Igor Stravinsky (1882 - 1913) Despite the fact that Stravinsky composed numerous works after The Rite of it is for this revolutionary score for which he will probably best be remembered. i (Subtitled “Picture of Pagan Russia”) is a ballet in two parts, Part I being “The Fertility of the Earth,” and Part If, “The Sacrifice.” ‘The eight subsections of Part I are “Introduction,” “Dance of the Youth and Maidens,” “Dance of Abduction,” “Spring Rounds,” “Games of the Rival Cities,” “Entrance of the Celebrant,” “The Kiss to the Earth,” and “Dance to the Earth.” The six subsections of Part Il are “Introduction” (The Pagan Night), “Mystic Circle of the Adolescents,” “Dance to the Glorified One,” “Evocation of Ancestors,” “Ritual Performance of the Ancestors,” and “Sacrificial Dance.” The scenario of the ballet deals with primitivistic rites and rituals as they pertain to the advent of spring, with the culminating rite being the sacrifice of a young virgin, who must dance until her death in order to propitiate the gods and bring about the fertility of the earth Although the idea for this ballet was conceived by Stravinsky as early as 1910, it did not come to fruition until May of 1913, when its premiere performance took place in Paris. Besides Diaghilev, who oversaw the entire production, and Stravinsky, who composed the musical score, the principal contributors to that first production were Roerich, an artist who created the paganistic scenery and costumes; Monteux, who conducted the orchestra; and Nijinsky, who served as choreographer. What took place that gvening has been writen about at great length by many authors. In shor a major part of the audience reacted negatively, displaying their annoyance vociferously and vulgarly. This in tum, led to many counter-reactions, which ineluctably led to fighting and rioting between the two factions. Amazingly enough, all the performers were able to persevere despite the high noise level and general state of confusion, and the performance was completed without any forced stops. ‘Why was there such a display of hostility to this work of art, which many people now consider to be the landmark of twentieth century music? In his book, An Introduction to Twentieth Century Music, Peter Hansen has provided the following explanation of that audience's behavior: They (the audience) were repelled by the utter lack of charm and prettnes ofthe production. Ballet had been traditionally colorful and gorgeous, with beautiful dancers in magnificent costumes portraying characters ina fir tale allo the sound of charming music. There was none of this in ‘TheRiteotSpring. The dancers were dressed in dark brown burlap sacks and their gesture were rough and angular. The music was shatteringly dissonant and the rhythmic life ofthe score was brutal. It seemed a ifthe very foundations of music and al ofthe cultured refinemens ofthe ages ‘were being attacked > There are obviously several factors involved in the evaluation of any work of art, but one of the most important has to do with how well the work in question accomplishes what is intended. If the audience of that opening night's performance of “The Rite” had 9926 considered this aspect, there might have been a more receptive reaction, for the intention of its creators was Oriliantly effectuated in terms of scenario, scenery, costumes, dance movement, and most of all, Stravinsky's music which is replete with primitivisms of all sorts. ‘To begin with, Stravinsky, obviously aware of rhythm’s preeminence in primitive music, elevated rhythm in this score to such a point that it became the most vital element of the music. At times, such as during “Dance of the Adolescents” or “Dance to the Earth,” Stravinsky used the orchestra, or pars of it to simulate a gigantic primitive drum, savagely beating out jagged patterns. This effect is best produced in passages of unison rhythms played staccato. Stravinsky's predilection for alternating meter is also very much in evidence from the beginning to Reend of this work. For example, in the opening fourteen measures there are nine changes of meter, as well as five different tempo markings. Other rhythmic effects, such as unexpected accents, shifting accents, sudden stops, and cross rhythms likewise abound in this music, all of which contribute greatly to the extremely dynamic and unsettling quality of “The Rite.” As to the element of melody, Stravinsky remained faithful to the primitive style, for he created melodies that are consistently very narrow in range (primitive melodies played on instruments had to have been narrow in range because of the limitations of primitive instruments), dominated by grace notes, and usually based on motivés which are repeated frequently, sometimes almost incessantly. Almost any melody of this work fils this description, starting with the opening melody played by the bassoon in an unusually high range. Also found in great abundance throughout “The Rite” are ostinatos. One brilliant usage of an ostinato occurs in “Games of the Rival Cities” and “Entrance of the Celebrant” (Sections 5 and 6 of Part 1). Here, Stravinsky uses one ostinato figure in both sections, with a slight variation when the sections change, Thus, by means of a single ostinato, Stravinsky was able to achieve order amid the frenzied chaos of "Games" and create unity between that section and its immediate successor by binding the two sections thematically. In the realm of harmony, “The Rite” broke new ground in its bold use of polytonality, for polytonality does not occur in this work in an isolated chord or phrase, but in Jong extended sections. This new harmonic approach was not introduced for the sake of novelty, however, but was employed logically to depict some phase of the scenario. Stravinsky was artistically justified, for example, when he used polytonality to musically paint the two competing factions in “Games.” ‘Stravinsky had already defined the two ‘competing groups instrumentally (horns plus bassoons vs. strings plus other woodwinds), but assigning each group to a different harmonic plane greatly enhanced that dichotomy. 4 “The Rite” calls for a very large orchestra, with each instrumental family consisting of high and low relatives of the commonly used instruments; the clarinet family includes both an Eb clarinet and a bass clarinet, as well as the usual clarinets in A and Bb. Two instruments which are especially well represented in number are the timpani, of which there are four, and the French horn, of which there are eight. Despite the availability of large numbers, Stravinsky did not overly indulge in masses of sounds, but reserved the power of the full orchestration for occasional climactic moments of the score. Of course, when that power is unleashed, itis staggering. Throughout much of the score there is a purity, or near-purity, of tone color, which is perfectly in a with the primitive nature of the work. In a discussion of the orchestration of “ ive,” Austin says that the orchestration tends to Keep the choirs27 distinct, with a minimum of overlapping or blending. Also worthy of note are some of the instrumental effects called for by Stravinsky. For instance, oboes and clarinets have Pasjages in which flutter tonguing is called for. Strings, at times, are bowed near the ridge, rather than in the usual place, and glissandos in strings and brasses are rather gommon. Also, homs are sometimes to be played with their bells facing upward, rather than behind the players in order to further enhance the savagery of the music. AAutention must be focused on one final aspect of this extraordinary work, the one jpbich allows “The Rite” to succeed so convincingly: namely, the overall arrangement Of the sections. The order of the sub-sections was arrived at with the keenest of artistic discretion, for each section, with its own duration, tempos, sonorities, textures, and so forth, is presented at a time which permits optimum effectiveness. Igor Stravinsky was one of the most successful composers of all time, both in degree and longevity, for after having been suddenly catapulted to fame in 1910 on the strength of his he was to remain at the top of his profession until his death sixty- (One years later. ‘Relatively few composers throughout the history of music have managed 1a2tsin any measure of fame during their own lifetimes, but even those who did, rarely bad the opportunity to savor their taste of fame for so extended a period of time, Stravinsky's achievement was, indeed, a singular one. What made Stravinsky's music all the more remarkable was the fact tha i was characterized by serena major stylistic changes ~ along the way. This dynamic aspect of his career points out Stravinsky's high level of aristc integrity and courage. Offering the public more of what han already been proven acceptable and desirable would have been so much easier a path to follow than that of Struggling through new esthetic problems, completely unaware of what the public of critical reaction might. be. Stravinsky was born in the little Russian town of Oraniebaum, where his well-to-do father bad a country estate. His father, Feodor, was a famous opera singer in Russia, consequently, Igor was brought up in a musical environment. At the age of nine, the young Stravinsky began to study the piano and attend various musical programs. AS the Yeats passed, his appetite for music grew to such an exient that there was very litle of interest for him outside of music, Despite his father's musical career and his own strong Piclination for music, his parents insisted that he study law at the University of St Petersburg. The only benefit that he derived from the St. Petersburg experience was that he befriended Viedimir Rimsky-Korsakov, son of the famous composer. Through this relationship, Stravinsky was able to meet, and ultimately study with, this master of orchestration, who not only helped to develop the young man's musical skills, but also arranged public performances of Stravinsky's earliest major compositions. It should be noted, however, that most of what Stravinsky leamed in the areas of harmony and ‘counterpoint was self-taught. It wasn't long after the “howling” success of “The Rite” that World War I erupted. Stravinsky spent those four war years in Switzerland, a neutral country, where he ‘experienced poverty for the first time. For during this period, the Russian Revolution of {917 tok place, thus cutting off Stravinsky's income from land holdings in Russia, Also, because of the severity of the times, there was very little money available to the arts. Ttwag during this period that L'Histoire du Soldat (to be discussed in Chapier 7) was composed. arte, orld War I. Stravinsky took up residence in France, eventually becoming a citizen of that country. During the 1920's and 1930's he recovered economically, gaining considerable fame from his numerous compositions, some of which Sumphony of Psalm 10123 and Jeu de Cartes) were: premiered in the United States. With the rise of fascism and Naziism in Europe, and World War If on the horizon, Stravinsky emigrated to the United States in 1939, settling in California, and becoming a citizen in 1945. Some of Stravinsky's most significant compositions were created during this “American” period, especially The Rake’s Progress (1951), an opera in the neo-classical style. ___Tust as. his friend and artistic counterpart Picasso was to move through many different periods of artistic creation, such as a rose period, a blue period, and a cubistic period, so too did Stravinsky pass through several periods. Starting with the neo-romantic style, he also composed rae that were inspired by jazz (Ebony Concerto). Finally, while in his seventies, several years after most people have retired, Stravinsky started to experiment and compose in the 12-tone idiom (Canticum Sacrum), am approach to composition for which he had formerly expressed great contempt, Throughout the years, the artistic pendulum has continued to swing back and forth between the classical and romantic approaches. The classical approach to art involves such uate as objectivity, detachment and individual restraint, and the composer who uses is approach usually composes according to schedule rather than inspiration. Stravinsky's appreach to composition was clearly ‘classical. Rejecting the concept of inspiration, iravinsky claimed to create according to an appetite for composing. In fact, it is well known that he enjoyed the act of composing considerably more than the music itself, Once through with a composition, be would put it aside immediately and anxiously become involved with a new “problem.” z Stravinsky's legacy not only includes the large number of compositions that he wueathed 10 us, but also a number of books that he wrote, either alone or in collaboration with author-musician, Robert Craft. Some of these works include: i i 1936), Poetics of Music: In the i (1947), Conversations with Igor (1959) by Stravinsky and Craft, and Themes and Episodes (1966) by Sweavinsky and Craft, Few artists have taken so much of their precious time fo ransat their innermost thoughts and esthetic beliefs as did Stravinsky, For both his music and his prose writings, this century is deeply indebted to Igor Stravinsky. 1 Yeolated items had made their way to Europe hundreds of yeas earlier. a 2 Robert Goldwater, Primitivism In Modern Art, Revised Edition (New York: Vintage Books, 196, p 5. 3 Peter Hansen, An Introduction To Twentieth Century Music (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1978), pp.48-49. 4 Students interested in gaining further insight into the harmony of The Rite of Spring are urged 10 read pp. 253-254 of William W. Austin's Music In The 20th Century, for at this time Austin discusses seven major chordal passages.Chapter 7 Retro-Classicism: Stravinsky and Milhaud Although they are probably necessary, or at the very least convenient, labels for art ‘movements are seldom accurate and frequently confusing. This is especially true of the label “neo-classicism.” The ideals of classicism have risen to positions of preeminence at recurring intervals throughout man’s history, cach time (except the first) justifying the name “neo-classicism.” In most books dealing with art history or the Humanities, Neo- Classicism is the appelation attached to the art of the eighteenth century and early part of the nineteenth century, epitomized by the works of such greats as Mozart and David. The ‘same label, however, is generally used to indicate the predominant art styles that emerged at the conclusion of World War I abd persisted until World War Il. In order to avoid a name- dileruma, the term “retro-classicism” is hereby introduced to refer to the artistic classicism of the twentieth century. Why was there a return to the ideals of classicism for many twentieth century artists? What has characterized retro-classical art? To begin with, the so called artistic pendulum has consistently swung back and forth between the two basic approaches (0 art; namely, classical and romantic. ‘The time of ancient Greece and Rome, for example, was, indeed, a Classical age. The Middle Ages, which followed, was romantic. ‘The next artistic period, the Renaissance, was classically oriented, while its successor, the Baroque, ‘was romantic. After the Baroque came the Classical period (the late eighteenth century), which, in turn, was succeeded by a romantic epoch. ‘Twentieth century classicism represents just one more such swing, as the nineteenth century was the most romantic of romantic eras, referred to universally as the Romantic Period. Aware that the epitome of romanticism had already been arrived at in the art works of the late nineteenth century artisis, twentieth century artists had few alternative routes to pursue other than a classical one, if their art was to be viable and not a mere continuation or perpetuation of the immediate past. One alternative artistic route during the two decades in question (the twenties and the thirties) was pure abstract art, but this type of art was unable to flourish (although it ‘was practiced 10 degree) for various reasons. First of all, some artists had neither the spirit nor the inclination to totally do away with representationalism. More importantly, however, was the fact that in a number of countries, artists were literally prohibited from indulging in art of a pure abstract nature. Russian governmental leaders in the 1930's, for example, saw the function of art as one of propaganda; hence the art that they demanded had to be very realistic in order to be most effective. In Germany and Italy, the situation ‘was similar, as art again became a tool of propaganda. Artists who believed in “art for art’s sake” in these countries were prejudiced and discriminated against by Hitler (who went so far as to close down the famous avant-garde instuton, the Bauhaus, in 1933) and ussolini.38 After dadaism and surrealism of the twenties, even France entered into a conservative period, the harbinger of which was the neo-classical period of this century's most outstanding artist, Pablo Picasso (1881-1937). A few examples of Picasso's neo- classicism are Pipes of Pan (1923) and Three Graces (1924). The United States, meanwhile, was receptive to modemnistic trends during most of the 1920's but the mood and artistic climate in this country changed abruptly to one of ultra conservatism at the end of the 1920's and throughout the 1930's; the change was triggered by the Great Depression of 1929. Consequently, the period between, the wars saw most ants of the western world react against the subjective indulgences, “shmaltzy” emotionalism, long-windedness, and ‘avishness of the nineteenth century, primarily by looking backward to a more distant past of artistic ideals and applying modernisms (cubism, degrees of abstraction, et.) whenever possible. Piet Mondrian (1872-1946), a leading twentieth artist, expressed himself as if he were living at the height of the Age of Reason when he said “all artists ought to help create @ common plastic art suited to the needs of an organic society, an art of such universal harmony that its absolute principles could be applied, like natural laws, to all artifacts, man made and used.” Daniel Robbins describes Mondrian’s style as Follows: “Mondrian’s style, forged during World War I and developed during the next twenty years, emphasized composition, structure, and unshakable pictorial unity.”2 Consequently, the art of the retro-classicists was likely to be representational (in varying degrees), intellectually Conceived rather than emotionally induced, carefully structured, objective in approach, artistically unified, and economical in means. Despite the emergence of the twelve-tone technique of composition in the early 1920's, it was the retro-classical style that reigned supreme from about 1918 to the early 1940's in the world of music. Characteristics of retro-classicism. Some of the outstanding characteristics of musical retro-classicism are listed and briefly discussed below. 1. Economy of means. Usually ensembles ranging in number of players from three to twenty-five, were favored above large symphony orchestras. 2. Melodic and rhythmic prominence. In both romanticism and impressionism, ‘harmony was a far more important element of music than melody or rhythm, but in retro-classical music this situation became reversed, 3. Clarity, All aspects of music increased significantly in clarity. Melodies and thythms became considerably more pronounced; tone colors, because of the reduction of instruments, became more easily distinguishable; musical textures became more obvious; and structural aspects, such as phrasing and cadences, became very discernible. 4. Polytonality. Because of the widespread usage of polytonality, the music of the retro-lassicisis is dominated by dissonances, oftentimes of a “biting” ot “spicy” nature, 10439 5, Jazz. With the sudden sscendancy of jazz and raguime in the world of music syncopated figures and other “jazzy” feaiures, such as the “bending” of tones, became popular with the retro-classicists. 6. Asentimentality. Most retro-classical music is almost completely devoid of sentimentality, 7. Abstraction. A considerable amount of the retro-classical music is of the absolute variety, in that there is no story or extra musical ideas depicted. To enhance absohiteness, the retro-classicists oftentimes turned to such abstract forms as the fugue or the suite. & Tone colors. Colors produced by wind instruments, especially the woodwinds, ‘came to be the most popular ones found in retro-classicat music. Also noteworthy here is the fact that as the cole of rhythm increased, so too was there an increased importance of percussion parts. 9, Dissonant counterpoint. As emphasis shifted from “the chord” to the melodic line, and from emotionalism to intellectualism, itis easy to see why dissonant counterpoint became a dominant feature of retro-classical music. It would serve no purpose to lst the myriad composers who have created musical works in the retro-classical Wiom, but the few that appear in the following list clearly Tnuicate how geographically widespread the movement became: Copland and Piston of USA. Prokoficy of Russia, Busoni of Italy, Briten of England, Bartok of Hungary, and Hindemith of Germany. Two of the first and most significant exponents of retro Classicism were Stravinsky and Milhaud; hence a brief discussion of a representative work by each of these two giants will ensue. Igor Stravinsky (1882 - 1971) ____ Although it was not Stravinsky's first work in the new style ‘LiHlistoire du Soldat is certainly the most popular and successful of that composer's creations ‘between The Rite and > The work was originally conceived by Stravinsky and Ramuz, a friend, as a stage piece involving narration, acting, and dance, as Wells music scored for the violin, bass violin, clarinet, bassoon, trumpet, trombone and 2 variety of percussion instruments 1 be performed by onc player. ‘This composition 6s Tntentonally small in dimension for two reasons, both of which are clearly pointed out by Joan Peyser in her book, ic. “This economy was parly due to artistic considerations - where could he go after The Rite ok ‘Spring? But it was also caused by financial ‘conditions: Stravinsky wanted his music performed. (Even the Ballet Russe had serious financial problems during World War 13 Although the planned tour for “L'Histoire” never took place because Stravinsky became very ill shorty after the work was completed and was hospitalized with influenza ead the work has rarely been dramatized upon the stage as originally intended, the music emains one of the most popular works of the chamber repertory. The “L’Histoire” suite has a duration of about eighteen minutes, and is comprised of the following nine sections: 1.) “The Soldier's March,” 2.) “Soldier at the ‘Brook,” 3.) Spastorale,” 43, “The Royal March,” 5.) “The Little’ Concert,” 6.) “Three Dances: 10540 ‘Tango, Waltz, and Ragtime,” 7.) “The Devil’s Dance,” 8) “Chorale,” and 9.) “The Devil's Triumphal March.” The story related in this work, loosely based on Russian folk tales, was created by both Savinsky and Ramuz. It is a Faustian tale in that the story involves a man (the Soldier) who sells his soul to the Devil in return for favors. The Soldier is represented ‘musically by the violin, while the Devil is represented by the drums, a fact that is especially evident in the work's finale, in which the Devil's victory is depicted. The characteristics of retro-classicism listed previously are found in abundance in “Histoire” with the exception of abstraction, as this work is obviously programmatic. Highlights of “LHistoire™ include the frequent usage of double-stopping in the violin part (wo strings are bowed simultaneously), the high degree of virtuosity demanded (especially the triple tonguing required of the trumpet player in “The Royal March”), consistent employment of ostinatos throughout the work (some solo ostinato passages found in “The Soldier's March” were meant to accompany narrations), the influence of jazz (the inclusion of “Ragtime”, jazzy rhythms, etc.), the recurrence of thematic material, which unifies and strengthens the compositions greatly, and the constant changing of meter throughout. (For example: There are fifty-seven changes of meter in the one hundred and twelve measures of “Triumphal March of the Devil,” or, in other words, the meter changes approximately every two measures.)