

and

leaves behind a profound modification in his relation

parents.

to

his

his

parents,

but

The

child

by

instincts

still

remains

which

tied

must be

to

de-

scribed as being 'inhibited in their aim \zielgehem7nte\'

The emotions which he

feels

henceforward towards

these objects of his love are characterized as 'tender'.

known
remain more or
It

is

well

that the earlier

less

sensual

'

strongly preserved

'

tendencies
in

the

un-

conscious, so that in a certain sense the whole of the

original current continues to exist.

At puberty,

as

we know,

there set

in

new and

very strong tendencies with directly sexual aims.

In

unfavourable cases they remain separate, in the form

Cf.

Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie,

I.e.

Being
of

sensual

Love and Hypnosis

in

We

trends which persist.

two

the

aspects

kind

this

show

will

women whom he
excite him

thinks

however,

emotional

'

by a picture
movements in

in idealising.

sentimental

women whom

man

for

who do

not

only be

will

he does not

in

'

love

More

often,

bringing

about

even despises.^

adolescent succeeds

of

enthusiasm

but

and he

activities,

of or

little

the

tender

certain

deeply respects

to sexual

potent with other

but

which

of

'

are then faced

such delight

take

literature

from the

current,

73

a certain degree of S3'nthesis between the unsensual,

heavenly love and the sensual,

to

relation

interaction
inhibited
is

in

love,

in

desire,

sexual

his

object

uninhibited

of

their

aim.

and

The depth

contrasted

as

his

characterised by the

instincts

with

may be measured by

and

earthly love,

is

the

of

instincts

which anyone

to

purely

his

size

sensual

of the

share

taken by the inhibited instincts of tenderness.

In connection with this question of being in love

have always been struck by the phenomenon

over-estimation

the

fact that the loved

we

of sexual

object enjoys

a certain amount of freedom from criticism, and that

all

its

characteristics are valued

who
time when

of people

are not

at a

it

'

itself

loved,

more

highly than those

or than

was not loved.

its

If

own were
the sensual

'Uber die allgemeinste Erniedrigung des Liebeslebens.

Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre, Vierte Folge, 191 8.

Group Psychology and

74

Ego

the Analysis of the

somewhat more effectively repressed

or set aside, the illusion is produced that the object
has come to be sensually loved on account of its
spiritual merits, vvhereas on the contrary these merits
may really only have been lent to it by its sensual
tendencies

are

charm.

The tendency which

respect
easier

the

us

object

own
is

is

to

of

But

idealisation.

find

our

way

being treated

ego, so that

amount of
It

that

is

for

judgement

falsifies

when we

the

are

in

in

many forms

in

ego,

this

love

it

as our

love a considerable

on to the object.

of love choice, that

some unattained

on account of the

which we have striven to reach

perfections

own

We

it

see that

same way

the object sei'ves as a substitute for

ego ideal of our own.

this

makes

We

about.

in

narcissistic libido overflows

even obvious,

this

in

and which we should now

like to

roundabout way as a means of

for

our

procure

satisfying our

narcissism.
If

love

the

sexual

increase

even

over-estimation

and the being

in

further, then the interpretation of

The
becomes still more unmistakable.
tendencies whose trend is towards directly sexual
satisfaction may now be pushed back entirely, as
regularly happens, for instance, with the young man's
sentimental passion; the ego becomes more and more
unassuming and modest, and the object more and more

the

picture

sublime and precious,

until

at

last

it

gets possession

Being in Love and Hypnosis

of the entire self-love of the ego,
follows

as

has,

so

speak,

to

humilitv, of the

occur

injury

result

are

with this

and

self-

as

claims they

sensual

of the

be

cannot

easily

satisfied;

with love that

for

is

of

spite

in

sexual satisfaction always involves a

each

'

and of

supremacy.

and

in

of

Traits

ego.

intensified,

onl}^

especially

evervthing

the

of being in love; in the

This happens

reduction

The object

of narcissism,

case

withdrawal

solitary

in

unhappy

is

they

of the

remain

every

in

extreme case

consumed

limitation

self-sacrifice

consequence.

natural

thus

whose

75

sexual over-estimation. Contemporaneously

devotion

'

of the

ego to the object, which

no longer to be distinguished from a sublimated

devotion to an abstract idea, the functions allotted to

the ego ideal entirely cease to operate.

exercised by that faculty

and

does

object

asks

is

for

silent;
is

The

everything that the

right

and

blameless.

Conscience has no application to anything that

sake of the object;

the

for

in

criticism

is

the blindness of love

is

whole situation

can be completely summarised

object

TJie

The

carried to the pitch of crime.

remorselessness

formula:

done

has

taken

the place of

in

the

e<^o

ideal.
It

is

now

identification
in

love as

tion,

easy to define the distinction between

and such extreme developments of being

may be

hi the

described as fascination or infatua-

former case the ego has enriched

itself

Group Psychology and

76

with the properties of the object,

the object into

second case
to the

it

object,

impoverished,

is

however,

plain,

an

of

illusion

that

In the

it.

has surrendered

it

its

contradistinctions

erishment

or

enrichment;

even

is

it

no

have

that

possible

meet

the

essence

of

the

object

identification

then

is

makes a
the

set

ego

at

given

the

presents

up?

Can

object retained?
cussion

of this

case

of

and the ego

before

identification

dawn on

namely, zvhether the object

ego or of the ego ideal.

is

it

is

by the

been

has

with the

we embark upon

delicate question, the

real

object

But here again a

object-cathexis

be no

embraces the

the

model of

quite certain that iden-

it

that

there

case

hyper-cathexis of

Is

itself.

And

other

expense.

ego's

already be beginning to
alternative

to

the

In

inside the ego,

is

presupposes

tification

matter.

itself.

calculated

has been lost or given up;

the

In

and there

and

difficulty

better

alteration in itself after the

object.

retained,

the

up again

partial

lost

perhaps

is

to

love as a state

in

which the ego has introjected the object into

distinction

real

no question of impov-

is

describe an extreme case of being

Another

itself

most

kind of account creates

this

Economically there

it

introjected

Closer consideration soon makes

existence.

in

'

has substituted the object for

it

important constituent.
it

has

it

as Ferenczi expresses

itself,

Ego

the Analysis of the

a dis-

perception

may

us that yet another

essence of the matter,

put

in the place of the

From
only

Being

in

being

in

short

step.

love

The

to

h3^pnosis

respects

yj
is

evidently

which the two

in

same humble subsame compliance, the same absence of

agree are obvious.

jection,

Love niid Hypnosis

the

There

is

the

towards the hypnotist just as towards the

criticism,

same absorption of one's

loved object.

There

own

no one can doubt that the hypnotist

initiative;

the

is

stepped into the place of the ego

has

only that everything

in

hypnosis,

to

explain being

the other

so

that
in

way round.

is

would be more

it

love

It

is

The

to the point

by means of hypnosis than

hypnotist

the sole object,

is

iind

no attention

tiiat

the ego experiences in a dream-like

is

ideal.

even clearer and more intense

The

paid to any but him.

fact

way whatever
that we omitted

he

may

to

mention among the functions of the ego ideal the

request or assert reminds us

No wonder

business of testing the reality of things.^

that the
is

ego takes a perception

vouched

discharges

for

the

by the mental

for real

faculty

if

its

reality

which ordinarily

duty of testing the reality of things.

The complete absence

of tendencies which

are unin-

hibited in their sexual aims contributes further towards

the

extreme purity of the phenomena.

relation

is

the

devotion

of

someone

The hypnotic
in

love

to

an

unlimited degree but with sexual satisfaction excluded;

^
Cf.
'Metapsychologische Erganzung zur Traumlehre.
Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre, Vierte Folge, 1918.

Group PsycJiology and

78

whereas

satisfaction

is

love

in

as a possible

aim

some

at

But on the other hand we may

the hypnotic

relation

not

good object

formation, because

with

cal

(if

is

later time.

say that

also

the expression

group

truer to say that

one element

isolates

the

of the individual to

for us

just as

by the absence
respect
It

it

is

identi-

is

it

of the

fabric

the

behaviour

Hypnosis

leader.

guished from a group formation by

number,

Hypnosis

comparison with a group

for

is

Out of the complicated

it.

it

it

permis-

is

a group formation with two members.

sible)
is

kind of

this

only temporarily kept back, and remains

background

in the

of being

case

the

in

Ego

Ike Analysis of the

distin-

is

this limitation of

distinguished from being in love

of directly sexual tendencies.

In this

occupies a middle position betw^een the two.

it

interesting to see that

is

it

is

precisely those

sexual tendencies that are inhibited in their aims which

achieve such lasting ties between men.

easily

be understood from the

fact

But

can

this

that they are not

capable of complete satisfaction, while sexual tendencies

which

are

extraordinary

uninhibited

reduction

in

their

through

energy every time the sexual aim

the fate of sensual love to
it

is

the
with
it

satisfied;
first

it

to

an

discharge

of

attained.

It

that

itself

is,

is

become extinguished when

be able

to last,

it

must from

be mixed with purely tender components

such,

must

for

the
is

suffer

aims

as are inhibited in their aims

undergo a transformation of

this

-or

kind.

Being

in

Love and Hypnosis

79

Hypnosis would solve the riddle of the

of groups for us straight away,

constitution

not

that

of

deal

in

which

features

of being

state

in

is

power

and someone who

power

and helpless

which

may

afford

to the hypnosis of terror which

The manner
which
resist

makes
libido

is

it

is

realised in

the

possible

which

w^hen there

it

transition

produced and

its

relation-

and the puzzling way

It

others

while

factor

in

un-

still

and which perhaps alone

the

of

purity

it,

of the

attitudes

noticeable that, even

is

complete suggestive compliance

is

without

is

animals.

it

exhibits.

someone

in

some people are subject to

completely, points to some
it

known which

occurs

sleep are not clear;

to

ship

which

in

still

contains an additional element

It

of paralysis derived from the relation between

superior

the

which we must recognise as unex-

it

plained and mystical.

with

are

with

love

There

sexual tendencies excluded.

directly

great

as

it

were

if it

explanation we have hitherto

not met by the rational

given

some

exhibits

itself

it

libidinal

other

in

respects, the moral conscience of the person hypnotized

may show
fact

that

resistance.
in

But

hypnosis as

this
is

it

knowledge may be retained

is

only

game,

situation of far

But
in

to

what

is

the

some

happening

untrue reproduction of another

to

life.

preceding discussions
give

to

usually practised
that

more importance

after the

a position

an

may be due

the

formula

for

we
the

are quite
libidinal

8o

Gi'oup Psychology

and

the Analysis of the

Ego

constitution of groups: or at least of such groups as

we have

hitherto considered, namely, those that have

a leader and have not been able by

'

organisation

of an

to acquire secondarily the characteristics

individual.

7LU77iber

the

'

same

means of too much

primary group of

this

kind

is

of individuals who have substituted one and

for their ego ideal and have conse-

object

quently identified thefnselves with one another in their

ego.

This condition admits of graphic representation:

Object

Outer
Object

IX

THE HERD INSTINCT

We

cannot for long enjoy the

of the group with this

solved the riddle

is

that

illusion

we have

formula.

It

impossible to escape the immediate and disturbing

recollection that

all

we have

realty

done has been to

the question on to the riddle of hypnosis, about

shift

And

which so many points have yet to be cleared up.

now

another objection shows us our further path.

might be said that the intense emotional

It

we

which

observe

in

groups

are

explain one of their characteristics

pendence and
in

the reactions of

speak,

look

to

at

it

Some

this.

ability,

for

initiative in their

the

level

of

its

the

in

to

lack of indesimilarity

of them, their reduction, so to

individuals.

a group shows us

features

But

if

we

more than

the weakness of intellectual

the lack of emotional restraint,

limit

sufficient

members, the

of group

as a whole,

moderation

every

all

quite

ties

and delay, the

the incapacity

inclination to

exceed

the expression of emotion and to

work
6

it

and

Groiip Psychology

82
off

completely

the form of action

we

which

features,

in

the Analysis of the

so

find

^these

common
and

we

groups

A regression

we have

heard,

in

organized

can to a large extent be checked.

thus have an impression of a state in which

separate

individual's

lectual

it

or children.

are not

an essential characteristic of

groups, while, as

artificial

We
an

among savages

in particular

is

similar

picture of a regression

of mental activity to an earlier stage such as

of this sort

and

impressively described in

Le Bon, show an unmistakable

surprised to find

Ego

too

are

act

emotion and personal

v/eak

to

come

anything by

to

themselves and are absolutely obliged to wait

are

reinforced

way

in

through

being

repeated

in

members of the group.

how many of these phenomena

other

the

reminded of

intel-

they

till

similar

We

are

of depen-

dence are part of the normal constitution of human

society, of

how

little

are to .be found in

is

ruled

exhibit

by those

of

and personal courage

how much

every individual

attitudes of the group

themselves

istics, class

in

admit that

becomes a greater
it

is

mind which

such forms as racial character-

prejudices, public opinion, etc.

of suggestion

we

it,

originality

riddle

The

influence

for us

when

not exercised only by the leader,

but by every individual upon every other individual;

and we must reproach ourselves with having

unfairly

emphasized the relation to the leader and with having

kept the other factor of mutual suggestion too
in

the background.

much

The Herd

83

encouragement to modesty, we

After this

be

Instinct

inclined to listen to another voice, which promises

us an explanation based upon simpler grounds.

a

one

be found

to

is

upon the herd

is

that

it

thoughtful

concerning which

instinct,

my

Such
book

only regret

does not entirely escape the antipathies that

set loose

described as occurring

as in other species

gariousness

is

an analogy

is

were a continuation of
theory

libido

inclination,

it

human

innate in

of animals.
to
it.

are

that

groups from a herd

in

Cgregariousness'), which

the

Trotter's

in

by the recent great war.'

Trotter derives the mental phenomena

were

it

shall

instinct

beings just

Biologically this gre-

and as

multicellularity

From

the standpoint of

a further manifestation of the

is

which proceeds from the

and which

libido,

by all living beings of the same kind, to combine

in more and more comprehensive units.^ The individual
if he
incomplete
is
alone. The dread shown
feels
is

felt

'

'

by

small

would seem already

children

pression of this herd instinct.

is

good

as

anxiously
anything

W.

that

is

Trotter:

Opposition to the herd

from

separation

as

avoided.

it,

and

But the herd turns

new

or

Instincts

unusual.

of

the

be an ex-

to

Herd

is

therefore

awa}^

The herd

in Peace

from

instinct

and War.

Fisher Unwin, 1916.

^

See

my

essay Jenseits des Lustprinzips.

6*

Group Psychology and

84

would appear to be
'which cannot be
Trotter

something

the

as

primary

as

nutrition,

of sex,

Ego

something

primary,

up'.

split

gives

considers

the Analysis of the

which he

of instincts

list

those

of

self-preserv^ation,

The
The

and of the herd.

last

of

often

feelings of
comes into opposition with the others.
guilt and of duty are the peculiar possessions of a

gregarious animal. Trotter also derives from the herd

instinct

the

shown

has

repressive
exist

to

which

forces

the

in

psycho-analysis

and from the same

ego,

source accordingly the resistances which the physician

comes up
Speech owes

against

fication

importance to

its

understanding

the

in

of the

psycho-anal3tic

in

herd,

individuals

its

aptitude for mutual

and upon
with

treatment.

one

the

identi-

another

largely

it

rests.

While Le Bon
transient

the

has chosen as the centre of his

Trotter

most generalised form of assemblage

which man, that Jdiov

gives us

concerned with typical

group formations, and McDougall with stable

associations.
interest

principally

is

its

.T:o>aTiK6v,

passes his

psychological basis. But Trotter

no necessity of tracing back the herd

characterizes

it

instinct

to

back to

superfluous as far as he
ation

of

is

instinct,

and he
under
for

he

as primary and not further reducible.

Boris Sidis's attempt,

the herd

life,

in

familiar

is

which he

refers,

at

tracing

suggestibility

is

fortunately

concerned;

is

an explan-

it

and unsatisfactory type, and the

Herd

TJie

converse proposition

herd

of

the

far

more

Instinct

85

suggestibility
would seem to
^that

me

instinct

light

a derivative

is

throw

to

on the subject.

But Trotter's exposition, with even more justice

than the others',
too

account

little

we

while
that

incline

the leader

is

room

at

along

with

need

the

rather

opposite judgement,

the

instinct leaves

no

he

merely thrown

in

leader;

path

leads

from

God; the herd

this

is

almost by chance;

herd,

Trotter's

mined psychologically
all

if

The herd

no

for

at

group,

in

takes

the

the

But besides

made

part

leader's

to

it

disregarded.
for

all

that

too,

of

to the objection that

impossible to grasp the nature of a group

is

it

open

is

is

this

is

follows,

the

to

instinct

without a herdsman.

can be under-

exposition

that

it

to

say,

it

be

can

events probable that the herd instinct

not irreducible, that

it

is

primary

not

in

the

is

same

sense as the instinct of self-preservation and the sexual

instinct.
It

genesis

is

naturally no easy matter to trace the onto-

of

the

herd

The

instinct.

dread which

shown by small children when they are

left

alone,

is

and

which Trotter claims as being already a manifestation

of the instinct, nevertheless suggests

other interpretation.

The dread

more

readily an-

relates to the child's

mother, and later to other familiar persons, and

it

is

the expression of an unfulfilled desire, which the child

does

not

}et

know how

to

deal

with

in

any way

Group Psychology and the Analysis

86

Ego

of the

except by turning it into dread. Nor is the child's dread

when it is alone pacified by the sight of any haphazard
'member of the herd', but on the contrary it is only
brought into existence by the approach of a stranger
of this sort. Then for a long time nothing in the nature
^

'

of herd instinct or group feeling

Something

children.

nursery containing

like

the

younger

like

to

it

and

put

The

one.

all

but

that

all,

in

does so as a reaction

come

later)

same way, and

sibility

of

it

is

the
is

fact

certainly

of

it

that

keep

to

aside,

all

this

its

child

loved by the parents

in

consequence of the impos-

in

maintaining
itself,

would

and to rob

of

face

child

jealously

parents,

in

just the

damaging

it

elder

successor

its

away from the

(like

of

first

in

envy with which the elder child receives

initial

privileges;

be observed

children, out of the children's

relation to their parents,

to the

grows up

it

many

to

is

hostile

its

attitude

forced into identifying

without

itself

with

So there grows up in the troop of

children a communal or group feeling, which is then
further developed at school. The first demand made
by this reaction-formation is for justice, for equal
the other children.

treatment for

all.

ably this claim

is

be the favourite

See the

We

all

know how

loudly and implac-

put forward at school.

oneself,

remarks

at

XXV.

one cannot

events nobod}^ else

all

upon Dread

filhrTing in die Psychoanalyse.

If

in

Vorlesungen zur Ein-

The Herd
shall

be the

histinct

87

favourite. This transformation

the replac-

by a group feeling in the nursery

and classroom might be considered improbable, if
the same process could not later on be observed
of jealousy

ing

We

again in other circumstances.

women and

of the troop of
in

an

girls,

be easy

certainty

of the

rest;

but,

in

for

face

consequent impossibility of
their

love,

out one

they renounce

another's

all

hair,

them

of

his

in

love

who crowd

way,

sentimental

enthusiastically

round a singer or pianist after

would

have only to think

performance.

It

each of them to be jealous

of their

numbers and the

aim of

their reaching the

and,

it,

instead of pulling

act as a united group,

the}^

do homage to the hero of the occasion with

their

common

actions,

have

a share

of his

have

and would probably be glad

flowing

succeeded

When,

the instincts

is

as

is

usual,

rivals,

themselves

identifying

by means of a

another
object.

in

Originally

locks.

similar

love

to

for

with
the

they

one

same

a situation in the field of

capable of various outcomes,

we need

outcome is one w^hich

involves the possibility of a certain amount of satisfaction, while another, even though in itself more

not be surprised

obvious,

is

Hfe prevent

What
of

if

the actual

passed over because the circumstances of

its

attaining this aim.

appears later on

Gemeifigeist^

does not belie

esprit
its

society

in

de corps

'group

derivation from what

in

the shape

spirit',

was

etc.,

originally

Group Psychology and the Analysis of

88

No one must want

envy.

means

Social justice
so

ask

root

what

us

This

to

to

thing,

demand

do without them

may

not be able

equality

for

is

in

the

syphilitic 's

the
It

dread

people,

which psycho-analysis has

understand.

The dread exhibited by

other

poor

these

same

the

unexpectedly

itself

of infecting

may have

many

ourselves

conscience and the sense of duty.

of social

taught

is

them.

for

reveals

himself forward,

we deny

that

others

that

as well, or,
to

Ego

must be the same and have the same.

every one

things

put

to

the

wretches

corresponds

to

their

violent

struggles against the unconscious wish to spread their

on

infection

alone

to

other

people;

be infected and cut

Solomon.
shall

not

woman

is

Thus
what was
tie

why

should they

from so much? why

off

And

same germ is to
in the pretty anecdote of the judgement of
If one woman's child is dead, the other
have a live one either.
The bereaved
recognized by this wish.
social feeling is based upon the reversal of

not other people as well?

be found

for

first

the

a hostile feeling into a positivel3^-toned

of the nature of an identification.

So

far as

we

have hitherto been able to follow the course of events,

this reversal

of a

appears to be effected under the influence

common

group.

We

identification

present

tender

tie

with

a person outside the

do not ourselves regard our analysis of

as

exhaustive,

but

purpose that we should

it

is

enough

revert

to

for
this

our

one

Herd

TJie

feature

demand

its

89

Instirict

equalization

that

We

sistently carried through.

the discussion of the two

have already heard

artificial

members should be loved

Do

not

must be equal
identify

person
that

we

themselves
superior
find

subsisting.

in

is

to

same way by one

leader.

All

the

one another, but they

person.
with

their

Many

one another,

them

all

that

all

equals,

is

members
want

to

who can

and a
the

its

single

situation

realised in groups which are capable of

Let us venture, then, to correct Trotter's

pronouncement
that he

to

one

all

a group applies onl)' to

the

be ruled by

that

is

us forget, however, that

let

demand for equality in

members and not to the

the

in

in

groups, church and

army, that their preliminary condition

person, the leader.

be con-

shall

that

man

is

a herd animal and assert

rather a horde animal, an individual creature

a horde led by a chief.

THE GROUP AND THE PRIMAL HORDE

In

191 2

the

that

effect

was

took up a conjecture of Darwin's to the

of

that

primitive

of

society

attempted to show that the fortunes

of this horde have

history

human

of

horde ruled over despotically by a

powerful male.

form

human

indestructible traces

left

descent;

and,

especially,

upon the
the

that

development of totemism, which comprises

in

itself

the beginnings of religion, morality, and social organisation,

is

connected with the

of the

killing

chief

by

violence and the transformation of the paternal horde

into

community of

only

hypothesis,

archaeologists

called

so

many

'

Just-So Story

by a not unkind

critic

Totem 2ind

Tabti.

,
'

as

it

sure, this

with

if

it

is

which

darkness

of

was amusingly

(Kroeger); but

creditable to such a hypothesis

others

endeavour to lighten the

prehistoric times

is

To be

brothers.^

like

think

it

proves able to

The Group and the Pri7nal Horde

and

coherence

bring

more new

understanding

into

more and

regions.

Human

groups

exhibit

once again

the

picture of an individual of superior strength

troop

91

companions, a picture which

of similar

contained

our

in

familiar

among

of

idea

we know

psychology of such a group, as

we have

descriptions to which

also

is

The

horde.

primal

the

it

from the

so often referred

the

dwindling of the conscious individual personality, the

and feelings into a common

predominance of the emotions and of

thoughts

focussing

of

direction,

the

the unconscious mental

life,

the tendency to the im-

mediate carrying out of intentions as they emerge

corresponds

this

all

mental

primitive

should be

inclined

What we have

tion

of

The

will

mankind

to

state

just described in

apply

to

such a sort as

ascribe to the primal

to

must

of regression

of just

activity,

we

horde.

our general characterisa-

especially

to

the

primal horde.

was too weak; he did not venture

upon action. No impulses whatever came into play except collective ones; there was only a common will, there were no single

An

ones.
it

felt

of

the individual

idea did not dare to turn

itself

reinforced

by

This weakness of the idea

the

emotional

tie

which

horde; but the similarity

to

is
is

absence of any private property

of their individual mental acts.

and

soldiers,

common

cremental functions.

activity

The one

general diffusion.

its

be explained by the strength of

shared by

in the

a volition unless

itself into

perception of

'a

all

the

members

circumstances of their

assist in

of the

and the

determining the uniformity

As we may
is

life

observ'e with children

not excluded even in the ex-

great exception

is

provided by the

92

Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

G7'oiip

Thus the group appears

primal

the

horde.

man

primitive

as

Just

us as a revival of

to

virtually

survives in every individual, so the primal horde

once more out of any random crowd;

arise

in

may

so far

men are habitually under the sway of group formation we recognise in it the survival of the primal
as

We

horde.

group

is

isolated
all

must conclude that the psychology of the

the oldest
as

traces

human psychology; what we have

of the

by

psychology,

individual

group,

has

only

since

neglecting

come

into

prominence out of the old group psychology, by a

gradual process which

may

We

still,

perhaps, be described

upon

an

attempt at specifying the point of departure of

this

as

incomplete.

later

shall

venture

development.
Further
spect

this

reflection

statement

psychology must,

show

will

requires

us

in

correction.

what

re-

Individual

on the contrary, be just as old as

group psychology,

for

from the

first

there were two

kinds of psychologies, that of the individual

members

of the group and that of the father, chief, or leader.

The members of the group were subject to ties just

as we see them to-day, but the father of the primal
horde was

free.

His intellectual acts were strong and

sexual act, in which a third person

in the

extreme case

As

the

to

is

condemned

is

at the best superfluous

to a state of painful

and

expectancy.

reaction of the sexual need (for genital gratification)

towards gregariousness, see below.

The Group and

independent even

from

reinforcement

assume that

in

Primal Horde

tJic

and

isolation,

ego had few

his

libidinal

leads

To

us

to

he loved

ties;

no one but himself, or other people only

they served his needs.

needed no

his will

Consistency

others.

93

so far as

in

objects his ego gave aw^ay

no more than was barely necessary.

He,

at

very

the

was

mankind,

beginning

of

the

history

of

Superman whom Nietzsche only

future. Even to-day the members

the

expected from the

of a group stand in need of the illusion that they are

by

equally and justly loved

nature,

absolutely

independent.
narcissism,

by

and

operating

know

may be

that love puts a

would be possible

it

this

in

way,

of a masterly

but self-confident and

narcissistic,

We

but the leader

their leader;

himself need love no one else, he

it

to

became

check upon

show how,
a

factor

of

civilisation.

The primal
immortal,

as

he

of

father
later

the

horde was not yet

became by

deification.

If

he

was probably
taken by a youngest son, who had up to then been
a member of the group like any other. There must
died,

he had to be replaced;

therefore

logy

into

be a

his place

possibility of transforming

individual

group psycho-

psychology; a condition must be

discovered under which such a transformation

accomplished, just
of necessity to
into a worker.

as

it

is

is

easily

possible for bees in case

turn a larva into a queen instead

One can

of

imagine only one possibility:

Group Psychology a?id the Analysis of the Ego

94

the primal father had prevented his sons from satisfying their directly sexual tendencies; he forced

and consequently

abstinence

into

into

the emotional

with him and with one another which could arise

ties

out of those of their tendencies that were

in

them

sexual

their

into

aim.

He

forced them,

so

inhibited

speak,

to

group psychology. His sexual jealousy and

erance became

intol-

the last resort the causes of group

in

psychology.'

Whoever became

successor was also

his

given

the possibility of sexual satisfaction, and was by that

means

way out

offered a

psychology.

The

of the conditions of group

fixation of the libido to

woman and

the possibility of satisfaction without any need for delay

made an end

or accumulation

of his sexual tendencies that were inhibited in

those

its

this

and allowed

aim,

their

to

height.

full

We

his

narcissism always to rise

shall return

in

a postscript to

connection between love and character formation.

We

may

instructive,

trivance

together

We

of the importance of

further

the

relation

emphasize,
that

by means of which an
and

l^the

as

being specially

holds between the con-

constitution

artificial

of

the

group
primal

is

held

horde.

have seen that with an army and a church

this

^ It may perhaps
also be assumed that the sons, when they
were driven out and separated from their father, advanced from
identification with one another to homosexual object love, and in
this way won freedom to kill their father.

The Group and

contrivance

is

Primal Horde

the

the illusion that the leader loves

the individuals equally and justly.

an

idealistic

primal horde,

where

were

persecuted

feared him

equally.

The

clan.

indestructible

group formation
presupposition

necessary

by the primal

of

upon the
the

mysterious

in

the

that they

father,

and

group

fact that this

father's

equal

love

the family.

in

understand what

and

to

in

strength of the family as a

rests

But we expect even more of

us

simply

the totemistic

society,

group from the primal horde.

help

of

already presupposed

is

,'up

can have a real application

the

is

affairs

all

This same recasting upon which

by the next form of human

natural

this

knew

of the sons

all

are built

duties

social

all

But

remodelling of the state of

equally

95

is

It

still

derivation of

this

ought also to

incomprehensible

formations

all

that

lies

hidden behind the enigmatic words hypnosis and sug-

And

gestion.

think

it

can succeed

in

this

too.

Let

us recall that hypnosis has something positively uncanny

about

it;

but the characteristic

repression.^

The

of uncanniness sug-

something old and familiar that has undergone

gests

Let us consider how hypnosis

hypnotist

asserts

that

he

is

in

is

induced.

possession of a

mysterious power which |robs the subject of his

will,
it

or,

which

of him.

is

the

same

This mysterious

own

thing, the subject believes

power (which

'Das Unheimliche.' Imago, 1919, Bd. V.

is

even now

Group Psychology and

g6

the Analysis of the

Ego

described popularly as animal magnetism) must

often

be the same that

looked upon by primitive people

is

same that emanates from

kings and chieftains and makes it dangerous to
approach them {mana). The hypnotist, then, is supposed to be in possession of this power; and how
as the source of taboo, the

does he manifest

him
is

his

But

look.

method of hypnotising

is

people,

as

mortals.

Even Moses had

his

people

of

that

later

betw^een

could

of the

for

is

to act as an intermediary

and Jehovah, since the people

returned from the presence of

some

Godhead

the

support the sight of God;

not

of the

sight

dangerous and unbearable for primitive

chieftain that

just

precisely the

is

it

the subject to look

telling

the eyes; his most typical

in

by

By

it?

God

and when he

his face

shone

7nana had been transferred on to him,

happens with the intermediary among primitive

just as

people.^
It

is

that

true

other ways,

This

is

by

procedures

attention

the

same
^

if

fixing

merely
it

serve

in

the eyes upon a

monotonous sound.

has given occasion to

theories.

and to hold
as

can also be evoked

listening to a

and

misleading

equate physiological
these

by

instance

for

bright object or

hypnosis

As
to

riveted.

matter
divert

The

inad-

of

fact

conscious
situation

is

the hypnotist had said to the subject:

See Totem unci Tabu and the sources there quoted.

The Gro7ip and

'

Now

of course

be

make such

away from

his

is

subject's

intentions,

my

person
It

'

would

inexpedient for a hypnotist

would tear the subject

unconscious attitude and stimulate him
a

speech;

it

The

conscious

hypnotist avoids directing

thoughts

towards

sink

an

into

activity

own

his

whom

and makes the person upon

experimenting

97

quite uninteresting.

technically

to conscious opposition.

the

Primal Horde

concern yourself exclusively with

the rest of the world

to

the

he

which

in

is

the

is bound to seem uninteresting to him; but at

same time the subject is in reality unconsciously
concentrating his whole attention upon the hypnotist,

world
the

and

is

ference

into

on to

him.

hypnotising,

used

like

Thus

many

of

distributions

methods

the

indirect

the

technical

making jokes, have the

in

certain

an attitude of rapport, of trans-

getting

of mental

of

procedures
of checking

effect

energy which

would

interfere with the course of events in the unconscious,

and they lead eventually to the same

result as the

methods of influence by means of

direct

staring

or

stroking.^
^

This situation,

sciously

in

directed towards

which the subject's attitude

the

hypnotist,

while he

is

is

uncon-

consciously

occupied with monotonous and uninteresting perceptions, finds a

among

the events of psycho-analytic treatment, which

be mentioned here. At least once in the course of
every analysis a moment comes when the patient obstinately
maintains that just now positively nothing whatever occurs to
his mind. His free associations come to a stop and the usual
parallel

deserves

to

Group Psychology and

98

made

Ferenczi has
a hypnotist

himself

siders

two

modelled upon
which

command

more nor

are

to

for

sleep

And

lies

is

it

it

of

incentives for putting

the

in

is

view from

of the

wall-paper

them

patient

that he sees

from the ceiling.

nothing

all

interest

upon the person

interest

psychological

the

Now

understood by the

so

withdrawal

this

in

based upon

is

of pressure

thinking

distin-

another

means

hypnosis

in

from the

characteristic

and the kinship between sleep and the

hypnosis

into

be

and

than an order to withdraw

less

world

outer
sleep,

He

parents.
to

is

putting

is

derived from the father.^

is

hypnotist.

subject;

he

mother,

the

from the world and to concentrate

of the

which

sleep,

subject's

of hypnosis

sorts

when

one coaxing and soothing, which he con-

is

threatening,

the

of the

place

the

thinks that

guished

to

at the beginning of hypnosis,

in

Ego

the true discovery that

command

the

gives

done

often

the Analysis of the

Jstate

of
of

it.

motion
at

last

fail in

their effect.

As

a result

induced to admit that he

is

consulting-room window, of the

the

before him, or of the gas-lamp hanging

Then one knows

once that he has gone off

engaged upon what are still
the physician; and one sees the

the transference and that he

unconscious thoughts relating to

at

is

stoppage in the patient's associations disappear, as soon as he has

been given
^

this explanation.

Ferenczi:

Psychoanalyse,

'

Introjektion

909,

Bd.

I.

Boston, Badger, 1916, Chapter

und Ubertragung.'
\Contributions
II.]

to

Jahrbuch der

Psycho-Analysis.

Primal Horde

TJie Grotip a?id the

By

the measures that

awakens

notist

he

parents

made him compliant

which had also

wards

what
and

which

had

his

relation

in

awakened

thus

is

and

re-animation

individual

the

is

dangerous personality,
has to be surrendered,

him, 'to look him

enterprise.

It

is

while

paramount

of a

idea

whom only a
to whom one's
be alone with

to

some such way

hazardous

as this

we can

picture the relation of the individual

of the

primal

horde to the primal

an

father;

his

face', appears a

the

in

only in

to

possible,

is

to-

experienced

towards

passive-masochistic attitude
will

hyp-

the

takes, then,

the subject a portion of his archaic

in

inheritance
his

99

father.

that

member
As we

know from other reactions, individuals have preserved

degree of personal

a variable

aptitude

for

old situations of this kind.

Some knowledee

spite of everything hypnosis

is

tive

renewal of these

old

any

against

suspension of the

too
will

The uncanny and

impressions,

formations,

which

phenomena,

may

back
horde.

to

the

The

fact

consequences

shown

therefore
their

primal father; the group

force;

resist-

of the

hypnosis.

it

still

has

their

in

with

suggestion

justice

be

traced

from

the

primal

origin

leader of the group

by unrestricted

is

coercive characteristics of group

are

of

may however

there

that

serious
in

that in

only a game, a decep-

remain behind and take care

ance

reviving

is

still

the dreaded

wishes to be governed

an extreme passion for

7*

OO Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

authority;

in

obedience.

Le Bon's
The primal

which governs the ego

phrase,
father

in

it

is

has

the

group

for

thirst

ideal,

the place of the ego ideal.

Hypnosis has a good claim to being described as a

group

two;

of

suggestion

remains

there

conviction

which

as
is

definition

not

perception and reasoning but upon an erotic

seems

It

to

me

worth emphasizing- the

for

upon

based

tie.^

fact that

the dis-

cussions in this section have induced us to give up Bernheim's

conception

According

of hypnosis
to

Bernheim

and go back
all

to the factor of suggestion,

explanation.

We

have come

to

the naif earlier one.

hypnotic phenomena are to be traced

which

is

not

itself

to the conclusion

capable of further
that

suggestion

is

a partial manifestation of the state of hypnosis, and that hypnosis

is

solidly

founded upon a predisposition which has survived

unconscious from the early history of the

human

family.

in the

XI

A DIFFERENTIATING GRADE

If

we

survey

the

to-day, bearing

in

of

life

an

IN

THE EGO

man

individual

of

mind the mutually complementary

accounts of group psychology given by the authorities,

we may
that

lose the courage, in face of the complications

are

position.

revealed,

Each

attempt

to

individual

is

comprehensive ex-

component

part

of

numerous groups, he is bound by ties of identification

in many directions, and he has built up his ego ideal
upon the most various models. Each individual therefore
has a share in numerous group minds those of his race,
of his class, of his creed, of his nationality, etc. and

he can also
of

having

Such

stable

raise himself

scrap

and

above them to the extent

and

of independence

lasting

uniform and constant

originality.

group formations, with

effects,

are less

striking

their

to

an

observer than the rapidly formed and transient groups

from which Le Bon has made

logical character sketch of the

just in these noisy

his

brilliant

group mind.

psycho-

And

it

is

ephemeral groups, which are as

it

and the Analysis of the Ego

Grotip Psychology

02

were superimposed upon the

others, that

we

are

met

by the prodigy of the complete, even though only

disappearance

temporary,

what we have

exactly

of

recognized as individual acquirements.

We

have interpreted

up

that the individual gives

tutes

for

that the prodigy

many

ideal

is

very

much

The

facilitated

concerned
form,

that case the

by

need

its

He

circumstance.

this

typical qualities of the individ-

need

greater force and of

ego

selection of the leader

a particularly

in

and

correction

every case.

in

the ego has often preserved

need only possess the

uals

of

the

in

not very far advanced; the two

coincide readily;

pure

embodied

as

substi-

separation between the

the

earlier self-complacency.
is

ideal

ego ideal and

not ^equally great

is

individuals

and the ego

still

his

meaning

as

And we must add by way

leader.

In

group

the

it

prodigy

this

only

clearly

give

an

more freedom of

marked and

impression

and

libido;

for a strong chief will often

him half-way and invest

of
in

meet

him with a predominance to

which he would otherwise perhaps have had no claim.

The

other

would
in

his

not,

members

apart from

person

whose ego ideal

have become embodied

of the group,

without

this,

some

correction,

away with the rest by 'suggestion',

say, by means of identification.
We are aware that what we have been

carried
to

are

contribute

towards

the

explanation

of

the

then
that

is

able to
libidinal

groups

structure

of

between

the

ego

double kind of

tie

back

leads

and

ego

the

which

this

the

to

ideal.

The assumption

grade

\Stufe\

in

analysis of the

paper

together

identi-

the

for

ego

of this kind of differentiating

ego

as

step

first

ego must gradually establish

an

in

its justifi-

have put

'

In

the pathological material that could at the

moment be used in support of this

may be expected that when we

separation.

the

will

be discovered to be

now appears

it

significance

its

Let us

far greater.

But

deeper

penetrate

psychology of the psychoses

into

that the ego

the

to

possible

Zur Einfiihrung des Narzissmus

all

distinction

most various regions of psychology.

cation in the
'

the

103

and

ideal

makes

and substitution of the object

fication,

my

Ego

Differentiating Grade in the

reflect

the relation of an object

in

ego ideal which has been developed out of

to

the

it,

and that

all

the interplay between an outer object

and the ego as a whole, with which our study of the

neuroses has made us acquainted, may possibly be
repeated upon
In

this

this

place

new scene
I

of action inside the ego.

consequences which seem possible from

view,

thus

which

resuming

was obliged

discussion

the
to

one of the

only follow up

shall

leave

this

of

unsolved

Each of the mental differentiations

become acquainted with represents a fresh
^

difficulties

of mental functioning,

'Trauer und Melancholie.'

problem

elsewhere.

that

of the

point of

we

have

,aggravation
increases

its

Group Psychology and the A7ialysis of the Ego

04

instability,

and may become the starting-point

breakdown, that

is,

for the onset of a disease.

for

its

Thus,

by being born we have made the step from an abnarcissism to

solutely self-sufficient

the perception of

a changing outer world and to the beginnings of the

And

discovery of objects.
fact that
for long,

to

sleep,

we

with this

cannot endure the

we

that

that in

we

our

It

however,

true,

is

withdraws the greater part

night, temporarily

is

any

pathologically

such

development
mental

The second example,

more important,

qualification.

we have

existence

into

In

effected

the

and we know that the

not subject
of

course

our

of our

ego and

coherent

is

a separation

unconscious and repressed portion which

into

an

is left

outside

new

acquis-

stability of this

exposed to constant shocks. In dreams and

neuroses what is thus excluded knocks for admission

ition
in

in

are following a hint from the outer

of the stimuli that affect us.

it;

it,

which, by means of the periodical change of

day and

to

of things

state

our former condition of absence of stimul-

this

world,

which

new

periodically revert from

and avoidance of objects.

ation

associated the

is

is

guarded though they are by resistances;

our waking health we make use of special

at the gates,

and

in

artifices

the

for allowing

resistances

and

what
for

our ego to the increase

is

repressed to

receiving

of our

it

circumvent

temporarily into

Wit and

pleasure.

humour, and to some extent the comic

in

general.

may be regarded
the

with

is

have

and

has

be borne

cannot

indeed

be temporarily undone.

to

is

shown by the

institution

more

nothing

are

origin

in

the

character

to

Saturnalia

of the

agree

in

release

In

all

of every kind

which

of festivals,

they

less

feature

which

usually

with

end

bring. ^

the
in

than

their cheerful

Romans and our modern

essential

this

people,

The

carnival

of

festivals

debaucheries

and the transgression of what are

other times the most sacred

ego ideal

long-

the rule;

is

nor

owe

excesses provided by law and which

primitive

for

and limitations imposed upon the ego

a periodical infringement of the prohibition

which

hasten on

quite conceivable that the separation of the

renunciations

this

of

view.

in

ego ideal from the ego

either,

think

will

importance; but

less

neuroses

the

105

Everyone acquainted

light.

psychology of

to the application
It

this

in

examples of

similar

Ego

Differ en Hating Grade in the

commandments. But the

sum

comprises the

at

of

all

the limitations in

which the ego has to acquiesce, and for that reason

the

abrogation of the

magnificent

once again
^

'

for

festival

feel satisfied

ideal

the

with

would necessarily be a
ego,

which

might

then

itself.^

Totem mid Tabu.

Trotter traces repression back to the herd instinct.

a translation of this
a contradiction

when

into
I

say in

my

is

'Einfiihrung des Narzissmus'

that on the part of the ego the construction of an

condition of repression.

It

another form of expression rather than

ideal

is

the

06 Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

There
in

And

sense

the

inferiority)

triumph

when

ego coincides with the ego

ideal.

alwa3^s

is

something

the

of

of

feeling

well

(as

guilt

sense

the

as

ot

can also be understood as an expression

of tension between the ego and the ego ideal.

It is

known

well

that there are people the general

mood

colour of whose

oscillates periodically

excessive depression through

some kind of intermediate

These

state to an exalted sense of well-being.

ations

appear

from what
Yi/'hich,

in

is

just noticeable to those

make

disturbing

concerned.

In

inroads

upon the

typical

cases

play any decisive part;

as

become

the

all

others.

It

is

to

be found

We

shall

in

has consequently

custom to consider these cases

being psychogenic.

seem

regards inner motives,

nothing more (or nothing different)

these patients than in

life

of this

depression outer exciting causes do not

cyclical

to

extreme instances

the shape of melancholia and mania,

person

the

oscill-

very different degrees of amplitude,

in

the most painful or

of

from an

refer later

as

not

on to those

other exactly similar cases of cyclical depression which

can

nevertheless

easily

be

traced

back

to

mental

traumata.

Thus the foundation of these spontaneous oscillations of mood is unknown; we are without insight
into the mechanism of the displacement of a melancholia by a mania.
So we are free to suppose that
these

patients

are

people

in

whom

our

conjecture

Ego

Differentiating Grade in the

107

might find an actual application their ego ideal might

be temporarily resolved
previously ruled

mania

of

ego

and

is

the

ego

the

person,

of his

abolition

consideration for

On

clear:

the basis of our

others,

mood

in

his

cases

fused

of triumph

self-criticism,

inhibitions,

and

in

have

ideal

by no

self-satisfaction, disturbed

enjoy

is

and

so that the

together,

having

after

cannot be doubted that

it

ego

the

ego

their

with especial strictness.

it

Let us keep to what

analysis of the

into

his

feelings

self-reproaches.

can
of
It

not so obvious, but nevertheless very probable, that

the misery of the melancholiac

is

the expression of a

sharp conflict between the two faculties of his ego,

a

conflict

in

which the

ideal,

relentlessly exhibits

sitiveness,

ego

in

The

only question

in
its

an excess of sen-

condemnation of the

delusions of inferiority and in self-depreciation.

is

whether we are to look

for the

causes of these altered relations between the ego and

the

ego

ideal

in

the

periodic

rebellions,

have postulated above, against the new

which

institution,

we
or

whether we are to make other circumstances responsible for

them.

change

feature of the
sion.

mania

is

not

an

indispensable

symptomatology of melancholic depres-

There are simple melancholias, some

and some

in

development.
in

into

recurring attacks, which never

On

in

single

show

this

the other hand there are melancholias

which the exciting cause clearly plays an aetiological

08 Gro7tp Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

They

part.

are those which occur

after the loss of

a loved object, whether by death or as a result of

circumstances which have necessitated the withdrawal

of the libido from the object.

psychogenic melan-

of this sort can end in mania, and this cycle

cholia

can be repeated several times, just as easily as

which

case

few

forms

to

submitted to psycho-analytical investigation.^

we
is

only understand

those

given up because

love.

It

is

means of

be spontaneous. Thus the

is somewhat obscure, especially as only
and cases of melancholia have been

appears

state of things

in

then

it

set

identification,

cases

So

far

which the object

in

has shown

itself

unworthy of

up again inside the ego, by

and severely condemned by

The reproaches and attacks directed

object come to light in the shape of

the ego ideal.

towards the

melancholic self-reproaches.^

melancholia of

this

kind

change to mania; so that the

ening

represents

feature

may

also

end

possibility of this

which

is

in

happ-

independent of

the other characteristics in the symptomatology.

^ Cf. Abraham:
'Ansatze zur psychoanalytischen Erforschung
und Behandlung des manisch-depressiven Irreseins', 191 2, in

Klinische Beitrdge zur Psychoanalyse, 1921.

^

To speak more

accurately, they conceal themselves behind

own ego, and lend

and imperativeness which characterize

the reproaches directed towards the person's

them the

fixity,

tenacity,

the self-reproaches ot a melancholiac.

Nevertheless
the

factor

against the

Ego

Differentiating Grade in the

I

the

of

ego

see

no

difficulty

periodical

a share

ideal

in

assigning

in

rebellion

109

of

the

to

ego

both kinds of mel-

ancholia, the psychogenic as well as the spontaneous.

In

spontaneous

the

the ego ideal

'vhich

then

suspension.

is

Idnd

may be supposed

that

inclined to display a peculiar strictness,

results

automatically

in

its

temporary

In the psychogenic kind the ego would

be

incited to rebellion

its

ideal

an

it

by

ill-treatment

ill-treatment on the part of

which

it

encounters when

there has been identification with a rejected object.

XII

POSTSCRIPT

In

course

the

enquiry

of the

which has just been

brought to a provisional end we came across a number

of side-paths which
instance but

in

we avoided

pursuing

much that
propose now to

which there was

We

us promises of insight.

a few of the points that have been

in

this

in

the

first

offered

take up

on one side

left

way.

The

A.

distinction

between

identification of the

ego with an object and replacement of the ego ideal

by an object finds an interesting illustration in the

two great artificial groups which we began by studying,
the army and the Christian church.
It

that

is

is,

obvious that a soldier takes

really,

while he
this

comradeship implies.

he

tries

to

superior,

the leader of the army, as his ideal,

identifies himself with his equals,

community of
giving mutual help and
from

his

identify

their

and derives

egos the obligations for

for sharing possessions

which

But he becomes ridiculous

himself

with

the

general.

if

The

Postscript
soldier

Wallensteins Lager laughs at the sergeant

in

for this very reason:

Wie

er rauspert unci wie er spuckt,

Das habt
It

otherwise

is

Christian

loves

united with

all

to

also

gliicklich

abgeguckt

as

his

and

ideal

other Christians by the

tie

the

Every

feels

himself

of identific-

He

Church requires more of him.

identify himself with Christ

and love

At both

other Christians as Christ loved them.

therefore,

!^

the Catholic Church.

in

Christ

But the

ation.

has

ihm

ihr

all

points,

Church requires that the position of

the libido which

given by a group formation should

is

Identification has to be added

be supplemented.
where object-choice has taken place, and object love
where there is identification. This addition evidently

goes beyond the constitution of the group.

be a good Christian and yet be

far

One can

from the idea

of putting oneself in Christ's place and of having like

him an all-embracing love

for

mankind.

One need

not think oneself capable, weak mortal that one

of

the

Saviour's

But

love.

of libido

this
in

largeness

further

the

of soul

development

group

which Christianity bases

is

its

is,

and strength of
in

the distribution

probably the

factor

upon

claim to have reached a

higher ethical level.

[Literally: 'How he clears his throat and how he
you have cleverly copied from him.']
^

that

spits,

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

We

B.

have said that

specify the point

at

in

it

would be possible to

man

mental development of

the

which the advance from group to individual psycho-

was

logy

by the individual members

achieved

also

of the group.

For
the

to

scientific

He was

horde.

justice,

one

each

of

the

for

the

of

father

primal

into the creator of

he had produced
group.

first

them,

of

moment

return for a

on exalted

later

who composed

the sons
ideal

myth of the

and with

the world,

we must

purpose

this

once

at

all

He was

the

feared

and

honoured, a fact which led later to the idea of taboo.

These many
together,

the

of
if

him and cut him

killed

group

of victors

one of them

father's

heritage.

community
united

by

of

the

could

that

they

pieces.
his

must

None

place,

renounce

all

They then formed the

brothers,

totem

all

dissatisfaction

with

equal

prohibitions

or,

which

until

their

totemistic
rights

were

and
to

memory

of the murder.

with what had

been achieved

preserve and to expiate the

But the

in

take

the battles began afresh,

did,

understood

they

banded themselves

individuals eventually

became the source of new

developments.
The persons who were united in this
group of brothers gradually came towards a revival

still

remained,

it

What follows at this point was written under the influence

exchange of ideas with Otto Rank.

of an

and

Postscript
of

the

old

of

state

things

at

new

Man

level.

became once more the chief of a family, and broke

down the prerogatives of the gynaecocracy which had
become established during the fatherless period. As
a

compensation

for

may

he

this

acknow^ledged the mother

deities,

time have

that

at

whose

were

priests

castrated for the mother's protection, after the example

that

had

been

by

given

horde.

And

to

himself from

the

of the

father

primal

new

family

the

group and take over the

was only a shadow

of the old one; there were numbers of fathers and
each one was limited by the rights of the others.
It was then,
perhaps, that some individual, in
the exigency of his longing, may have been moved
free

father's

yet the

He who

part.

did

was the

this

epic

first

poet; and the advance was achieved in his imagination.

This poet disguised the truth with

He

with his longing.

hero was a

the

man who by himself had

who still appeared in

monster.

first

The

ideal.

ideal,

place

father's

so

the

in

accordance

The

invented the heroic myth.

father

totemistic

boy's

lies

Just
in

poet

transition

as

the father

who

the hero

now
to

slain the

the

father

myth as a
had been the

the

aspires

created

the

hero

was

to the

ego

first

probably

afforded by the youngest son, the mother's favourite,

whom
who,

she had protected from paternal jealousy, and

in

father's

the era of the primal horde, had been the

successor.

In

the

lying

poetic

fancies
8

of

1 1

4 Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

woman, who had been the prize

and the allurement to murder, was probably

prehistoric times the

of battle

turned into the seducer and instigator to the crime.

The hero

claims to have acted alone in accom-

plishing the deed, which certainly only the horde as a

whole would have ventured upon.

Rank has

But, as

observed, fairy tales have preserved clear traces of

the facts which were
in

them

task

difficult

father

who has

surrogate

we

as

often

being
find,

carry out his task only

small

animals,

such

be the brothers

way

same

in

signify brothers

as

babies).

myths

youngest

(usually

to

and not

son,

in-

one who has represented himself to the

frequently

harmless)

For we often find

carry out some

disavowed.

hero

the

that

and

in

as

stupid,

then,

say,

hero can
..

the primal horde, just as in the

sisters

Moreover
fairy

to

is

this

by the help of a crowd of

bees or ants.
These would

dream symbolism
and

that

that

tales

vermin

or

(contemptuously, considered

every
is

insects

one

easily

of

the

tasks

recognisable

as

in

substitute for the heroic deed.

The
individual

myth was

by which
emerges from group psychology. The
myth,

then,

is

the

step

certainly the psychological, the hero

the explanatory nature myth must have followed

the
first

myth;

much

The poet who had taken this step and had

in this way set himself free from the group in his
imagination, is nevertheless able (as Rank has further

later.

Postscript

obsen^ed) to find

115

way back

his

to

it

he goes and relates to the group

in

deeds

hero's

his

For

reality.

At bottom this hero is no

Thus he lowers himself to the level

which he has invented.

one but
of

himself.

and

reality,

But

imagination.

and,

raises

The

w^ith
lie

of

deification

the

poet,
of

they can identify

the hero.^

of the
the

may have been

may have been

of

level

having the same relation

longing towards the primal father,

themselves

the

to

understand

hearers

his

of their

virtue

in

hearers

his

heroic

Perhaps

hero.
earlier

myth culminates

than

a precursor

to

The

primal father as a deity.

the

the

the
series

hero

deified

Father

the

in

God and

return

of

the

of gods, then,

would run chronologically: Mother Goddess Hero

But it is only with the elevation of the

Father God.
never

forgotten

the features that

C.

'

we

still

recognise

in

him to-day.^

great deal has been said in this paper about

sexual instincts and those that are inhibited

directly

Cf.

made by

primal father that the deity acquires

Hanns Sachs: 'Gemeinsame Ta^raume

*,

analytical Congress,

Zeitschrift

held at the

fur Psychoanalyse,

Hague

1920,

in

1920.

Bd. VI.

summary

InternationaU

[*Day-Dreams

Common'. International Jotiinal of Psycho-Analysis,

^

the lecturer himself of a paper read at the Sixth Psycho-

In this brief exposition

etc.,

in

in
I.]

have made no attempt to bring

forward any of the material existing

the history of manners,

1920, Vol.

in legends,

myths, fairy

tales,

support of the construction.

8*

1 1

in

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

and

their aims,

meet with

not

will

it

may be hoped that this distinction

too much resistance.
But a
be out of

detailed discussion of the question will not

even

place,

if

what has

repeats

only

it

to a great

extent already been said before.

The development of the libido in children

made us acquainted with the first but also the
example of sexual
All the

aims.

who

look after

the child's sexual tendencies.

these

objects

which

it

of

knows

and look

of;

them;

at

love

its

all

wants to

it

give

expression

child claims

the

signs

kiss

them, touch them,

and to be with them when they perform

excremental functions;
or

nurse-

whatever

proposes to

itself

it

of

its

understand

from

affection

genitals,

their intimate

promises to marry

may

it

to bear

to

The

curious to see their

is

it

its

pass by an easy

it

wishes w^hich

the

into

in their

which a child has towards

feelings

parents and those

transition

which are inhibited

instincts

has
best

its

by

mother
that;

it

father a child, etc. Direct

observation, as well as the subsequent analytic investiof the

gation
as

to

the

feelings

and

of childhood,

residue

complete
of

fusion

sexual

of

leave

tender

intentions,

and

no doubt

and

show

jealous

us

in

what a fundamental way the child makes the person

it

loves into the object of

all

its

incompletely centred

sexual tendencies.^

Cf.

Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie.

Postscript

This

configuration of the child's love, which in

first

typical cases

co-ordinated with the Oedipus complex,

is

succumbs, as we know, from the beginning of the period

wave of

of latency onwards to a
as

it

is

over shows

which relates to the same people, but

the

the

with

tie

a completely

to

person

prototype

a given case

in

question

(or

imago).

quite

energy

or

'sensual'

that

of

feeling

object

rather with

cannot

that

indeed

investigation whether

under repression or whether

certain

ties

though

courage to

us

It

life,

former complete sexual current

this

been exhausted.
possibility,

persist,

wherever we come across a tender

the

exists

also

gives

It

disclose to us without a special

still

Psycho-

as 'sexual'.

childhood

of

successor

person's

in

tender

purely

as

showing that the sexual

in

years

and unconscious.

assert that
is

be described

to

difficulty

earliest

repressed

it

itself

which illuminates the depths of mental

analysis,

ot

tie,

no longer

has no

Such

left

emotional
is

repression.

To
it

put
is

it

still

more

there

still

it

has already

precisely:

as

form

it

is

and

and can always be charged with cathectic

and

put

into

activity

regression; the only question

is

by

again

(and

it

means of

cannot always

be answered) what degree of cathexis and operative

force it still has at the present moment. Equal care

must be taken

in this

connection to avoid two sources

of error the Scylla of under-estimating the importance

of the

repressed

unconscious,

and the Charybdis of

1 1

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

judging the normal entirely by the standards

of the

pathological.

psychology which

depths

the

emotional

are

not or cannot penetrate

repressed

is

regards

tender

as

being invariably the expression of

which

have no sexual aim, even though

derived

from tendencies which have such

ties

tendencies

they

what

of

will

an aim/

We
diverted
is

some

from these sexual aims, even though there

difficulty

requirements

giving

in

aim

of

diversion

have been

are justified in saying that they

which

conform

will

which

preserve

some few

are

inhibited

aims

their

in

the

to

Moreover,

metapsychology.

of

instincts

of such

representation

those

always

of their original sexual aims; even

an affectionate devotee, even a friend or an admirer,

desires

the

person

who

If

we

ciim

physical
is

choose,

beginning

instincts,

proximity

of the

at

some more

sight

of the

the 'Pauline' sense.

in

diversion of

this

subthnation

or on the other hand

of sublimation

and the

now loved only in

we may recognise

of

we may
distant

the

fix the

sexual
limits

Those

point.

sexual instincts which are inhibited in their aims have

a

great

functional

uninhibited.

Since

Hostile feelings,

their construction, offer

advantage
they

are

which are a
no exception

over
not

little

those

which

capable

of

are

really

more complicated

to this rule.

in

Postscript

complete

they are especially adapted to

satisfaction,

create permanent ties; while those instincts which are

directly sexual incur a loss of energ}^ each time they

are

satisfied,

accumulation

fresh

while

object

the

inhibited

renewed

and must wait to be

of sexual

libido,

may have

been

capable

are

instincts

so

formed back

into

them, just

well

known how

It

develop

is

any

of

out

character,

emotional

of

The

easily

relations

based upon appreciation

degree

be

can

of

trans-

arose

out of

erotic

wishes

they

as

mean-

that

changed.

admixture with the uninhibited; they

them.

by a

of

and

friendly

admiration,

(compare Moliere's 'Embrassez-moi pour I'amour du

between a master and^ a

grec'),

performer and a delighted

the case of
ties

women,

of this

provides a

with

kind,

listener,

hi fact the
their

between

and especially

in

pupil,

growth of emotional

purposeless beginnings,

much frequented pathway

to sexual object-

Frdmmigkeit dcs Grafen von

Zinzendorf) has given an extremely clear and certainly
choice,

not

Pfister,

an

intense

,in

example

isolated
religious

excitement.

On

his

tie

can

of

how

revert

the other hand

easily

to
it

is

even

ardent

an

sexual

also very usual

for directly sexual tendencies, short-lived in themselves,

to

be transformed

[Schri/ten zur

Deuticke, 1910.]

into a lasting

and purely tender

angewandten Seelenkunde. Heft

8.

tie;

Vienna,

20 Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

and the consolidation of a passionate love marriage

upon

a large extent

rests to

We

this process.

not be surprised to hear that

shall naturally

the sexual tendencies that are inhibited in their aims

arise out of the

make

obstacles

outer

The

the

inner obstacle of this kind

become
the

horde

primal

compelled
forced

We

inner.

his

all

them

into

aims

sexual

the

during

repression

ones when inner or

sexual

directly

unattainable.

period of latency

or

rather one

is

an

which has

have assumed that the father of

owing
sons

to

to
that

ties

be

intolerance

sexual

his

abstinent,

and

thus

in

their

were inhibited

aims, while he reserved for himself freedom of sexual

enjoyment and
the

ties

way remained without

in this

All

ties.

upon which a group depends are of the

character of instincts that are inhibited in their aims.

But here nve have approached the discussion of a

new

which deals with the relation between

subject,

directly sexual instincts

D.

The

last

and the formation of groups.

two remarks

have prepared us

will

for finding that directly sexual tendencies are unfavour-

able

the
is

to

the

formation of groups.

In

development of the family there

true,

been group

relations

but

more

marriages);

became

the

for the ego,

important

and the more

to

be

limited

to

two

it

history of

have

of sexual

characteristics of being in love, the

required

the

love

also,

it

(group

sexual

love

developed the

more urgently it
una cum

people

Postscript

uno

as

prescribed by

is

Polygamous

aim.

the

nature

of the

genital

had to be content

inclinations

to

find satisfaction in a succession of changing objects.

Two

people coming together for the purpose of

sexual satisfaction, in so far as they seek for solitude,

are making a demonstration against the herd instinct,

The more they

the group feeling.

more completely they

suffice

is

love, the

in

other.

The

manifested

in the

each

for

rejection of the group's influence

are

The extremely violent

summoned up in order to

shape of a sense of shame.

of jealousy

feelings

are

protect the sexual object-choice from being encroached

upon by a group
that

tie.

It

the personal, factor

is,

only

is

of a

when

love

place entirely to the sensual one, that

for

two

people

the tender,

it

possible

is

have sexual intercourse

to

gives

relation

the

in

presence of others or for there to be simultaneous

sexual acts

in

stage in sexual

yet

played

judged

of Bernard
that

no

relations,

part,

which being

at

and

all

sexual

being

in

love

the sense

Shaw's malicious aphorism to the

in

love

means

greatly

as

were

objects
in

at

an early

has taken place to

be of equal value, somewhat

to

But

a group as occurs at an org}^

that point a regression

effect

exaggerating

the

between one woman and another.

There are abundant indicatioijs that being in
love only made its appearance late on in the sexual
difference

relations

between

men

and

women;

so

that

the

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

22

opposition between sexual love and group ties

a

this

may seem

it

also

is

though

as

assumption were incompatible with our myth of

For

the primal family.

for

Now

development.

late

and

mothers

their

was,

brothers

and

parricide;

we

as

after

by

all

that

sisters

have

difficult

is

it

was

it

their love

troop

of

driven

to

the

supposed,

to imagine this

being anything but unbroken and primitive

as an intimate union of the

tender

But further consideration resolves

One

a confirmation.

was

after

the

prohibition

women

the

all

of the

any

family

since childhood.

that

is,

and the sensual.

this

objection

into

of the reactions to the parricide

institution

of

love as

of

sexual

totemistic
relation

exogamy,
those

with

who had been tenderly loved

way a wedge was driven in

In this

between a man's tender and sensual

feelings,

one

still

As a result ot
exogamy the sensual needs of men had to be
satisfied with strange and unloved women.

firmly fixed in his erotic

life

to-day.^

this

In the great artificial groups, the church

army,

there

The

object.

remains

no

is

room

love relation

outside

these

and the

woman as a sexual
between men and women
for

organisations.

Even

where

groups are formed which are composed of both

and

no

women
part.

the

There

See

'

Ober

is

men

between the sexes plays

scarcely any sense in asking whether

distinction

die allgemeinste Erniedrigung des Liebeslebens.'

Postscript

the libido which keeps groups together

sexual

or

of

heterosexual

nature,

homo-

of a

for

not

is

it

and particularly

differentiated according to the sexes,

shows a complete disregard

is

23

aims of the genital

for the

organisation of the libido.

Even
a

become

too

for

falling

they

in

has

love

and

of

seems
shape

takes the

remarkable
us

group
the

of race,

ties

social

certain

fact,

its

priests;

of uninhibited

and

factor in

homosexual

that

women

of national

system,

class

as

for

civili-

love

even when

ties,

it

sexual tendencies

is
it

the explanation of which might carry

far.

The

psycho-analytic

neuroses has taught

be traced back
are repressed but
this
in

they

group

every

same way love

In the

the

It

If

driven even priests to

often

more compatible with group

far

activity.

disintegrate

thus produces important effects

zation.

become

sexual tendencies

imposing celibacy upon

for

through

separation,

other respects

The Catholic Church had the best of

recommending its followers to remain

leave the church.

breaks

in

directly

individual

his

strong

unmarried and
but

of

little

formation.

has

group the

in

preserve

motives

who

a person

in

absorbed

to

us

whose

that

directly

still

remain

formula by adding to

their aims,

investigation

it:

of the psycho-

symptoms are

their

to

sexual

tendencies which

active.

We

or, to

inhibition

can complete

tendencies inhibited

has not been entirely

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

24

made room

has

or

successful

repressed sexual aim.

It

in

is

make

should

a neurosis

that

return

to

the

accordance with

this

for

victim

its

and

asocial

should remove him from the usual group formations.

It

may be

integrating

On

has

a neurosis

that

said

upon a group

effect

the other hand

same

the

being

as

dis-

love.

in

appears that where a powerful

it

impetus has been given to group formation neuroses

may

diminish and at

events temporarily disappear.

all

attempts have also been

Justifiable

made

to turn this

antagonism between neuroses and group formation to

Even those who do not

therapeutic account.

disappearance of religious

world

were

to-day

of

they

force

in

by them the
danger
all

of

the

ties

most powerful
with

sects

religious

distorted cures
is

bound

that

those

offered

Nor

neurosis.

up

from the

illusions

admit

will

is

long

so

they

as

against

hard to

mystico-religious

civilized

who were bound

protection
it

regret the

discern

the
in

philosophico-

or

and communities the manifestation of

of

with

sexual tendencies

kinds of neuroses.

all

the

and

contrast

between

those which

of this

All

are

directly

inhibited

in

their aims.
If

replace

group

he

by

is

to himself, a neurotic

left

his

own symptom

formations

from

which

is

formations

he

is

obliged to
the

excluded.

great

He

own world of imagination for himself, his

own religion, his own system of delusions, and thus
creates his

Postscript

25

recapitulates the institutions of humanity in a distorted

way which

evidence of the dominating part

clear

is

played by the directly sexual tendencies.^

E.

we

conclusion,

In

from the standpoint of the

estimate,

of the states with which

being

add a

will

libido

we have been
of group

of hypnosis,

love,

in

comparative
theory,

concerned, ot
formation,

and

of the neurosis.

Being in

love

upon the simultaneous

based

is

presence of directly sexual tendencies and of sexual

tendencies

that

are

the object draws

to

itself.

room

It

condition

these two persons,

tendencies

but

that

The group
together,

in

is

only

for the

entirely

upon

their

aims

in

ego

ideal.
it

agrees with

the nature of the instincts which hold

and

in

other individuals,

by

based

inhibited

multiplies this process;

the

by the object; but to

possible

that

being limited

in love in
is

it

are

and substitutes the object

hypnosis

so

ego and the object.

for the

sexual

which there

in

Hypnosis resembles being

to

aims,

their

in

a part of the narcissistic ego-libido

is

inhibited

their

replacement of the
this

it

it

ego ideal

adds identification with

which was perhaps originally made

having

the

same

relation

to

the

object.

See Totem und Tabu, towards the end of Part

Tabu und

die Ambivalenz*.

II,

'Das

Group Psychology mid the Analysis of the Ego

26

Both
an

human
and

libido

hypnosis

group,

the

from

deposit

inherited

and group formation, are

hypnosis

states,

in

of the

the form of a predisposition,

besides

The replacement

phylogenesis

the

as

this,

direct

survival.

of the directly sexual tendencies

those that are inhibited

in their

aims promotes

in

between the ego and the ego

states a separation

by

both
ideal,

a separation with which a beginning has already been

made

the state of being in love.

in

The neurosis stands outside this series. It also

based upon a peculiarity in the development of
is
the twice repeated start made by
the human libido

the directly sexual function, with

of latency.^

To

this

group formation
which

it

resembles hypnosis and

having the character of a regression,

in

absent

is

extent

an intervening period

from being

in

love.

makes

It

its

appearance wherever the advance from directly sexual

instincts

to

not been
conflict

completely successful;

between

received
this

those that are inhibited in their aims has

into

the

development

instincts which,

those

ego
and

instincts

after

those

and

portions

strive,

See Drei Abhandlungen

1920, S. 96.

of

been

through

the

same

desires that have

from the repressed

unconscious, to attain direct satisfaction.

have

which

having passed

like other instinctive

been completely repressed,

represents

it

The

zur Sexnaltheorie,

4.

neurosis

Auflage,

Postscript

is

extraordinarily rich

possible relations

both those
in

which

it

and

itself

ego and

its

in

in

content,

for

is

ego

embraces

all

retained and others

abandoned or erected

also

it

27

between the ego and the object

which the object

is

inside

the ego

the conflicting relations between the

ideal.

INDEX
Abraham,
Affectivity.

62, 108.
See tinder Emotion.

Altruism, 57.

Conscience,
Contagion,

Ambivalence,

55, 61.

18,

-Anaclitic type, 60.

Archaic inheritance, 10, 99.
Army, 42-6, 89, "^4, no, 122.
Autistic mental acts, 2.

34.

Mana

in,

96.

Children, 14, 16, 18-19, 30, 67,

Danger, Effect on groups, 46-9.

Darwin,

in,

90.

Doubt:
absence

in groups, 15-16.
interpretation in dreams,
15-16.

Dread:
Children's, 83, 85-6.
in a group, 46-8, 50.
in an individual, 47-8.
Neurotic, 48.
of society, 10.
Panic, 45-9.

Dream,

82, 91.

Dread

10-13,

75-

112, 122.

of, 90,

Caesar, 44.
Cathexis, 18, 20, 28, 117.
Object-, 48, 58, 60-1, 71-2, 76.
Catholic Church, 42-3, in, 123.
Celibacy of priests, 123.
Censorsliip of dreams, 16, 69.
Chieftains,

Emotional,

27, 34-5, 46-7.

Crowd, I, 3, 26, 92.

in Christ, 43.

Brtigeilles,

68-9,75, 79

Delusions:
of inferiority, 107.
of observation, 69.
Devotion to abstract idea, 17,

Bernheini, 35, 100.

Bletder, 2.
Brothers, 43, 114.

Community

10, 28,

Social, 88.

83, 85-6.

Parents and, 54, 86, n6.

Sexual object of, 72, 116.

Unconscious

of,

18.

20, 69, 104.

Interpretation of doubt
uncertainty in, 15-16.

and

symbolism, 114.
Dut>% Sense of, 84, 88, 95.

Christ, 42-5, 50, III.

Equal love

of,

Ego,

50.

Identification with,

iii.

Church, 42-3, 89, 94, iio-ii,

122-3.

Commander-in-Chief, 42-5.
Conflict,

18,

107, 126.

18-19, 62-70, 74, 84,

100-9, 120, 125-7.
Relations between ego ideal
and, 68-70, 103, 105-10.
10,

93,

Relations between object

and, 62-70, 74-6, 108-10.

30 Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

Ego

ideal, 68-70, 74-7, 80,

100-3, 105-10, 113, 126-7.
Abrogation of the, 105.
Hypnotist in the place of, 77.
Object as substitute for, 74-6,

no.
Relations between
80,

103,

eg"o

Father, 43, 92, 98-9.

Equal love of, 95.

God, n5.
Identification with, 60-2.

Object

tie with, 62.

Primal, 92, 94-5, 99-IOO,

n2-i3,

and,

103, 105-10.
Testing reality of things, 77.
The first, 113.

cation

68-70,

Egoism,

n4.

Surrogate, 43,

Felszeghy, Beta v., 48.

Ferenczi, 76, 98.

Emotion
Ambivalent,

18,

55.

28.

of,

Contagion

the, 94,

of.

See Contagion.

Festivals, 105.
Folk-lore, 25.

Intensification of, in groups,

Folk-song, 25.

23, 27-30, 33, 46, 81.

Primitive induction of, 27,

French Revolution,

16,

34, 46-7-

Tender, 72-3, 78, 1 16-17.

Emotional tie, 40, 43, 45, 52-3,
59-60,64-5, 81, 88,91,94,
100,

of, 46-9.
relation to

26.

Function:
for testing reality, 20, 77.
(Instanz), 15.

Gemeingeist, origin

of,

87.

Genital organisation, 19.

117-20.

God,

Cessation

Empathy,

Deifi-

93, n5. Killing

12-13, 122.

Federal, P., 50.

57.

Charge

120.

115,
of,

identi-

fication, 66, 70.

Group

Enthusiasm, in groups, 25.

Envy, 87-8.

Artificial, 41-2, 52, 82,

Equality, demand for, 88, 89.

Eros, 38-40.
Esprit de corps, origin of, 87.
Ethical
conduct of a group, 18.
level
of Christianity, in.
standards of individual, 24-5.

Fairy tales, the hero in, n4.

Family, 70, 95, lOO, n3, 120.
a group formation, 95.

and Christian community,

and social instinct, 3.
Primal, 122.
Fascination, 11, 13, 21, 75.

85, 96.

Father, n5.
Gregariousness, 83-4, 92.

43.

no,

89,94,

122.

Different kinds of, 26, 41.

Disintegration of, 49-51.

Dread

in, 47.

Equality

in,

89.
121.

feeling, 86-7,

Heightened affectivity
See under Emotion.
ideal,

in.

100, 102.

Intellectual

capacity

of,

14,

23, 25, 29, 31, 33, 81.

Intensification of emotion in.
18,

See tinder Emotion.

Leaders of. See under
Leader.

MI

Index
Group (contimied)

40,

Hypnotist, 13, 1-], 95-9.

Hysteria, Identification in, 63-5.

indi-

Idealisation, 74.
Identification, 59-70, 75-6, 84,
86-9, 94, 101-3, III, 125.

Libidinal structure

of, 37,

44-5. 47, 51, 53-4, 70,

79-80, 102-3.
marriages, 120.
INIental

change of the

vidual

6-14, 33-4, 45,

56, 81, 102.
mind, 3, 5-27, 40, 49, 82.
Organisation in, 26, 30-1, 33,
41-2, 80, 82, 90.
Primitive, 31, 33, 41, 80.
in,

psychological

character

of,

6-32.

psychology,
37, 45,

112,

1-4, 6, 25-6, 33-4,

53,

59, 92-4,

loi,

114.

Revolutionary, 26.
Sexual instincts and, 120.
spirit, 87.
Stable, 26, 41, 84, loi.
Suggestibility of, 11, 13, 35,
84-5.
Transient, 25, 41, 84, 10 1.

Guilt, Sense of, 20,63, 65, 84, 106.

Gynaecocracy, 113.

83-6, 105,

121.

123.
1

13-14,

120.

of the. See under

Father.
H^^jnosis, 10-13, 20-1, 77-9, 81,
95-100, 125-6.
a group of two, 78, 100.

Father

and

sleep, 79, 98.

of terror, 79.

to, 64.

with a lost or rejected object,

67-8, 108-9.
Christ, in.
the father, 60-2.
the hero, 115.

with
with
with
with

the leader, iio-ii.

Imitation, 34-5, 65, 70.
Individual:
a member of many groups,
lOI.
Dread in, 47-8.
Mental change in a group.
6-14, 33-4, 45, 56, 81, 102,
1-2, 92-3, 112,
114.
Induction of emotion, 27, 34,

Psycholog>%

Delusions

of,

57,

106-7.

Hero, 17, 1 13-15.

Homosexuality, 57, 66-7, 94,

Horde Primal, 89-95, 99,

symptom, 63-5.

Regression of object-choice

Inferiority,

Herd, 83-5, 89.

3,

in hysterical

46-7.
Infection, mental, 64-65.

Hatred, 53, 56.

Hebbel, 49.
instinct,

Ambivalent, 61.

Inheritance, archaic, 10, 99.

Inhibition
Collective, of intellectual
functioning, 23, 33.

Removal

of,

17,

28,

33.

Instinct:

Herd,

3,

inhibited
1

83-6,
in

105,

aim,

5-26.

Life and death, 56.

Love,

37,

39,

Nutrition, 85.
Primary, 84-5.

58.

121.

72-3,

78,

Group Psychology ajtd the Analysis of the Ego

32

Instinct (continued)

Libido, 33-40, 44, 57, 79, 83,

Self-preservative, 34, 85.

Sexual, 19, 39, 56, 71-8,
85-5, 94, 115-26.
Social, 3.
unhibited in aim, 73, 77-8,
94, 115-26.

Unconscious,

102, III, 116, 119, 123, 126.

Narcissistic, 58, 74, 93, 104,
125.
Oral phase ot, 61.

theory, 57, 83, 125.

Unification of, 19.

Withdrawal

10.

Intellectual ability, lowering of,

in groups,

14, 18, 23, 25,

29, 31, 33, 81.
Introjection, of object into ego,

65, 67-8, 76.

Kings, Mana in, 96.

Kraskovic, B. jnr., 23.
Kroeger, 90.

108.

122.
a factor of civilisation, 57, 93.
and character formation, 94,
118-20.
and hatred, 56.

Being

Jealousy, 121.

of,

Love, 37-40, 42, 73, 87, 108,

in,

58,

7i-9,

120-1,

24-6.

Child's,

16-17.

Christ's, 43,

Equal, 42, 50, 89, 93.

Language,

Pauline,

38, 71.

25,

Latency, period

of,

72, 117, 120.

126.

Leader, 20-2, 41, 44-5, 78, 82,

118.

See tinder Narcissism.

Sensual, 71-3, 78, 117.

Sexual, 37-8, 57, 120-2.

85, 89, 92, 99, no.

as substitutes

The word,

for,

Unhappy,

Abstractions
53.

Equal love

of,

93, 95.
with, iio-ii.

Identification
Killing the, 90.

Loss

of,

the group ideal, 100, 102,

10.

Tie with, 49, 52, 66.

Le Bon, 5-25, 29, 34, 82, 84,
lOO-I.

Libidinal
structure of the group, 37,
40, 44-5,47, 53,70,79-80,
102-3.

The word,
ties,

44,

44.
56-8, 65, 93,

Sublimated homosexual,

57.

37-9, 71.

75.

Unsensual, 73.

McDougall,

49.

Negative, 53.
Prestige of, 21-2.

in

Self-.

100.

the group, 45, 51, 54.

I, 26-31, 34-6,
46-7, 49, 84.
Magical power of words, 19.
Magnetic influence, 1 1.
Magnetism, animal, 96.

Mana,

96.

Mania, 106-9.
Marcuszewicz, 68.
Marriage, 54, 120.
Melancholia, 68, 106-9.
Metapsychology, 63, 118.
Moede, Walter, 24.
Moliere, 119.
Morality, Totemism the origin
of,

90.

Index

133

Mother deities, 113, 115.

Multicellularity, 7, 32, 83.
Myth, 113-15-

Pan-sexualism, 39.
Paid, Saint, 39, 118.

Nachmaiisohn,

P/ato,

38.

Poet,

the

Panic, 45-9.

PJister,

39.

Names, Taboo upon,

19.

Napoleon, 44.
Narcissism,

Power,

2, 38,

54-8,69, 74-5,

93, 94, 104.

Nestroy, 49.

Neurosis, 18, 20, "37, 44,

63, 103-4,123-26.
Nietzsche, 93.
Nutrition, Instinct

Object,

of,

5^,

9,

first

62,

18-19,

4, 7 14, 18,
38-9. 59-60, 84, 97.

Psychology:
Group, 1-4,

6, 25-6, 33-4, 37,

45. 53. 59, 92. 94, loi.

Group and individual, 1-2,

92-93, 112, 114.

of,

18,

119, 121.

Child's, 72.
-choice, 54, 62, 64, 74, III,
119, 121.
Eating the, 61-62.

Hyper-cathexis

of,

Psychoses, 66, 103.

Pubert}^ 67, 72-73.

Races, repugnance between

related, 55.
Otto, 112,

Rank,

76.

Identification with ego, 108.

Rapport, 97.

Less or Renunciation

Reality:

of,

68,

-love, 56, 63, 74, III.

Relations with the ego, 65,

67-8, 70, 76.
Sexual, 67, 72-3, 116.
Substituted for ego ideal, 74,
80, 103, 125.
Observation, delusions of, 69.
Oedipus complex, 60-61, 63,

Organisation in groups, 26,

33,

and Psychological, 20.

Regression, 82, 91, 117, 121,
126.

Religion, 51, 90.

Wars

of,

51.

Repressed:
Sexual tendencies, 74, 117,
123-4.

117.

Inverted, 62.
Oral phase of organisation of
the libido, 61.

Orgy, 121.

114.

Function for testing, 20, 77.

Contrast between Objective

108.

30-1,

113-114.

of leaders, 21.
of words, 19.
Prestige, 21-2, 34.
Primitive peoples, 14,
24, 92, 96, 105.
3<5,

76.

Change

66,

epic,

28.

15,

Psycho-Analysis,

84.

68, 74, 87,

93, 104, 125, 127.
cathexis, 48, 58, 60-1, 71-2,
57-8,

119.

39,

41-2,

80,

82,

90.

117-18, 126.
64-5, 69,
72, 84, 95, 105, 117, 120,
Resistance, 84, 104.
Responsibility, Sense of, 9-10,

The,

10,

Repression,

29-30.

104,
9,

54,

Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego

34

Richter,

Konrad,

36.

Sachs, Hanns, 16, 115.

Schopenhatier, 54.

Counter-, 35.
Definition for, 100.

Self-:

consciousness, 30-1.
depreciation, 107,
love. See tmder Narcissism.
observation, 69.
preservation, 15, 34, 84-5.
sacrifice,

11,

Mutual,

12,

27,

34, 82.

Superman, 93.
Taboo,

19, 96,

112.

Tarde, 34.

Totemism,

38, 75.

Sex, 39.

90,

12-13.

Totemistic:

Sexual

clan, 95.

act, 92,

aims,

121.

58,

72.

Diversion of

instinct from, 58. Infantile,

72. Obstacles to,
life,

Suggestibility, 11, 13, 35, 84-5.

Suggestion, 12-13, 17, 29, 34-7,
40, 82, 95, 99, 102.

19,

120.

72.

over-estimation, 53-5.
Tendencies, Inhibited and
unhibited. 72-3, 77-8, 94,
1 15-16,
125-26.
union, 37-8.
Shazv, Bernard, 121.
Sidis, Boris, 84.
Sighele, 24-5.
Simniel, E., 44.
Sleep, 98, 104.
and hypnosis, 98.
Smith, Robertson, 70.

community of brothers,
exogamy, 122.
Tradition, 17, 21.
of the group, 31.
of the individual, 32.
Transference, 97-8.
Trotter,

32, 83-5, 89,

Uncanniness, 95, 99.

15-16.'

interpretation in dreams,
15-16.
Unconscious, 8, 10, 12, 14-16,
18, 23-4, 64, 67, 72, 97,

100,

104.

Groups led by,

instincts,

duties, 88, 95.

relations, 2-3, 57.
Socialistic tie, 51.

Le

Society, 24, 26, 28, 90.

Racial, 9.

of,

14.

10.

Bon's, 10, 14, 24.

of children, 18, 117.
of neurotics, 18.

10.

Sociology. See under

Psychology.

Group

Wallenstein, 44.
neuroses, 44.

War

War, The,

Speech, 84.
Sublimated:
devotion, 17, 75.

homosexual
Sublimation,

105.

Uncertainty, absence in groups,

Social:

Dread

112.

love, 57.
118.

44.

Wilson, President, 44.

Wishes, Affective cathexis

of,

20.

Words, magical power

of,

19.

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