comnerse 5 Siyles and Strategies all strategies are appropriate forall learners. A learner who, for example, is already aware of an ambiguity tolerant, right-brain style surely will not need a battery of new strategies to open up, to be calm in the face of a storm of incomprehensible lan- suage, or to take in the big picture. Such suategies are already naturally in place However, a learner who represents the other side of the coin—intolerant of ambi- auity, analytical, linear thinking—can obviously benefit from an awareness of those proclivities and from taking appropriate strategic action. STRATEGIES If styles are general characteristics that differentiate one individual from another, then strategies are those specific “attacks” that we make on a given problem, and that vary considerably within each individual. They are the momentby-moment techniques that we employ to solve “problems” posed by second language input and output. Chamot (2005, p. 112) defines strategies quite broadly as “procedures that facilitate a learning task. ... Strategies are most often conscious and. goal riven? The field of second language acquisition has distinguished between two types of strategy: learning strategies and communication strategies, The former relate to input—to processing, storage, and etzieval, that is, to taking in messages from others. ‘The latter pertain 10 output, how we productively express meaning, how we deliver messages to others. We will examine both types of strategy here: First,a brief historical note on the study of second language learners’ strategies. [As our knowledge of second language acquisition increased markedly during the 1970s, teachers and researchers came to realize that no single research finding and no single method of language teaching would usher in an era of universal success in teaching 4 second language. We saw that certain learners seemed to be successful regardless of methods or techniques of teaching. We began to see the importance of individual variation in language learning. Certain people appeared 10 be en: dowed with abilities to succeed; others lacked those abilities. This observation led Rubin (1975) and Stern (1975) to describe "good" language learners in terms of per- sonal characteristics, styles, and strategies. Rubin (Rubin & Thompson, 1982) later summarized fourteen such characteristics. Good language learners 1. Find their own svay, taking charge of their learning, 2. Organize information about language 3. Are creative, developing a “feel” for the language by experimenting with its, grammar and words 4 Make their own opportunities for practice in using the language inside and outside the classroom 5. Learn to live with uncertainty by not getting flustered and by continuing to talk of listen without understanding every word 6. Usc mnemonics and other memory strategies to recall what has been learned {@] Make errors work for them and not against them 9S Use lir in tear 9. Use cc 10. Learn. 11. Learn, perfor Learn - Learn Learn * accord Such 1 Iaborators i et al,, 1978 ‘were some wry to ident example), 2 led others advice tow Tn mor analyses of for univers: on the wo (2001) suge that looks a texts in wai Fundament socially cor create aven Accom constructiv Teachers, o1 common st on the othe as well as tl Learning Stra ‘The researc strategies. 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Using imagery |. Memory 8. Applying images 2, Semantic mapping strategies and sounds 2. Using keywords 4. Representing sounds in memory Reviewing well, —— 1. Structured viewing 1. Using physical response or sensation ©. Employing action-==<— >" Using mechanical techniques 1. Repeat A Practicing 2, Formally practicing with sounds and writing systoms 3. Recognizing and using formulas and patierns 1, Cogeitive 44 Recombining strategies 5, Practicing naturalistically B. Receiving and 1. Gating the idea quickly sending messages “<2. Using fesouces for receiving and sending messages 1. Reasoning dedctvely eee 2. Analyzing expressions Carahing 5. analysing contesel (ars languages) “6. Wanslating 5. Ransfering Ei 1. Taking notes 1D. Creating structure for input and output 2: Summarizing 3. Highlighting A. Guessing 1. Using ings clues icosiane intligenly 2. Using other elves strategies 1. Switching fo the mother tongue 2. Gating help 3, Using mime or gesture 8. Overcoming 4. Avoiding communication pantally o totally lente at 5: Selecting the topic in speaking end 6. Adjusting or approximating the message writing 7 Coming onde 8: Using a cicumlocution or synonym Figure 5.1. Oxford's strategy classification system (Oxford, 1990a)142 cuurree 5 Siyles and Stategios 1. Metacognitive, Tndirect Strategies: Metacognitive, Affective, and Social Strategies 1. Overview and inking wth ales know materi A Centing you 2 Peying attention leasing 3y Belong speth production to focus on iste strategies 1. Finding out about language learning . Avanging and Organon plone 5: Soling gst and objectives Your learning FE he purse ofa language ts eupost Iecngreacgeakingriing) 5. Moning alenguoge tk 4 Eetingracie Gppotunites €. Balating 1. self-monitoring eutlearing———— 2 Seltevaluating +. Using progressive relaxation, deep retin, o A Loweing "atom your 2. Usingmusc Sreiety 3 Using laughter 1 Afectve _Making postive statements Taking ess wisely Rewarding yourself egies B. Encouraging — yourself . Taking your emotional temperature ‘Asking for clarification or verification ski 1 A, Asking eople. 0 analyze the setalls of ge end tand exactly # sald or written ery annoyed by dance of ge material ted all at itor" myself very ‘and consciously speek, make a 2, it annoys me @ that’s a symbol poor my co the teacher 2 classroom 23s for everything to be successful the SILL? ‘The SILL serves as an instrument to expose learners to possibilities, but teachers must assume the responsibility for seeing to it that learners are aided in, putting certain strategies into practice. Other forms of identifying styles and strategies, and for raising them to the con- sciousness of-leamers, include self-reports through interviews (Macaro, 2001), ‘written diaries and journals (Carson & Longhini, 2002; Halbach, 2000), thinkaloud protocols (Macaro, 2000; O'Malley & Chamot, 1990) in which an interviewer or teacher prompts the learner with questions like, “Why did you hesitate and restate that veriy form?” and through student portfolios. Chamot (2005) offered a useful summary of these options. Incorporating SBI into the Language Classroom, Several different manifestations of SBI can be found in language classes around the world. Through checklists, and other methods discussed above, teachers can become aware of stuclents' tendencies and then offer informal, unplanned advice on beneficial in-class and extraclass strategies. They can essentially be attuned to their role as facilitators of strategic action through tips and pointers and perhaps even ancedotes about “how [learned .... when Twas in your shoes ‘Teachers can also help students to put the results of a styles questionnaire, such a5 the one in Figure 5.2, o immediate practical use. Once students have had a chance, with no advance “coaching, to fill out the checklist, you can engage them in any or all of the following: (1 & discussion of why they responded as they id, @) small-group sharing of feelings underlying their responses, (3) an informal tabulation of how people responded to each item, (4) some advice, from your own experience, on why certain practices may be successful or unsuccessful, or (5) reaching the general consensus that responses in the A and B categories are usually indicative of successfl approaches to language learning, ‘The style preference questionnaire in Figure 5.2 is actually designed so that each item highlights a “maxim” for good language learning. Ttem by item, numbered 1 through 10, the questionnaire serves to highiight the following 10 suggestions 1. Lower inhibitions. 2, Encourage risk taking. 3. Build self-confidence. 4, Develop intrinsic motivation. 5. Engage in cooperative learning, 6. Use right rain processes, 7. Promote ambiguity tolerance. 8. Practice intuition, 9. Process error feedback 10. Set personal goals.146 curr 5 Styles and States “Another option being used by language teachers is to embed strategy awareness and practice into their pedagogy (Brown, 2002,2001, 1991, 1989;Rubin & Thompson, 1994, Elis & Sinclir, 1989) in more formal ways. Many current textbooks now inchie strategy awareness modules as part of the ongoing curriculum. Even without ich overt material as teachers utiize such techniques as communicative games, rapic reading, fluency exercises, and error analysis, they can help students both. consciously Table 5.4. Building strategic techniques To lower inhibitions: Play guessing games and communication games; do role plays ad skis; sing songs; use plenty of group work; laugh with your students; have them Share thelr fears in small groups. 2, To encourage risk taking: Praise students for making sincere effrs to try Out language: ace fluency exercises where errors are not corected at that time; give outside-oF class Sssignments to speak oF write or otherwise try out the language 43, To build students self-confidence: Tel students explicitly (verbally anc! nonverbally) that you Go indeed believe in them; have them make lists of their strengths, of whot they know or have accomplished so far in the course 4. To help students develop intrinsic motivation: Remind them explicitly about the Towards for learning English; describe (or have students ook up} JObs that require Engl; play down the final examination in favor of helping students to see rewards for themselves beyond! the final exam To promote cooperative earning: Direct students to share their knowledge: play down Competition among students; get your class to think of themselves as a team do a Considerable amount of small-group work “To encourage students to use rightbrain processing: Use movies and tapes in class ace students read passages repidly; do skimming exercises; do rapid “hee wrles"; Je oral fluency exercises where the abject is to get students to talk (or write) a lot ‘without being corrected ‘To promote ambiguity tolerance; Encourage students to ask you, and each other Gueations when they. don‘< understand something; Keep your theoretical explanations rey simple and brief; eal with just afew rules ata time; occasionally resort to translation into a native language to clarify a word or meaning 8, To help students use their intuition: Praise students for good guesses; do not always give explanations of errors—let a correction sufice; cortect only selected errors, preferably just those that interfere with learning. 9. To get students to make their mistakes work FOR them: Tape-recordstusents! ora! pro duction and get then to identify errors let students catch and correct each other's Sees do net always give them the correct form; encourage students to make lists of their common erors and to work on them on their own. 10. To get students to set their own goals: Explicitly encourage or direct students to Bo beyond the classroom goals; have therm make lists of what they will accomplish on tea own in a partic ular week; get students to make specific time commitments at 6 and subconsciously are playing a guessi remind them that ¢ provides a list of ws Stimulating Steategi Finally, it is imports ited to the classroc of mastery through the confines of a cl toward autonomy gage course they simply to complet raising their consci use of language “o the journey towan hours are dozens ¢ of the new languay ‘We have muc learners how to id’ very exciting and | In this chapte vatiables in the le: ‘cognitive variables neled into an und awareness of thes some wide-ranging neatly pigeonhole: within a person, | discover some ov into categories of case for “typing” 1 file of seven succ need to recognize second language vidual learners, sible opportuniticembed strategy awareness 1989; Rubin &Thompson, current textbooks now surticulum. Even without mmunicative games, rapid stucients both consciously jon games; do role plays your students; have them 2 effors to tryout languages time; give oulside-ot-class sage. cexbally and nonverbatly) 2 thei strengths, of what + explicitly about the kcup) jabs that require 3 sludents to see rewards heir knowledge; play down aselves as a team; do a ovies and tapes in class; do rapid “iree writes"; to talk (or write) a lot you, and each other, sr theoretical explanations sccasionally resort to sing. 1 guesses; do not always only selected errors, ve-record students’ oral pro- fl correct each other's 3e students to make lists of or direct stucents to go they will accomplish on time commitments at OUTS. Siyles and Strategies 187 and subconsciously to practice successful strategies. So for example, when students are playing a guessing game, performing a skit, ar even singing songs, the teacher cen remind them that they are practicing strategies for lowering inhibitions. ‘Table 5.4 rovides a list of ways to “build strategic techniques” in a language classroom, Stimulating Strategic Action Beyond the Classroom Finally, itis important to note that style awareness and strategic action are not lim- ited to the classroom, Many so-called successful learners have reached their goals of mastery through their owa selmotivated efforts to extend learning well beyond the confines of a classroom. ‘Teachers can help learners to achieve this further step toward autonomy by helping learners to look beyond the classtoom and the lan. guage course they are in, The ultimate purpose in engaging students in SBI is not simply to complete one language course. Teachers can help learners to sce that raising their conscious awareness of styles and strategies aics them in the authentic use of language “out there” The classroom is an opportunity for learners to begin the journey toward success, and to grasp the reality that beyond those classroom hours are dozens of hours weekly that can be devoted to prictice meaningful uses of the new language. ‘We have much to leara in the creation of practical techniques for teaching Jearners how to identify their styles and use strategies effectively, but this remains a very exciting and promising area of pedagogical research at the present time. ee ek In this chapter we have looked at a number of relevant and salient cognitive variables in the learning of a foreign language. It should by now be apparent that cognitive variables atone represent a complex system of factors that must be chan. ncled into an understanding of the total second language acquisition process. An awareness of these factors will help you, the teacher, to perceive in your learners some wide-ranging individual differences. Not all learners are alike, No one can be neatly pigeonholed into a cognitive type. With many styles and strategies operating within a person, hundreds of cognitive “profiles" might be identified! If we could discover some overriding and allpervading variable that classifies learners neatly into categories of “successful” and “unsuccessful! then of course we could make » case for “typing” language learners. But, as Earl Stevick (1989) showed in his pro- file of seven successful language Icarners, such is not the cise. Instead, teachers need to recognize and understand a multiplicity of cognitive vatiables active in the second language learning process and to make appropriate judgments about indi. vidual learners, meeting them where they are and providing them with the best pos. sible opportunities for learning.