‘THIS IS NOT A HYSTORICAL SURVEY, BUT CORRECTION OF THERMODYNAMICAL MISSINTERPRETATION, PROVED ON THE GROUND OF THE ORIGINAL WORKS. WHAT IS THE REAL MEANING OF THREE SHAPES OF THE SECOND MAIN LAW ? ay We tel a6. Ca DUE TOME AUTHENTICITY OF GENUINE WORMS Ati THE caLcuLATIONS ARE IM THEIR ORIGINAL EuapE Iw THE CLAZSIC THCHMCAL UMTS, MOTIVATION 411 three shapes of the Second Mein Lew were gradually dis- covered during the period of the most essential development of themodynemics, towards the second helf of the 19th century. Nowadays, in contemporary textbooks, #11 three shapes are scarce- ly quoted together, preventing comprehensive insight into the Second Lew. At the very beginning, each of three formulations was written by different words, from various euthors, not at the same time. Te. shape THOMSON 1851 II. shape CLAUSIUS 1863 Til. shape CLAUSIUS 1865 Unfortunstely, during the course of time, veritable thermody- namicel works gradually dropped out of sight, or were completely forgotten, Moreover, euthentic laws, rules and definitions have been unceasingly changed, wrested or even missinterpreted. Conse- quently it could be concluded thet secondhandedness of original works is the greatest bene of contemporary thermodynamical 1i- tereture. The seme has happened with the original formuletion of the Second Lew, which requires a return to the original text.fa 2. HISTORICAL ROOTS OF THE SECOND MAIN LAW The Second Lew draws its roots from the period when the conver- sion of heat into mechanical work sterted. This wes in the infancy of the heat engines, which began avout three centuries ago. The Eng- lish inventor Thomas Newcomen put the first applicable steam engine in motion in 1712. His monumental new source of power quickly spread all eround the world,pumping water successfully from numerous mines in Burope end America. Steem engines enabled the enormous progress of industriel activities, described by Cernot (1824) in his partic— ularly pictorial style : "The most important favour which fire engine mede for England is unquestionably revivel of her coal mining, which was under abandon~ ment end under menace to be completely extinguished, due to the growing difficulties in pumping water and fuel extraction. It could be established thet extraction of cosl was tenfold increased since the steem engine was discovered. It is about the same with copper end gine extraction." (Fig.1) "If all the steam engines were now taken away from Englend, that would mean to take coal end iron suddenly away; this would mean to stop all her sources of wealth and destroy all the means of progress; this would mean to root out all this colossal power. The destruction of her navy, which she considers as her createst support, would be perheps less fatal for her. at Saas Mee Figs. Newconen dreinsge pumps at work This wes the state of matter by the end of the eighteen century, when French Academy of Sciences, as early as 1793, announced a scientific competition, including a great financial prize, to answer the question under the following title : "The Theoretical Analysis of the Operstion of the Stesm Engine." None of the works deserved the >rize. Having no correct answer, at the first attempt, the sane offer was repeeted several years later again, also without success. Only one man, Sadi Carnot, will know the right answer much later, as he was only two y the time of competition. y two yeers old atep CONVERSION OF HEAT INTO MECHANICAL WORK Cernot’s answer (1824) on the question of the French Acadeny consists of two similer fundamental principles, quoted here in his original words. One principle, based upon temperature, precisely comprises the first shepe of the Second Law. The other principle, based upon hest directly involves the second shape of the Second’ Lew, principle based upon temperature wo "In all places where there exists a dif- ference of temperature, there can be pro- duction of motive power." "In the waterfall the power of motion is strictly proportional whth the level dif- ference between the upper and the lower reservoir. In the fall of caloric, the motion power undoubtedly increases with the temperature difference between the hot and the cold body." (Pig.2 ) Cernot pointed out the height of water- fell, presenting temperature difference. However, he wrote nothing about the widtt which will be unravelled 40 years leter. Supposing temperature difference equal Fig.2. camot comparison of weterte 0 Zero, Thomson (1851) wrote the first "Go tenpersture aizforoncs shape of the Second Law. principle based upon heat ica Carnot deduced this principle by careful observation of the boil— €z with fireplece (1). condenser (2) end cylinder (3) of the Janes Watt steam engine (Fig.3).In his own words : "According to this principle, in order to create motive power it is not suf- ficient to supply heat; cooling must be provided, as heat would be useless Without it.! “Production of motive power in the steam engine did not originate from real con- sumption of heat, but due to the heat érensfer from the hot to the cold body. The first of this body is here the heat- ed ir in the fireplace, and the secona is the water in the condenser," As Carnot wrote this text before discov- =) ery of mechanical equivelent of heat, the middle part of his sentence should y e be omitted. Therefore, the correct for- qe = Ga = de muletion of his principle sounds as fol- Want SUPPLIED ~ Hetr ResecreD = mecnanteat wor LOWS + (hot body) (cold body) In order to produce mechenical work (je) toa. : 2 the heat must pass from the hot (q, ) to 1-5. Heat bolonce of Janes Hatt the cold (q, ) body, By using the reverse shape of this Carnot principle, Clausius de- duced the second shape of the Second Law (1863). -(8 LESIEERCFE > I. SHAPE Second Law ABSTRACT As eerly as 1857 Thomson wrote that mechanical work could not be gained from only one source of heat. This statement was later called the first shepe of the Second Law. However, exactly the same principle, expressed by means of temperature difference, was dis- covered by Cornot, more than three decades earlier. Accordingly, if aging only one source of heat, there will be no temperature differ- ence, end consequently no production of mechanical work. Obviously, this is only one end and the seme rule, expressed by different words. ‘THOMSON’S FORMULATION OF THE FIRST SHAPE OF THE SECOND LAW Why did Thomson write again the seme principle, published by Gar- not 30 years earlier ? The enswer is simple : Thomson was not ac— quainted with Carnot’s book ! Professor Williem Thomson (later Lord Kelvin ) was bom in ae year when Cernot’s book was published. At the age o twenty-one, homson visited Peris, soon sfter teking his degree from Cembridge, to contect French scientists. He spent a lot of time in the labore— tory of Regneult, who worked experimentally upon thermodynamical ta- bles for steam and other gases. Thomson was impressed by Carnot’s ideas, which he found in the work of mining engineer Clapeyron, who introduced indicator aia- [2] grem, corresponding to the Gernot cycle. Therefore Thomson wanted to look into Cemot’s originel book. He wes disappointed to find that the librery of College de Frence did not have @ copy of this work. He went to other libraries but none of them possessed the book. Fi- nally he begon hunting for it in numerous bookshops that mey be seen fo ‘this day on the benks of the Seine. Unfortunetely for him, the "Puissence Motrice du Feu" was quite unknown ! Garnot’s book went practically unnoticed at that time. No one seems to have been ipressed by it. Not even Thomson knew that Carnot had solved the problem of heat conversion into mechenical work. Other: wise Thomson could not heve written the following presumption :

For the sake of verification, Mollier (is) AL soe two distanced points (1,2) are se- lected in the Mollier enthalpy di- egrem. (Fig.15.) 850 oY J 7 SELECTED Ponts ad A} at = 2oop0 kgim® S oe = *c neta oe ; pore heats . fs at = 20000 kg/m? | ae tc ene & keat leg Vs ‘STEAM PROPERTIES u50%C fas constqm Re 43-06 kgm/kyex 3| oate tye nctome Te tage ial 3 Product IR = 011024 bealfeg I Specific heat —" gp=q'5225 healfkgrk 47 : te cme bebonging numericel example pio ig calculated in three different tt S&L rcthis A manners # 796 TSB 202 Poy POS BoB A ~ by means of the Sexond Law ‘Fig.15. Selected ares of Mollier diagren Bt by means of Moliier ee © - by means of specific heats A. carcutation oF HEAT accorDiNe Secon Law eb) (21034. f2000) Tenpemanne colar 78 ~ eh ae eee ee ee Oey eee Sie ies Ayo 05225 .0n823 — o11024.6n 20000 ‘160563 heat /eg*h wearacronome wa. taw [GQ G&) -Ca* a%) | FINAL SHAPE qr frds= ai+ 9.7 e076). (ont ean eee Bo Fest conrRon BASED UPON HOLLIER DIAGRAM J enmauy diecenewce = te dy = 650 ~ 702 > 600 keol/tg SECOND CONTROL BASED UPON SPECIFIC MEAT OF STEAM t ewrnaury DReRRENCE — G2 fp. (12 t+) + 05225 (550-400) = 70:39 healfkg Numerical results differ by only few percentages, as the steam is not an absolutely perfect gas. Nevertheless, there is no need to calculate enthalpy difference by means of the Second Law,which has a much deeper thermodynamical meaning. In his pioneering work, Clausius did not integrate his differen- tial form. Therefore, it ‘was more a theoretical guideline, which could be hardly used in practical engineering. The final shape, after integretion,points out to the mutual dependence between both components of heat energy. It offers additional possibilities for the new approach to numerous intricate questions in technical ther- modynamics.15. PRODUCTION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY IN THE LIGHT OF THE SECOND LAW Clausius’s pioneering work on entropy, published even 136 years [+ ago (1865),comprises full 47 peges.He selected the word "entropy" from the Greek language, due to its similarity to the word "energy." Both words are near and’ related to each other, according to their sound and physical meaning, Leter on entropy was fully recognised as the second couponent of energy. In order to produce mechanical work from heat, temperature dif- ference (intensity) is not sufficient ! Entropy difference (exten- sity) is essential as well, because only temperature difference would be useles without it. The most comprehensive survey into both components of heat (AT,As could be gained on the ground of generalized Cernot cycle. Austrian professor Hdmund Reitlinger observed (1873) that all the cycles usin isothemals are optimal and equivelent to the Cernot, if perfect re- enerator is included. Altogether, there ere four optimal cycles Carnot, Stirling, Ericsson, Reitlinger), which are calculeted by means of product of temperature and entropy differences. ee CARNOT CYCLE STIRLING CYCLE al WORK = HEAT SURED = NEAT REJECTED WORK = Weat sPptIgD —HeHr REE: ICO Heke REyECTED Ge Ube 8T + 8,9uaq)-ley 67248 Tain) — FB] je aoe Ge = Aneto4s,Toa)= Aer =as.To%in a7 Fo ee de = 85.7 ~ 45.7 min 2 45(Pmar ~Tmin ) = [ar-ad de =45(Tma—Tmin) = [at.4d & alesse Sees teen = Tmax: To Trin Trig STiRLING (3216) | ee 7 tates ak ae aaah fs] ERICSSON CYCLE RELTLINGER CYCLE [E] worn = near sures Hear xeseereD work = wear sinueo wear nevecreo {Bl JO <(G.87 +48. Toax)—(lp. 51 +85 Tein) IO (Gy AT-+45. Trex) - (on BT +45 Tain) G@ = dl 068. tar — Yprat —86. Trin de = evar t06.Tnar = PET = a8 Tin Vale aa eee aes de + 65.7 nar —46.7 min de = 4s (rma —Tmin) = (Bas de = 45(Tmac-Tmin) = [anas 7 a so perv tied Tat = Tin a Tain peirLineae (1273) ERICSSON (1852) pees : (2it + pt) 4 alee ee Fag.16. Complete survey of four optine! thermodyneste cycles For all four optimal thermodynamic cycles, production of the mechanical work (je) is always the same end identical product of doth components of heat : intensity (AT) and extensity (As)16. pk aa According to Cernot, temperature difference hed (at) could be increased by means of a stronger a | fire. | According to Clausins, entropy difference _ 4| Ws) could be made lerzer by means of higher (# Pe - | compression ratio (€). Therefrom follows the engineering meaning of entropy difference , which is a logarithmic function of compression ratio, From the engineering point of view, all the power cycles are assembled from different com- bination of compression and expansion cylin- ~ ders. Further on, the piston motion in what~ ever cylinder is’ strictly defined by means of Fig.17. compression ratio (E) between the maximum and Conprossion ratio(€-vaw/iimin) Zinimum volume ( Fig.17.) causes entropy difference (45) p= Une Vinin From the thermodynamical paint of view, entropy difference (4s) ig the natural logarithm of compression ratio (ineé), multiplied with the gas constant (jR). iR.tm (Yt) = JR. OnE In such a way, compression retio (€), originating from mechan- ical engineering, is nothing else but entropy difference (4s) in the light of themodynamicsl theory. Accordingly, in a certain sense, entropy has a very perceptible end tangible mechanicel mean- ing like screws, rivets, or whetever other pert of mechinery. Finelly, the transformation of heat into mechenical work,ini- [4] tiated by the Cernot principle (AT), was completed by Clausius entropy difference (As). Dissasambiing heat in two parts, Clau- [+] sius interpreted heat like other kinds of energy, for example me- chanical or electric energy. In the clessic technical units, two components of mechanical energy are expressed in meters and kilo- grems, electricel energy is composed fron Volts end Anpers, while the heet energy comprises Kelvin degrees and kilocalories. However, it was a creat dilemma in this field earlier, before the Second Law. How is it possible that each of two other kinds of energy ere assembled from two components, while heat energy wag considered indivisible ? Although nobody put this question explicitly, something was evidently missing.Finally, both compo- nents of heat were defined and joined together by Clausius in the Second Mein Law of thermodynamics. WI. CONCLUSION The third shape of the Second Law divides the heat into two main components: tempereture and entropy. Temperature difference means intensity, while entropy difference means extensity of the heat en- crazy. Both components of heat can be inteereted into a sincle quan— tity of heat, according to the differential expression of the Sec- ond Mein Law’ : q= fr. The same law after inteeretion sounds as follows : ge % Mina) -Ca* — aS) Finally, this third shepe is the proper end dingle form of the Second Main Law. The remaining, so a fi are only modi ticetrone na inet, 89, called first and second shapes, : ‘er Well known thermodynamic rules.don- sequently, they can’t b, ie vi rules.Con the Second Law. ¢ Considered as some particular shapes of6] tm 8. (3.) fo.) CARNOT CLAPEYRON CLAUSIUS CLAUSIUS ERICSSON FERGUSON FERMI GIFFARD JOULE KIRK MOLLIER PLANCK REITLINGER STIRLING THOMSON $.P. ‘THOMSON W, ware UNER Ae REFERENCES Reflections sur la puissence motrice du feu Chez Bachelier, Librarie, Paris, 1824 Memoire sur la puissance motrice de 1a chaleur Journal de 1’Bcole Royale Polytechnique, Bachelier, Librarie, Paris,1834 (p.153-188) Ueber einen Grundsatz der mechanischen Wrmetheorie PoggendorfrAnnalen,30.Band, 1863 (S.426-452) Ueber verschiedene ftir die Anwendung bequeme For- nen der Haupteleichungen der mechanischen Wirme~ theorie Poggendorff Annelen, B4.125,1865 (S.335-400) Ericsson’g caloric engine Wechanics Megazine, No 535,Nov.1833, (p.85) John Ericsson and the age of caloric Suithsonien Institute Bulletin (USA) No.228, 1961 Thermodynamics - Dover Publications, Ine. New York,1936 Machine a air froid et a glace Prench Patent No.119057/1877 On the air engine Philosophical Tronsaction,1852, (pp.65-77) On the mechanical production of cold Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol-XXXVII, London 1874 (pp.244-269) Thermodynamics Atles 1, Longmans, London,1967 Evolution of the heat engine,Longmans,London,1972 Stirling Motor, history-theory-practice Zagreb University Publications,L1D, Zagreb,1991 Neue Diagramme sur technischen Wirmelehre Zeitschrift des Vereins deutscher Ingenieure Band 48, Februar 1904 ( 8.271-275) Yorlesungen ueber Thermodynemik Verlag von Veit und Comp., Leipzig, 1897 Ueber Kreisprocesse mit zwei isotermischen Curven Zeit. Ver.0esterreichische Ingenieure ,1874 (8.245-252) Improvements for diminishing the consumption of fuel, and in particular an engine capable of being applied to the moving machinery on a prin- ciple entirely new. British Patent No. 4081/A.D.1616 The Life of William Thomson Macmillan end Co. Ltd. London 1910 On a Universel Tendency in Nature to the Dissipa~ tion of ifechanicel Energ: :. 5 y Phil.Hegazine Vol.4., 1851/52., (pp304-306) The seperate condenser A Science gem ionograph, London 1969 Technische Themaodynamik Verleg von Arthur Felix, Leipzig, 1687