2 Basic Types of Reasoning

Deductive
Inductive

Deductive Reasoning
Attempts

to provide sufficient (or

conclusive) evidence for the conclusion
Deductive reasoning can be recognized
by the structure of the argument and
sometimes by the conclusion offered

Inductive Reasoning
Attempts

to make the conclusion probable

or likelyevidence is not intended to be
conclusive
Typically recognized by probabilistic
claims in either or both of the premises
and conclusions
Includes statistical and demographic
reasoning, predictions, analogies and
explanations

Some Examples
Either

Bob or Joe was going to win the

award. Bob didnt win, so Joe must have.
I think Wayne committed the murder. He
had the motive, he had the opportunity, his
bloody glove was found on the scene, and
he has no alibi.
Im sure Alice knows how to swim. After
all, most people know how to swim.

More Examples
If

you stop smoking, youll live longer. Current

research shows that on average, non-smokers
live 5.5 years longer than smokers.
If we stick with our current quarterback, our team
probably wont get any better. Hes had a few
years now, and we havent improved yet.
Perhaps its time for someone new.
Since 2 x 2=4, and 22 is the same as 2 x 2, then
22=4.

Judging Validity
A deductive

argument is judged on 2 criteria:

validity and soundness
An argument is valid if the truth of the premises
would guarantee the truth of the conclusion
An argument is invalid if the conclusion could be
false even if all the premises are true
N.B.: This judgment is purely formalit has
nothing to do with the truth of either premises or
conclusions

Some Examples
Either

the kitchen is on fire, or my pot

roast is burning. I can see the kitchens
not on fire, so my pot roast must be
burning.
All CEOs are wealthy. Martin is wealthy,
so he must be a CEO.
Only Democrats would vote for Hilary
Clinton. Wade is a Democrat, so he must
have voted for Hilary.

More Examples
Deceptive

advertising is no different from

lying. Since lying is wrong, so too is
deceptive advertising.
Republicans support tax cuts for the
wealthy. George is a Republican, so he
must support tax cuts for the wealthy.
Republicans support tax cuts for the
wealthy. John supports tax cuts for the
wealthy, so he must be a Republican.

Argument Forms
There are some argument form that are
always valid
They are: Modus Ponens, Modus Tollens,
Categorical Syllogism, Disjunctive
Syllogism, Hypothetical Syllogism and
Constructive Dilemma

Argument Forms Continued

There are two argument structures that are
always invalid.
They are: Affirming the Consequent and
Denying the Antecedent

Soundness and Unsoundness

A deductive

argument is sound is (1) it is

valid, and (2) its premises are true.
A deductive argument is unsound if either
(1) it is invalid, or (2) it is valid, but at least
one premise is false

Some Examples
All

men are mortal. Socrates is a man, therefore

Socrates is mortal.
Either the moon is made or green cheese, or Im
the Pope. Unfortunately, the moon IS made of
green cheese, so Im sadly not the Pope.
If the General Manager was retained, our teams
losing ways were bound to continue. Since I see
we arent winning yet, we must have retained the
General manager.
Only rock stars and athletes are wealthy. Since
Ellen is pretty wealthy, she must be either a rock
star or an athlete.