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    Lefevere 1992 PDF

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    7 Translation Studies General editors: Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame 1 the sme sre: “Translation/History/Caltare A Sourcebook Eaited by André Lefevre André Lefevere ‘parunos ondon and New York Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame “This book deals with those inthe middle, the men and women ‘who do not write literature, but rete. Teshows how rewriting vqanslation,anthologistion, historiography, citi, editing “fafluences the reception and canonization of works of iterate iv also shows how rewritings manipulate works of Kiteature to ‘arious ideological and poctological ends ‘Firmly placing the production and reeeption of Titeraure within the wider frmework of culture and its istry, Andié Teleyere provides a rvalorizatign of Ierature’s social and historical context in a post Marist sense. He also gives & Controversial view of sac Iteary sacred cows as “originality “Inspiration,” and “aesthesie excellence” ‘The book ranges widely across various literatures, including Classical Latin, French, and German, and will appeal to students and specialise iersied in iterary cheory, comparative literature, Iiterary History and translation studies André Lefevere teaches in the Departments of Germanic Languages and Comparative Literatire at the University of “Texas at Austin iw pubis 1992 br Routledge 1 New eter Lane, London ECAP 4B Simuleaneouay published a he USA and Canada avin of Rouge, Chapman and Hal, ie: © 12 Andie Lelevre “ype in 10 om 12pm Racker by Witwell Li, Souhpoe Phi in Great Brita by lays Li, 3 Tver ple en Al sight reerved. No part of this book may be reprinted ‘Reproduced or led in any atin or by any econ mechanical, Srodher means now know or hee invented, Sch Bhotocopring nd cording. on any iloreton storage or Fereval stem, withou parison i wring rn the pele Brith Liber Calaloguing in Publication Dats Teter Ane “Tranation, rewriting andthe manipulation of teary lane Chae simoe Library of Congress Caaoging in Publication Calves “Trasation ring, ad ierary fame And Lelevee Ietsesbibligraphtalrelrences ad dex "Tranating nd nupreing 2 Crim, Texts. §. Canon teat) t "Te DNs “ioe cr ISBN 0-415-07700-1 (pbk) Contents General editors’ preface “The sytem: patronage “The sytem: poetics “Translation: the categories Lifelines, nove, lege handles: the Lysisteta of Aristophanes 5 Translation: ideology (On the construction of different Anne Franks 6 Translation: poetics ‘The eae of the missing qesdeh 17 Translation: Universe of Discourse “oly Gazbage, tho by Homer cook {8 Translation: language Catal’ many sparrows 9 Historiography From bescller to nom pemon: Willem Godschalk van Focquenbroch 10. Anthology Anthologting Alvis 11 Gram Beyond her gender: Madame de Sail 8 7 mM 1m be Contents 12 Easing 150 Salvation dough mutilation: Buchna's Danton's Death _Relerences 161 Index 170 General editors’ preface ‘The growth of Translation Seudies asa separate dicipline isa succes ory of the 1980s. The subject hat developed in many part of the world and is clay destined to continue developing ‘well into the ist century. Translation studies brings wget ‘work in'a wide variety of feds, including linguistics, Uiterary Study, history, anthropology, psychology and economic. This teres of book will reflect the brea of work in Translation Studies and will enable readers to share in the exciting new Alevelopment that ate taking place atthe present time “Translation is, of cours, a rewriting of an original txt. l revritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and { postice andar such manipulate iterate to Function ina given foiety ina given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in ite postive aspect can help in the cvolution of literature anda soeiery. Rewritings can introduce fnew concepts, new genres, new devices and the hisory of translation isthe history also of iterary innovation, ofthe shaping power of one culture upon another. But rewriting an also repress Innovation, distor and contain, and i an age of ever increasing ‘manipulation of all kins, the study ofthe manipulation pro- ‘eset of literature as exemplified by wanslaion can help us towards greater awareness af the world in which we live ‘Since this seria of books on Trandation Sudiesis dhe fist of its kind, it will be concerned with its owm genealogy. It will publish texte ftom the past tht illustrate its concerns in the present and. will publish texts of & more theoretical nature Immediately addzesring those concerns, along wills case studies iMusuating manipulation Uwough rewsiung in various liter lures Iwill be comparative in nature and wall range through ik Goneral etn’ pretace many literary tations both Westen and non-Western, ‘Through the concepts of rewriting and manipulation, thi series aime Yo tackle the problem of ideology, change and power in literature and society and 10 asst the cenial function of © ranslation a a shaping foee Susan Basnet edit Lelevere 1990, Chapter 1 Prewrite kis am amusement for me wo take what Liberties 1 lke with these Persians, who (as T think) are not Poets enough to frighten one (ora such excutsons, and who really do want x le Arto shape them, (award F eral x) ‘This book deals with those in the mide, the men and women who do not weit literature, but rewrite it doce 9 bese they at, at present, responsible forthe general reception and survival of works of literature among non-professional readers, who Constitute the great majarity of readers in our global culture, to at leat the same, if not a greater extent than the writers hem selves. ‘Whatis usually referred to as “the intrinsic value” of a work of literature plays much les of a pare in this than is usualy assumed. Asis well known, the poetry of John Donne remained relatively unknown and wngead from few decades after hi death nul his sedisconery by T-. Eliot and other modernists. Yevitis ‘fe to assume thatthe “intrinsic value” of his poems must have been the same all along, milly, many “forgotten” feminist classes originally published inthe twenties, tities, nd fore of our century have been republished in the late seventies and eights, The actual content ofthe novels was, presumably, no less feminist hen than {tis now, since we ate dealing with exacly the same texts. The resin why the republished feminist classics ae nor forgotten all, (ver agai Hes notin Use intrinsic value of the texts themsloes, or even the (possible) lack thereof, but in the fact that they are ‘ow being published aginst the background of an impresive 2 Transition, Rewrtng. ad the Meipuation of Literary Fame anay of feminist criticism, which advertises, incorporates, and Sppors them, Whoever identifi the goal of literary studies as such with the Jnerprtation of texts will either have no explanation for these Phenomena, oF else have somewhat embarassed recoure 10 ‘ague notions such as fat. Tis my contention that the proces resulting in the acceptance oF rejection, canonization or non ‘anonization of literary works is dominated not by vague, but by ‘ery concrete factors that ae relatively cay to discern a on ‘one decides to look for them, that is a so0m as one eachews inerpreation asthe care of itera studies and begins to adaess issues such a power, ideology institation, and manipulation. As soon as one does this, one alo realizes that rewriting in all ts forms eecupies a dominant position smmong the concrete factors jut referred to, This book isan attempt to enyphasize both the Importance of rewriting a8 the motor force behind Wieray olution, and the necessity for further in-depth study of the ‘henomenon. Rewriters have always been with ws, from the Greek slave who, put rogether anthologies of the Greek classice to teach the thiléen of his Roman masters, to the Renaissance scholar who collated various manuscripts and scraps of manucripts (0 publish a more or les reliable edition of a Greek or Roman’ ‘lassi: fom the seventeenth-centary compilers of the fis histor- ies of Greek and Lati literature not wo be writen i either Greek or Latin, tothe nineicendncentury criti expounding the weet fness and the light contained in works of classical or modern literature © an increasingly uninterested audience; trom the \wentieth century translator trying to "bring the original across" caltures, sr 0 many generations of translators ied before, tthe tsentictveencury compiler of "Reader's Guides” that provide {uick reference tothe authors and books that should ave been {ead at pat ofthe education ofthe non-professional reader, but 0 increasingly unread. : Their ole has changed, though, and fr wo main reasons the fd ofa period in atleast Western civilization i which the book ‘ecupied a central position in both the teaching of writing and the tansmission of values, and the eplit between “high” and Tow" Tivrature that began to take place toward roughly the mide of the nineteenth century, and led to's concomitant split Prowite 3 between “high” and “low” writing about Wterature, “high” and “law rewriting Im his 1985 Presidential Address othe members ofthe Modern Language Assocation of Ameria, J Hillis Miller observed that “our common culture, however mich we might wish it were not so, is ess and lessa book culture and more and more a caleare of ‘nema, television, and popular music” (285) Profesional readers of literature (1 use the term to designate both teachers a stadeats of literature) recognine the development that is taking place, and they may privately react wo this state of affairs wit {ndignation, , lierary sytem for that sytem to be or remain fonetional. In other words, the iterary system is supposed to have an impact on he environment by means of the works i produces, ofthe rewriingsthetot If these expectations are not ‘het or ven consistently frustrated, patrons ar ely vo demand fr, at leas, actively encourage dhe production of works of Titerature more likely comet their expectations: "the necessity to increase the arousal potential of aesthetic products over time inexorably comes down toa presure to increase novel, incon {gruity and othe cllative variables” (Martindale 22) In systems with dilfrentined patronage the result is the increasing fragmentation of the reading public into a relative profusion of subjroups In systems with undilferentated paton fage, on the other hand, readers expectations are more restricted [scope and the “right” inerprtation of various works wens to the emphasized by means of various types of rewriting. Inthe fourth and. filth centuries of the Common Era rewriting Was applied on a large sale to classical Greek and Latin Ieature, bhsicaly to allegorte i to such an extent in the serice of the nevrly dominant ideology of Christianity that je would become acceptable «a the new patrons and thus escape destruction. (idysseus on his voyage hom, it was shown, “realy” represented 24 _Tranaiation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame the soul om its pilgrimage to heaven, and the “divine child” ‘roked by Virgil in his ith eclogue, merely meanttocelebratean Impending happy event in the family of Augustus, which subsequently failed to materialise, was waersingly dentifcd with hrsthimsele. The latter rewriting wat largely responsible or Vingl's enhanced status a5 2 proto-Chrstan all through the Middle Ages asi evident om his selection as Dante's guide it the first swo books of the Commedia. A corresponding Marxist allegorization has been appli to writes of the ninctenth ‘century by eitics lke Georg Lukes, who persisted in claiming that Balzac, say, was “objectively” 2 progressive social analyst and social’ commentator even though relatively few readers ‘would, admittedly, be able to see this on the mee surface ef his work, which had obviously been waiting forthe "right "interpre: IC literary system resists change altogether, it i likely to wird erat, da in den-Baracken alles ducheinaader scl’ [lar oo few washing facies and toilets available Iti said that they al sleep together in the barracks} (36-7) The tandation suggests that dere are more washrooms than just the one ofthe ‘original, and the immpace ofthe “sleeping togeter” in a dise ‘ordery fashion is weakenel bythe addition of i ssid ‘Theres ofthe description, conceming the consejuences ofthe state ofalairs just mentioned, is imply omited in the an Tavion. Anne’ Frank writes ons "men hoot deatdoor van verreguande zedeloosheid, ele vrouwen en meses, die er wat Tanger verb houden, an in verwaching” [therefore you hear of farseaching immorality: many worn and girls who say 68 Transation, Rewriting and the Manipusion of trary Fame + Transition: teology 6 there fora longer peviod of ime are pregnant] (Paspe 290). 1 this lactis not mentioned in the translation, the Germans whose families and descendants aze supposed t0 tead the Tagebuch, also, quit logically, didnot gas any pregnant women or girls ‘Ausehit Tm the diary, Anne Prank i very upset bythe German policy of shooting hostages, which she devcriber a follows: “act de Gestapo doodigewoon een stuk of gijelars tegen de mut” [he Gestapo simply puts 5 hostages or so against the wall} (Paape 282) "The translation weakens this to "dann hat maa einen Grund, eine Ansabl dieser Geiseln zu erschiesen [they then have a reason wo shoot a number of thee hostages} Sch $7), "Trhey" instead ofthe dreaded "Gestapo makes the descrpaion| sean somewhat es trile, and “shoot instead of "puts against the wall” “elevates the ac to a more abifact level ‘Similarly, he person who might dacover the set entrance 10 the place where Anne ander family ate hiding, grows in Anne's imagination imo "een teus en hij was z'n fascist alse geen fengre bestat™ (a giant, and he was such 2 fascist, no worse exists} (Paape 208) In German, the person has simply become ‘nen uniberwindlichen ‘Riesen” [an unconquerable giant), (Sehte 39, The Tascist has disappearet from the German text Sos not o depres its sales. An analogous omision occurs in the translation of Anne Frank's statement on the languages spoken in the hideout! “ocgestaan ajn alle cltwurtalen, dus, geen uit” fall civilized languages are allowed, so. no German} (Paape $80). The German translation reads: “alle ulurspe cen, aber lise [all eilized languages, but slly] (Shit 46), “Anneliese Schite uses omission to Larter polities fand econ comic) advantage. Whete Ane Frank writes: de motfen niet er ‘ote komen” [aot come to the eats ofthe Krss}(Paape 490, the German translation reads: “den ‘Moffen” nicht tu Ohten Koramen” [nt to come to the ear ofthe "Motte (Schte 19), A footnote explains "Motien” as a “Spotiname far die Deuts chen” [abusive name for the Germans) (Sehate 4). "Mot" plural "Motte," was indeel the wartime “abusive name” forthe Germans In the Dutch text, dhereore, “Molen” har quite an Impact on he reader. That mmpac is undercut pn German simply bythe non-transation of the term. To a" German reader, “"Moffen" tends to sound “exote,” even when supplemented bya footnote, and not realy insulting. ot cincidentally the mean, gressive cat inthe warehouse is called "Moll" by the inhabitants of the hideout. German readers, who cither donot know whata "Mot" is until they reac page 114, and/or think of “Mot” as exotic aftr they have been enlightened, are likely to mass the point of the nsule. Logically, the “Motfen” live in "Motirika” (Paape 608), which Sci leaves untanslate” It bocomes “"Bocheland™” in. English (Gooyaart Doubleday 210) and “les Roches” in French (Caten land Lombard 253). ‘The cat duly becomes “Bochi" in French (Caren and Lombard 91) and “Woche” in English (Mooyaare Doubleday 68. Te English translation sometimes tris to convey the fact hat ‘he Franks and the other in hiding with them, all being German refugees, did not really speak standand. Dutch brat rather a ‘mixture of Dutch and German, more Dutch than German in the ‘cate of the chien, more German than Dutch where the parents ae concerned. Ths mixture of languages help to highlight the fact that the “eharacters™ in the diary are people who have already been uprooted once and are now hiding trom their former countrymen in moral fear of het lives. None of this is conmeyedby the German translation, Dus, for instance, say the original: "Du Aannet det tach van aaj sannemen. Het kan ‘mij natuurlje niet achelen, aber Du must het rif weten” {German ieaticined) You eas take this room ane. I. dows not ‘mater to me, ofcourse, bul yx must know for yourel] (Pape 412) Mooyaart-Doubleday, the English translator, ties: "But die hans ake tis from me. Natarally I don't care abit, aber di ‘must know for yourself" (9). "Neither the German aor the’ French translator makes any attempt at all to render the mixeure of languages. Infact, Sette Scales the heights of absurdity by “tansiaing” Dure's next ‘macaronic" statement, "ich mach das schon” [1 tke care of} (Paape 502) 26 “Teh weis schon wa ich tue” [L know what Fn loin) (11). ‘Yet political, or politic-economie estures ae responsible for cone st of changes only. There is another se of chang im the German vext, also cused by ideological motivations but ofa es ‘obvious, more insidious nature. Sch consciously or lunconsciously turns Anne Frank into the cultural stereotype of the “proper” young adolescent git of a tine that had not yet, invented the wenager, “properly elucsted” as befits her social 70_Tranaation, Rewriting, snd he Manipulation of ray Fae “Tranlavon:delogy 71 status, presumably 10 make her more acceptable to a files audience First, Schite “cleans up" Anne Frank's inguage. Her frend. Hany, for instance, will notbe allowed wo sayin German what he says in Dutch, Whereas the Dutch Harry sty "Het is daar ook 2o'n rommelaoode [is such a mess. there] (Paape 221), the German Harry “echoes”: “gefiel es mirda niche” il not ike it there) (Schltr 15). People who complain about their defecation (ontasting” (Paape 26) in Dutch complain about thei digee tion ("Verdauung” [Schutz 2)) in German, ‘Alter bombing rid on Amsterdam, Anne Frank writes that it will take days before al the victims have been dug up (“opge ‘raven [Pxape 289). In German, the victims ae “gcborgen” [recovered (Schut 72) in a uch mote decorous way, Which aso takes the sting out ofthe horor. The chamber pot Anne Frank takes with he othe bathroom inthe Dutch original (Pas $9) vanishes in German. It remains quite sensibly “pot de mut” in French (Caren and Lombard 116) and becomes “pote” in English (MoojanstDoubleday 88 When Dussel begins “wrouveen-eriangens te krijgen” in Dutch {get a desire for women) (Paape 679), he gets much more decorout “Frih- Tingsgefohle” [Spring feelings] (Sehitz 184) ia German, ‘The German wanslation also completely leaves out Anne Frank's rather elaborate description of the way Mouichi, Pet's cat trinetin the ati ‘Second, Anne Frank has to behave “properly” fora child her age: She has to conform to what i considered proper cultural, behavior for the uppersmidile-classfourteen-year-old, even if that kind of “proper behavior” has been made less tha Hite ridiculous by the war and the living conditions im the hideout ‘When the Dutch Anne Frank is allowed to "tachen, tt ik er buikpija van rig” [laugh unl Feta bellyache] (Paspe 46), the German Anne Frank is only allowed to do what German children do when they laugh, a last sccording to Anneliese Schdte: "unbeschwert und gldcklichlachen” [laugh without = care and happily) (8), ‘ ‘The Dutch Anne Frank succesfully accomplishes the follow ing task "it cen lchtblauwe onderurk met kant van Mansa Inch ik cen ypermoderne dansjurk veraardigd” [from one fof Mans's (mothers) lightblue slips with lace T'made a Ihypermodern dancing dress} (Paape 460). The German Anne Frank has her mother do the same thing for er: “aus einem hellblauen Spitenkleid hat Mansa mir ein hypermodemes Tanakeid gemacht” [Mansa made mea hypermodem dance Aes fiom & light blue slip with ace of hers] (Sete 107). Thee ae other things a young gil. German or not, of Anne Fran's age and yocial status isnot suppooed to kaw oF do. ‘When Anne Frank describes the flowers she ges for he int) as "de Linderen van Flora” [dhe children of Flora] (Paape 198), ‘hereby displaying her knowledge of mythology, which one of her hobbies, Schita will have none of thie precocious name dropping in German, Anne Frank gets "Blamengrisse” [lower sreeings) (Sch 19. [No elfort is made wo reproduce in German any of the stylistic Alles Anne Frank wies to achieve in Dutch, as she does in the following example by means of the repetition of the word "koud” (old) In Dutch, children walk “van hun koude woning weg maa de koude saat em komen op school in een nog Koudere a” [rom thei cold homer the cold srcet to end up nan even colder dassroom at stool] (Paape 4). In German, the childen| ‘walk "aus der Kalten Wohnung aut die nasse, windige Suasse ‘end kommen in die Schule, in ene feuchte, unghie Klate™ [trom ter cold home wo the wet, windy suet and they arive at school ina damp, unheated classroom) (Sch 5). Fourcen-year-old girs ae also not allowed 10st in judgment on theis moter or eer sisters. Anne Frank writes in Dich that fhe woud never be satisfied with "20" bekrompen-Ievenje [such 2 Himited life] Psape 650) as her mother and Margot er der sister, seem willing to seule for. The German Anne Frank, ‘on the other hands write “son infaches Leben’ ouch a simple Tie] (Sehie 172). Finally, with a relendess logic that borders on the grteaque and shoul, properly speaking, render the whole of Anne Frank's endeavor wseles ort best, supertuous, the gitls Anneliese Schite models her Anne Frank on ae not even supposed to keep diaries. Anne Frank writes in Dutch that there fre cea things she doesnot intend “aan mand anders me dclen dan aan mijn daghoek, en cen enkele kee aan Margot” [0 ‘communicate to anyone else but my diary, and once ina while to Margot] (Paape 705) In German, Ane Frank writes that she has things he ie determined to “niemals jemandem miteutlle, Ihbcstens einmal Margor” [never communicate wo anyone, athe ‘most ence n'a while to Margot (Shit 196). The diary, the 72_Transation, Rowing and the Manipulation of Lterary Fame Chapter 6 ‘object of dhe exercise, the text read allover the world, simply Vanishes from the vanslation, sarified to the “image” of Anne Frank the German translator wishes to project. “Propee” gils also wite in a "proper" siyle. Creativity is actively discouraged in the German tanstation, When Ane Frank writes, "wejn 20 sti als babymoiser [oe ae ae quiet as baby mice) (Paape 278), the German anslation reads “Wi erhalten uns seh hig” [we ae vey quit] Sch 35) When a Ing. of beans suspend against the door of the ate buss, spilling it contents and lensing Anne standing “als en eilandjc tssen de bonengolven” [like a small island among waves of beans) (Paape S18), the translation simply describes her ss “berieset von braunen Bohnen” [bedenled by brown beans] Gehite 43) ‘When the Jews ate led to “omaindelibeslachiplaasen” [iry slaughterhouses] (Paap 368, the "dirty" obviously as to di fppear from the German uanslaion, in which the Jews are Simply “zur Schlachtbank geht led tothe slaughter bene] (GehGte 6) Finally, when the iohabitants of the hideout “ier met bange voorgevoclens tegen het grote roublok, dat winter Tet, op (look up atthe big rock called Wiser with fearful apprehension] (Paape 422), they simply "sehen mit grosier Sorge demm Winter enigegen look ahead at winter with great worry] (Schur 90. “The git! Anne Frank writing her diary has become the author ‘Anne Frank because she herself and others were constrained by ‘deological, poctological, and patronage considerations. Once ‘Anne Fran ook the decision to rewrite for pulleation what ‘Anne Frank had write, the person Anne Frank split up into person and an author, and the author begat to rewtte ia more Tterary manner wat the person had writen. hers responded 1 the consuains of ideology and patronage in her stead, and they did oan they sae fit, She had no sayin the mater That is ‘why part of her experience, very definitely a formative par, is raising trom the 1947 Dutch text, and why ae has been nade 0 conquer the whole world But the Bouin fll backer long inte his primitive way of life” (2) ‘The Arabs living in towns, om the ‘other hand, were subject 9 "thor vices which are the virtues of the primitive man ~ curing, greed. suspicion, cruelly" (2) Indeed, they have hardly changed over fourten centuries, since Huan goes on to say that those same vices “reign unchecked, even to this day, in the heart ofthe dwellers in these inaccessible ‘owns (Huan 2), Sir William. Jones takes up the opposite position, but not without betraying certain ignorance about the actual nate of the object of his admiration, when he wits ‘we must conclude cht the Arabians, being properly convers: fant with the most beautiful objects, spending a fala and agrerable lif in fine climate, being extremely addicted tothe Softer passions, and having’ the advantage of a language singulatly adapted to porry, ust be naturally exellent post (to: 340) His panceyric is surpased only by that of FE. Johnson, an early translator of the qavidahs, who characterizes the pretsamie ‘Arabs a this nation, which was destined by God 10 rise wo great, Importance later on, and to sucered the Romans in presiding ‘over the destinies of great part ofthe world» deserves all praise forthe high tate of culture, civiliation and advance ‘ment which its people avained by means of self-development of thase superior literary faculties with which ic had plese God to endow then i) ‘rarwaton: poses 77 W. 5, Blunt, another admirer of eary Islamic literature, pus the analogy strtegy to use in the introduction to his ausatons of the qasidahs jn Eutope the nearest analogy to itis php to be found in the pre-Christian verse of Celtic Ireland, which by a steange accident was is close contemporary, and Ios it wid natural impulse chrough the very same circumstance of the conversion of ts payan bards to an overmastering theology ) ‘The point. {am trying to make can be made quite independently of the validity of Blunt's analogy, or lack thereol, What fam ‘tying to show is that Blunt and others felt the weed to rewrite (preslamie literanre in terms of system their potential Audience would beable to understand The analogy strategy can alo be put to use in negative terms one is convinced that Western literatures constitute te “ight literature, one em also project that conviction hick in ime and pretend that only hose literatures whe evolution is silat to that-of Wester literatures are worthy of enmparison. with Western literatures Any literature whose history does oe bog with anything comparable tothe Homer epics is therelore of eesity suspect. As Huart puts it: That wondrous appanage of the Indo-European races, ther power of translating histone or legendary events into mighty poems. has no existence inthe brain of the peoples spesking the Semitie tongues" (9). These people, itis suongly fmplied, dhetetore do not just prodoce Inferior literature; they also belong to an inferior race. Carlyle remarks in the same vein, but without drawing any tact ‘consequences: “As no example taken frm any Epi or Dramatie oes, are found amongst the specimens here selected, it may be opposed thatthe Arabians were unacquainted with the two ‘most noble exertions of the poets art" (ui). He ald, however, that this is true only if we submit to a trict interpretation of Aristotle's pois, which specifies that he epics tobe writen in verse. A century oF 50 Inter Nicholson is willing to relax thi strict interpretation of Aristotle, though not completly. He observes that dhe longest of the qasdahs "ie considerably shorter than Gray's Blegy”" and goes onto sate that “an Arabian Homer or Chaucer must have condesttied to prose” (79, Blunt also points outta hie intrduction that "moral blem: ises ota few there ae inal the poems, bt one would wot wis 178. Transation, Rewtng, nd the Manipulation of Liecary Fame ‘Translation: postce_ 79 them absent, fr they serve to point out the reality of the life deseribed” (ev). In Labid Tho Rakiah's gesdah one of those blemishes might be the ot ofthe gil who pucks te late, Polk's veaniationveade, With miny a ménning,Timpid (draught and) the plucking of the singing (On a ne as her thumb adits the sting hasten to satis the need of her while the cock exows at fist Tigh Tn order that Tighe drink a second round white the nig sleepers rouse themselves (ats) Johnson obviously tres to shift he “blemish” from one “moral

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