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no flow!
Electron
Destination
(break)
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in a path without
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continuing forever!
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no flow!
continuous
electron flow cannot
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in a "broken" circuit!
no flow!
(break)
no flow!
n4
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no flow!
continuous
electron flow cannot
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no flow!
(break)
no flow!
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Z
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wire
++
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Wool cloth
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Water flow
Pump
m
V
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More energy stored
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Pump
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Drop
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Electric Battery
No flow (once the

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1
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+
2
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1
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2
electron flow!
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water flow!
water flow!
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1
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+
2
voltage
drop
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-
(break)
voltage
no flow!
+
drop
Battery
Electric lamp
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no flow!
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conducting current, so long as they
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1
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. . . at all points in this circuit
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,

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Waterwheel
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Pump
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Where,
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T = shaft torque in lb-ft.
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This is resistor "R1"

with a resistance value
of 150 ohms.
R1
150
R2
25
This is resistor "R2"

with a resistance value
of 25 ohms.
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person (not shocked)
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person (SHOCKED!)
High voltage
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accidental ground path through tree

(touching wire) completes the circuit
for shock current through the victim.
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person (SHOCKED!)
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(touching wire) completes the circuit
for shock current through the victim.
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---
2 ndM
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1 k
1.5" metal pipe

Two 2 k contact points in "parallel"
with
each other gives 1 k total
pipe-to-body
resistance.
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Body resistance
I
Person
in direct contact with voltage source:
current
limited only by body resistance.
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Glove resistance
Body resistance
Boot resistance
I
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DI:
Person wearing insulating gloves and boots:

current
now limited by total circuit resistance.
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E
+ Rbody + Rboot
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Disconnect
switch
Power
source
On/Off
switch
Load
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Disconnect
switch
Power
source
On/Off
switch
temporary
ground
Load
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Disconnect
switch
Power
source
On/Off
switch
zero voltage
ensured here
Load
temporary
shorting wire
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=W'98C6U!+').1C'V6U?s!+''W#*M2^#*&'3#'i!+*&,M(Se: 'V?&g!+*&P68Dg*|U3#Sl1*&'U?o$F>$(!"'U3#+$(?&@p&3# '3#B"G[{0*M'
1$(3+'H!6?MS&,M6#$?&@W 21C'U3L#>+*&'A+-!%+'U3U !*&'U+$(?&@/'U'U=W'?-3#'7$(?M!+,&(+'HSV<3#=#,M68*M$?&@/+*M'A=W'#X6U!+'
xy?MS['U"68*t+*&'U38zC:BV3#,&:&: '33M("!J#$(6G
$+7pn47P+ov+AP
Electrical
appliance
"Hot"
plug
Source
120 V
"Neutral"
metal case
Ground point
no voltage
between case
and ground
21'\"'3H)$4?&'7c#*&'71$(3#'U!I$(?M!+$(S&'h#*&'#"!%+'U3C1'3#'#/6U69$TSP'?-#BO69"=W'h$(?i69"?"869C1$+*O#*&'7=W'#
6 "!%'") +*&'O6"!%'/1$(K: '/=OS&'/'U'H6+3#$T6((B6=W=W?g+t+*&'W1$(3+'")N?MSp#,M68*M$?&@t+*M'W6U!+'E1$(: 'AJ,M!J^"!

*M|U38SP",M!K!#,M68*M$?&@5#*&'1$(3+':3#'G.vj*&'9#*&'3I"3I?&I+*&$T!IM3+'H!%'U?"8!I!+*&P68DE*M|U38S>SP' '?MSM!I? n tn
1$(3+'6U69$TSP'?-8(BO#,M68*M'U
!
accidental
contact
"Hot"
plug
Source
120 V
"Neutral"
Ground point
voltage between
case and ground!
Y0+*&'[w*&#w1$(3+'t69?-868!#*&'t6U!+').$F>&("69'H!5+*&'t,M!+'3E0+*&'i+""!J#'3^$(?nS&?&@'U3UGg7?e#*&'i+*&'U3
*M?MSc)&$;#*&'?&'U,P+38c1$(3+'6?-#"6#!#*&'^6"!%'")-+*&'U3+'$T!0?&VS&?&@'U3!+*&P68D
vvkv+CUA}7E'
"Hot"
plug
Source
120 V
"Neutral"
Ground point
accidental
contact
no
voltage between
case
and ground!
{;s*&'('U?M!+,&3+'b+*Mt#*&'b<"3+=W'3iy$(,M3+'l$(!t'H!+!t($D"'(Bn#*M?j#*&'m(%+'U3U)h'?&@"$?&'U'38!O#3+Bk+kSP'U!+$(@?
M&$T?69'U!L$?[!%,68*V^10RB>"!K+/=W$?&$(=W$|U'7*M6?MS&,M6#3C6?-#"61$F#*O+*&'56"!%'"G;YJS&'U((B)-469",&38!%'")"B",
SP"?X 71?"'U$F#*&'371$3#'E"669$TSP'U?"#B[69"=>$(?&@O$(?b69"?"8691$F#*p+*&'/69?SP,M6#$\"'E6"!%';#*&'/&&($(?M69'")&:&,P
+*M'3#'h3#',M!+,M(B>10RB!K+ESP'H!%$(@?>#*&'hTRB",PIN+*M'hM3%8!+^=OD'h"669$TSP'U?"8M6?-#"6I('U!#!I($D"'(BE<"3I?M'
1$(3+'5#*M?<"3+*&'E+*M'3HGC21'\"'3H)+*&$T!M3+'U\'?-82+$(\'5=W'U"!%,M3+'$T!'9N'U69+$(\'^"?&(Bi$ 21'3&(,&@O T3#$FJB
6?:'^@",M38?-#''USXGLY+*&'E&,M@i6?[: '^3#'\"'38!%'HSc)+*&'U?+*&'>69"?MSP,M69+3=W"3+'($D"'(BV#i69"?"869+*&'E6U!+'
=W$@"*-\'3#BO1'(c:'5#*&'^w*&#w>?M'I
"Hot"
plug
Source
120 V
"Neutral"
Ground point
accidental
contact
voltage between
case and ground!
M&$T?69'U!hSP'U!+$@"?&'USt#*&$(!h1RBi,M!%,(B[69=W'1$+*bw"(3+$(|'HS&w>&,M@"!U)M?M'&3+"?&@W+*M'^&(,&@O:'U$?M@
!+$(@*-+(Bj?M3+3#21C'U3O+*?+*&'m#*&'3HGu21'3i3#'U6'P86'H!t3+'mT!%kSP'U!+$@"?&'US$(D'l+*M$(!U)7"?&'e!%(:'U$?M@
?M3+3#21C'U3h#*M?m#*&'V#*&'3HG ?!%'H",M'?-+(B)4+*&'VM,&@p6U?&?&^:'i$?M!+'3++'HSlw:M68D1038S&!U) wt?MSe69"?MSP,M69+"3
$TSP'?-+$JBb$(?M!+$(SP'/+*M'W&&($(?M69'W6?g: '/@",M38?-#''USXG^'=W'=/:'U3A+*MA#*&$T!5*M!A?&['9N'U6951*2#!+'\"'3h"?
+*M':M!+$(67<,&?6+$(?;#*&'^&M$T?M6I
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"=>'p'U?&@$(?&'U'38!VS&S&3+'H!+!W#*&'g!#2<'JB}$T!+!+,&'b!+$=W&(Bk:-Bk=OD$(?&@e+*&'l,P8!%$TSP'b6U!+'p5+*&'m&M$T?M6'
?&"?M69"?MSP,M69+$(\'Gk,M68*}&&($(?M69'H!W3#'[6U('HS M j 9 h8 j keZ )!+$(?M69't+*&'$(?M!+,&(+$(?&@e6!+'!%'U3+\"'U!>!>
!+'U69"?MSt(RB"'30.$?M!+,&T2#$"?[:2\"'5?MSt:'UB?SV#*M24+*M'^69?SP,M6#38!+*&'U=O!%'U\"'U!UG.YK>1$3#'5$?!%$TSP'5+*M'
M&$T?69'566$(S&'?-+(Bi69"=W'U!$?69"?-#691$+*t+*M'^6!+')-#*&'3#'7$T!0?&OS&?&@'U3C&3#'U!+'?-#'USi+/+*&',M!+'304+*M'
M&$T?69'G
h+*M'3L'U?&@$(?&'U'38!K#"68D'#*&'hM3+":&'U=X!+<'9JBW:B/=O$?-#$?M$?&@>^69"?MSP,M69+$(\'A6!+')":&,P0,M!+$?&@/+*M$38S
69"?MSP,M69+"30+>M3#=>(Bt6?&?M'U60#*M2h6U!+'7#W@3#,&?MS
$+7pn47P+ov+AP
"Hot"
3-prong
plug
Source
120 V
"Neutral"
Grounded case
ensures zero
between
voltage
case and ground
"Ground"
Ground point
{0*&'+*M$38SEM3+"?&@5?/+*&'0 21C'U3I6938S^M3+2\$TSP'U!5SP$(3+'H6K'('U69+3#$(6U&69"?&?&'H6+$(?E<3+"=+*M'&&($T?M6'06U!+'
+O'H3++*[@3#,&?Sc)&=OD$(?&@>+*&'5J1O"$?-8!'('U69+3#$(6U(Bi6=W=W?[1$F#*p'U"68*t+*&'U3UGIY.+*M'BN 3#''('U69+3#$(6U(B
69"=W=>"?X)H+*&'U?+*M'3#'C6?&?&4:'?BA\#@'ISP3#M'HS5:'J1C'U'?#*&'=G ;('U!%U)H#*M2H !;*&21e$F.$(!;!%,M&-!%'HS
+p13#DNGiY0+*M'V*&E6?MS&,M6#3E"669$TSP'U?"#Bg+",M68*&'U!+*&'V=W'#C&&($T?M6'V6!+').$E1$(L63+'H2+'VpS&$3#'U69
!+*&3+%Z69$(3#6,&$.:M"68DA+A+*&'0\"#@"'C!+,&3869'C+*M3+",&@*E+*&'0@3#,M?MS^1$(3+'")R+3#$M&$?M@5?B2\'3869,M3+3#'?-4&3##'U69+$(?
SP'U\-$T69'H!GK{0*&',!%'U3.+*&'^&&($(?M69'51$(c3#'=O$(?!+<'G
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$(?"#/EJ1CdM3+"?&@3+'H69'UP#"69('G.YX+*&$T!$(!SP"?&')-+*M'3#'71$( : '7?&>@3#,M?MSP$(?&@^c#*&'5&&($T?M6'76"!%'h+>D'U'
+*M'^,M!+'3Rxy!8z0!+<'GL{0*&'/&&($T?M6'A1$((;!%+$(c<,M?M6#$"?p&3+"'U3+(B)M:&,Ph$;#*&'3#'$T!h?$(?-+'3#?MNy,&h:&3#$?M@$(?&@
+*M'^*&71$3#'^$(?b69?-861$+*#*&'/6U!+')P#*&'E3#'U!+,&#!6U?: '/SP'HSP(BGYL>J1CdM3+"?&@W3+'H69'&#6' E
h9eX: '
,M!+'USc)XVJ1CC#i#*&3#''9&3#?&@i3+'H69'&#6'>S&P+'U3A6U?l:'>$?!J8('HSb1$+*lt@3#,M?MSP$(?&@V1$(3+'W2+#68*M'US#
+*M'3+'H69'&#6'" !@"3+",&?MSP'HS/62\'U3I!+63+'U1G;{0*&$T!K1$(&=O$?-#$?>#*&'!+<'9JB/ +*&'@"3+",&?MSP'HS/&&($(?M69'1*&$(('
&(,&@@"'USt$?[#/#*&$T!0JB'.3#'U6'P869('G
('U69+3#$(6U(B}!+<'p'?&@"$?&'U'3#$?M@sSP'U!+?X t?&'U6'U!#!+3+$(Bn'?MSjV+*&'g-Sc)0*&21'\"'3HG M?M7!#2<'U@,M3#S
@-$(?M!%/'('U69+3#$(6U0!%*M68Do6U?n: '3#3#?&@'HSe?s#*&'[21'3W!%,M&&(Bs!%$TSP'[#*&'p69$(3#6,&$FW382+*M'3/+*M?s+*M'
M&$T?69'5$F8!%'UFJGI{0*M$(!!#2<'U@,M3#Si$(!6U('HN
S m u P 'k2 j e `
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!
"Hot"
I
Source
120 V
I
"Neutral"
Ground point
no voltage
between case
and ground
YZ?gOM3+"'U3+(Bi<,M?M6#$"?&$?M@[&&($(?M69'ix!%*M21?g: 2\'Rz)&#*&'W69,&3#3+'U?-h=W'U!+,&3#'US[#*&3+",&@*#*&'>*&569?&

SP,M69+"3A!+*&,M(Sp: '>'9r&69+(Bt'H",;+V#*&'W69,&3#3+'U?-+*&3#,M@*p#*&'/?M',P#3#.6?MSP,6+"3U) : 'U6,M!+'^+*M'3#' !?MB
vvkv+CUA}7E'
?M'LM+*^<"3;'U'H6#3+"?M!X#M21o$(?^#*&'069$(3#6,&$FHG4vj$+*>?&y,&.$(?M!+$(SP'C+*M'&&($(?M69'")U#*&'3#'$(!;?&569?M?&'U69+$(?
: '9J1''?p6$3869,&$69"?MSP,M69+38!0?MSt#*&''U3#!+?t+",M68*&$(?&@>+*&'^6U!+')&?MSV#*&'3#'9<"3+'5?&O!+*&P68DNG
YJ)X*&21'\"'3H) +*&'W*&51$(3#'>"669$TSP'U?"#Bl69?-868!#*&'O=W'98I6"!%'")N+*&'U3+'>1$(K: 'V69,&3#3#'?-7#*&3#,&@"*b+*M'

' 38!%"?s+",M68*&$(?&@l+*&'p6"!%'"Gn{0*&'[&3#'U!+'?M6'tAm!%*&P68Do69,M3+3#'?-W1$(:'=O?M$F<'H!J#'USk!W u 9t8>
69,M3+3#'?-:'J1C'U'?t+*&'5J1W21'36?MSP,6+"3#!0+*&'3#'U6'P869('I
accidental
contact
"Hot"
(more)
I
Source
120 V
I
(less)
"Neutral"
Shock current
Shock current
Shock current
{ *&$T!SP$ 'U3+'U?M69'$(?p69,&3#3+'U?-0: '9J1''U?[+*&'^w*&8w>?MSw?&'U,P+38Tw>69?SP,M6#38!01$(X"?&Bi'9rP$(!%$.#*&'3#'5$(!

0
69,M3+3#'?-I#*&3+",&@*>#*&'h@"3+",&?MSW69"?&?&'U69+$(?X)-=W'U?&$?M@+*MI+*M'3#'h$T!L5y,&F$?W#*&'7!+BP!J#'=GK{0*&'3#'9<"3+'")!+,M68*
^6,&3+3#'?-CS&$FN'3#'?M6'76U?V: 'h,M!+'USi!L^1RB/+ '
eZ6 t'eNy,&69"?MSP$+$(?XGY4^S&'\$(6'h$T!L!+'9,&O+/=W'U!+,&3#'
+*M$(!5SP$ 'U3+'U?M69'WC69,&3#3#'?-7: '9J1''U?b+*M'/J1i 21'3569?SP,M6#38!)ctSP'9#'U6#$"?lC69,M3+3#'?-7$(=E:T?M6'/6?
: 'A,!%'HSO+/+3#$(@@'U3L#*&'5 '?&$(?&@>;>SP$T!+6?&?M'U6!+1$F868*X)+*,M!069,&%+$(?&@W 21C'U3Cp?MSVM3+'U\'?-#$?&@>!%'U3+$(,!
!+*&P68DO
"Hot"
I
Source
120 V
I
"Neutral"
switches open automatically

if the difference between the
two currents becomes too
great.
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SP$T!J#$?6+$(\'lw{;'U!%#we?MSjw"'U!+'98wm:&,P%#?M!UG{0*&'b:&$(@sSP\2?"8@"'[1$+*j,!%$(?&@e+*M$(!t&&3#""68*s#s'?M!+,&3#'
!#2<'9JBp$T!7+*M$F13#D!73#'@"3#S&'H!+!hL#*&'O&M$T?M6' !7S&'U!+$@"?XGWhC6,&38!+')c,M!+$?M@[[SP,M:&'d$(?M!+,&T2+'HSb"3
@3#,M?MSP'USe&&($(?M69'V$(?n"S&SP$+$(?e+l|
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+*M'^&&($T?M6'G
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!+<'9JBi#*M2 $(?-UG
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-SXx!#z9G
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+38S&'GY6?t:'S&,&?-+$(?&@O2M38!J0+>,M!+'E=W'9#'3H)PD?&21$?M@E#*M2B",i3#'569?M?&'U69+$(?&@/$+>($\"'A6$3869,&$#!
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$$(!10RBP!L: 'U!%+W&3#P69''HSi6U,P#$",M!%(BV1*&'U?t,!%$(?&@W=W'9+'U3#!UG 3#'('U!#!%?M'U!#!L=W3#'A+*M?[?BO+*M'30y69+"3
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SP'U\-$T69'"GhYZ?p#*&'>*M?MSM!hL!%"=>'U?&'E$@"?&38?-h?SR"3763+'U'H!+!U)M*M21C'U\'3H)P#*&'/=/,&+$(=>'+'U37=ORB:'H69"=>'/
!+,&3869'AKS&?M@'301*&'U?p69?M?&'U69+'USi+VWw$(\'Hw/6$3869,&$UG
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large spark
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carbon-composition
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SP$T!%M(RB"'UScGY+*&'U3+'5$T!?Bi"S&SP$+$(?MX!%",&3869'A\#@'A$?[#*&'^=W'9#'3+d('U"S6=W ?&'U?"+d('U"S=>'+'U3L(-"
+/'$+*&'U3$(SV3L"& "!+'+*&'A3#'U!+$(!%#?M69'd=W'U"!%,M3+$(?&@69,&3#3#'?-L&3#PSP,M69'HSO:B>+*&'A=W'9+'U3U)"y,MFJBW3#'US&$?&@-!I1$(
3#'U!+,&FHGKYZ?[W138!+'9Z6!+'h!+$F#,M2#$"?X)P#*&'=W'9+'U3=ORBV'\"'?[:'^S&=O@'HSi:BO#*&''9r#'3#?Mc\"#@"'G
{0*&'>w3#'U!+$(!%#?M69'HwO=WS&'/CV=/,&F#$=W'+'3$T!7\'3#B,M!+'9<,&$(?lSP'+'3#=W$?M$?&@[1$(3+'W69"?"#$?,&$JBp!71C'UK"!
=OD$(?&@b&3#'U6$(!+'V=W'U"!%,&3#'=W'U?"8!^3+'H!%$T!J8?M6'Gpvj*&'U?s#*&'3#'i$T!Eg@PSc)K!%"$TSo69"?&?&'U69+$(?s: '9J1''U?o+*M'
&3#: 'A+$(M!^xy!+$(=E,&T2#'USt:-Bi+",M68*&$(?&@E#*&'=u+"@'9#*&'3z)#*&'=W'9#'3h!+*&21!0(=W"!%0|U'3#J
AGKY.+*M'5+'U!%('USM!
*M"Si?&O3#'U!+$T!J8?M6'7$(?[+*&'U=[)M$F1,&TSt3+'HSt'9r&69+(BV|'U3+?

OFF
COM
Y+*&'/'HS&!73#'^?&h$?l69?-8671$F#*p'U68*p+*&'U3U) 3+,68*&$?M@V& "!+$+'^'U?MS&!7IO:&3#D"'?1$3#')+*M'

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1*&$T68*p!J8?MS&!<"3w"'U?t(Mw-9z
vF;kv+AbAq.v
OFF
COM
BOy30#*&'=W"!%*M|H38SP,!?MS69"=>M'rt&M$T6+$(?[.+*&'=/,&F#$=W'+'3h$(!$(?[+*&'=W'H!+,&3+'U=W'?-
6 ,M3+3#'?-UGC{0*&'^3#'U!+?i<3#*&$T!$T!-,&$F#'E!+$=W&('II$(?p38SP'U30<3#*&'^=W'9#'3#O=>'H!+,&3#'56,&3#3+'U?"H)P+*M'E69,&3#3#'?-
9
+O: '^=W'U"!%,M3+'HSt=/,M!%:'<"3#6'USt+O@"Nern u 2Imgn/#*&'=W'9+'U3UG0{0*&$T!=W'U?M!0+*2#*&'^=W'9#'3=/,M!J: '^=OS&'
M3%;+*&'6,&3+3#'?-0M2#*t4#*&'^69$(3#6,&$0382#*&'3#*M?/J,M!%0: '^69"?&?&'H6+'HSip+>+*M'5!+$TSP'!%"=>'U1*&'3#'5!$(!
+*M'76"!%'1*M'?O=W'U"!%,&3#$(?&@\"F8@'"G4YZ?O"3#SP'U3K+E=WD'0#*&'h=W'9#'3CM3+Ic#*&'h69,M3+3#'?-IM+*V #*&'h6$3869,&$U)
+*M'V3#$@"$?K69$(3#6,&$E=E,M!%^: 'iw:&3#D"'?Mw[?Sg#*&'V=W'9#'3E6?&?M'U6#'USe63+-!+!A#*&'WJ1p"$?-#!^+*&'V"'U?
:&3#'UD GO{;b!%'+*&'O=W'+'3E,&m<35+*M$(!U)X#*&'i!+'('U6#3!+1$F868*m=/,M!%^"$?-+'U$F#*&'3 3^ w w?MS
+*M'A3#'USi+'H!J('U"Si=/,M!J: '5&,M@@'HSi$(?t+*&'53#'US[!%P68D'=O3+D"'USVw w&GK{0*&'A<"(21$?M@/$((,M!%+382#$"?[!+*&21!
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simple battery-lamp circuit
+ 9
volts
OFF
COM
~21)#*&'^69$(3869,&$$(!:M3+"D'?t$?&3#'382+$(?i<30#*&'=W'9+'U30+O: '^69"?&?&'U69+'HSG
$+7pn47P+ov+AP
lamp goes out

V
+ 9
volts
A
OFF
COM
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+*M'3+'HSi&3#: 'A+W#*&'-!%'51$(3+'5'?Si('U"SP$?M@/#W+*&'T=W
+ 9
volts
A
OFF
circuit current now has to

go through the meter
COM
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SHORT-CIRCUIT!
A
OFF
COM
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$+7pn47P+ov+AP
Indication with a good fuse
V
V

OFF
Indication with a "blown" fuse
touch probe tips

together
COM
A
A
OFF
COM

touch probe tips

together
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9ijijbKi
f~
`k ad
Parallel
2
+
R1
R2
R3
UL s$]$Q$QfQ]OE R w$ ]Qw@QL]]U ]pnL@

;Q]Q r @pR@ SQ SL]OeQ eLUL Q L]Q]
e = wQ w w ]u]OR n]@] u 8k QupuQ] w e wQ
n e w Lpp]OnQ nLUL x]OELQ Q@] T X p] [ 8L u
D > P?
NE eOLO];fQ ]]Q] Y; QQL Y]wp@UO]]_QkY;fk
QLwr8L _Q] n;@we@up@UQ @U wsQOkQ SEL@Q]ErNL8p@UQ ] E
YL n]] _Q] ]ww] n]rY] UQ E YL LQrLL QfQ]Os]s @
rQR]r;@_RY;fNfw;OL p@UO
p]]O]QR;@wEfE @w n r]LOL d nL @
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R1
+
R2
R3
G$Qr; Qe@fR ]]S_Q]p8Q p,Q]@y@=@ nQ n n e]

@On k]@]pLuLLsQ] e = w e = Lpu]OkQ kLUL L;6YLQ
;QUsQ]eQ@] T @ Y] @ QeY] U dGQ8;@ ]QL ] Qwp X ]
[ LQ LOL ps@OR]s T sNLOL ;@ Q@nL X L [
fsU LQ@Q;@w] ] ]QQ @@]]O;] p]OQ@
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R1
R2
R3
R4
only
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Epath
LP ]forLOLelectrons
;];to ]flow!
@]pL] pdL ]wY]@O LQ;@_
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;@we@Y] UQkL kLr;@eY]UQ LQ]_Q LQkLSL] _Q]p
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These points are electrically common
R1
R2
R3
R4
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s]points
LOL are
electrically
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O ]p]S]n PQU_QL@pQ ;E ]Q
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GeSQd; Q@]]wp@UOdLQ]_Q= Q KL]Qe rS @Le]d_Q]p

r
GeLOL P; QL ;]wY]UQLQN]_Q]U]OLQU]Qe e;]; wfw;Q
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B
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R1
fbYd 9gWh
9ijijbKi
f~
`k ad
10 k
9V
aAb c edb
3 k
{|} ~ U ~s R| }|~8|
R2
5 k
O ; SkpEOfOLu]p@E sO;O QsQ]e@UsLd;QUQQLw

@]n]Uw;@wp@U kQO; p]8 ] e]Qk] _Q@dQ
kQ8; Qp]p]SQr_Q@ 6Q]];@E;]O @rw]s$eQY]pOQ
L p kLQNY L]UeY] @RN; Q QY ]ep; p8Y] U nQw=Y @pLC
Q]cQwpN ]]pQQ S]OL@YeLQ LQw _Q@IS; Q
s & I;]@Q KEOsQ; ]YQ]p@U nQ n w =]$p]O 8@
@@@O;NL ]]Q]]SLRNQfOL 6EwS 6Q
e eY]Q]U ]LQ pL @pLU ]]Q]]@L;QUQ Q];@]=p
pfQQrR]O]8 k8] e]efkY] UQ$nO; ]pfOL]sIn @
L@U ] K]O;U]k@ eL;QL @pLUf=YL8Qk]YL wQ
QLwNfwY] @OQ; Qy
D
R3
D
7X
PX
M
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0X
UT
q[
AL

q_ A}
v\ ]
q_ C}
qZ L
R
CM
Q
T
-J
8T
9V
3 k
-
I=
E
R
I=
9 volts
= 3 mA
3 k
;sY] UQ 8] SLQs;];=Q]]sks L] @Q Q];@]]]Y] UQ r]

U]RLY] U _Q] e]ww]kQY] @ ELkLY] @ r_QL e]ww]
p@U ;e=&=] n]@O] ;Q]wLQ@r]O;=pf$Y] UQ e] E _Q
]UNQnLQQ dLp;kY] @ =;@ew@ Y] @ nL Y] U $]ww]$Y] U
pf] r@ r]@OdpfkY] UQ SL E _ w];Q@QQ @ ]Q]]LkL
z x QwQ@Q@]Qr]EY]rS6r@]QL@ x @;Q@Q
Q @]wQ Q]; LQQ @ pQQk x8_ ] =QQS]e8f=p@UQ
Q; O;QwL]eSQ @Ewr]pSQ @= =sukQQL ]

C]
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9]
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MHN
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9M
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vZM
mZ
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5M
U f$} ~s f~
8@ O;QR;]UOL Iw]Q]@Q @unY$LQ;s L
rG KfQ]Lw ; O;eY rdRpw] $]@OY;f
Y] @O Lp s O=uLw@U=L _Q@wL ]n]O;nQ $Qp _Q@Q]@
Q;@ L ]n] ]EL ] 8@]L]OL]L ] @]QLnE
LP ]@ L$RQQ p;QUL ]PYLe] &&=O@]Q]]@;Q@Q
Ln@SLUSQ @QpEE] ]
c ed
KijbOdb
L
&_ }
q]
fbYd
]]u
8T
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jN9 N-
B
SNW L
R1
10 k
9V
3 k
`k ad
R2
5 k
R3
]L ]@O ULUfN]s@; O;LsQ] @QL ]Y LPLLp

6 LQ
@pLU @8pEE]fQ]OK SQQk k p]QN]]Q]]]Q]]NUQ
L UQ@=sk @Q@dpEE]QLp;]LsQ ] e] QQs]O
k]U @pLUfn QrQLO;
@ L s QQwn]w]ULs@]QL@e@;Q@Q es Qn;QQUrQ]]
] ] sQLp;] ]ENy
D
KB
x
F z FRF > >
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;
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7N9
qN _
IR1 =
m>>
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mB
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N9
[
ER1
3 k
ER1 = IR1 (3 k)
EPE@ N=]]Q]]@;Q@Q ] LOL]@OL] eL

]UQ8QQ KQ @ ]=p ] LwE@ QQ@dQQ]@ UL
Lu] L ]8sQ$8@= QLw]s] ] y]$L
UL ]L@RL QQwLQNQ@OQ@]Q 8Qp_ ] U]@QQsY;fQQLw
feY] UQ O;
spLIE IIcI]]Q]]]NQI]Q @]Q L ];Q@QeIQ
;@ L ]] ]N] @] QfOLRL]OQ @E$ $@
ULUQQLQ 8 ]w;@@Q;p=L p QREQwre; Q;QQUK
]RUs fOLk@r@r; Qy=;] L;Q ;QQU
su] p]QN] ]@OL] zNx
dQ@ QS8]eQ ; sL dO;QyQsQLQ]Q Q];LLQ d; O;
U]Pe LS E UE]Q Q]; s@RkL@SUQ@Sp@y Sw]QSfQ]O
LQR_Q]pr pQQ]@e@E nw=s pR]Un_Q@rQ
rsGQE]w@ up@ kN kNPL wQ @sI @ nw]QL
Q Q];NL eNy
-N M
8T
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9N
CD
SN
vN
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N9 N-
N-
j_

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M
MH
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mX
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{|} ~ U ~s R| }|~8|

aAb c edb
fbYd 9gWh
9ijijbKi
f~
`k ad
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
Rtotal = 3 k + 10 k + 5 k
GwQ;@L ]s] LQs U L UQLp;L LUL s]= Ss N

S] KQQ; O;8sQe ] S U ]U8fQ]QQU =Q s;@ L ]L
LpL ]y
Rtotal = 18 k
_
"
N9 N-
T
&N-
N9 ~N-
N-
"
1
+
R1 + R2 + R3 =
18 k
9V
8 u@]8;QLQ]QwL ]] O;n;QQUp]uu]

]@OL@Y;fY] UQ rLp =@]Q LrfOLY;fup@UQ r] e y
^
Itotal =
Itotal =
qZ&M]"n
Etotal
Rtotal
;ZvM
9 volts
= 500 A
18 k
Ss NL;QQU U]EQ]]wL p;@wp@UQLr O; Lw fE;QQw

QU=Q]@pQQ dL@@OIQI@e]Q@]O;kOkR]L
;QUQ]]]O;@eY]Uy
"
WM
A=
R1 3 k
I = 500 A
I = 500 A
9V
R3 5 k
2
R2
10 k
3
8 p$ Lw]@L;QQUkQ]]@O fQ]L Q
EQwSr@]QL@N@@;Q@Q]O] ] 6QsQ]Y8]U y
^
5M
&_ -}
&_ }
U f$}
c ed
~s
KijbOdb
f~
`
fbYd
`k ad
ER1 = IR1 R1
]]>p
ER2 = IR2 R2
ER1 = (500 A)(3 k) = 1.5 V
ER2 = (500 A)(10 k) = 5 V
ER3 = (500 A)(5 k) = 2.5 V
ER3 = IR3 R3
8];SQ]@OL@S@s]U]Ou]LpQ ]Q@]QL@rE@ @ n n

E ULepQQ ]]Q]]@y R@]Q S =Q Q wLQ N; QOy
ps]@OL]N ULPQw ]Qr E UE]]@OL@EQ]
8@PkwE ffpQ$L] =Qw n rO;L pnQ]w I@
Y;QNEQQ]E p RnQLR fSL @]QL@;QUQPLQfOLs $Q=O;
=Y;@wr@Q@Rs O]U U]U L YRQ]YQI LI ]U
UL ]y
^
\ u
Mf] u u
wM
"
7D
?
&_ }
"
R1
R2
R3
Total
Volts
Amps
Ohms
Ohms
Law
Ohms
Law
Ohms
Law
Ohms
Law
sQ 8sQnpOwNOL 8dQL @ 8]ds n@Ow]];@w

@ Q];@x ] sQ =Lp x =] s w] ;OL @IY@I]]LpL
k US w@OLSOL Sp8LQS] ]w@]@rY@y
D
fj
S &_ /}
N9>
N-
5B
R1
R2
R3
Total
E
I
3k
10k
Volts
Amps
Ohms
5k
]]w]k@ 8LQQ]]eU]pQLQ@sL L S@]Q ]Px ]Q]]@OL]

ILI]fOL @ ] ]U ]Q uYLk Qn E YU
;@ep R]]QLpQQ@]Q]] L $Q; u@;Q@Q LP] L 8@
]] ] 8]YQ ; QO EeLYLQ@e]Q ]UOLUrGQ d]]sL=
Q N]Q Q];nEQwQLOLQ Q];@ Q L E LQfOLy
l
SMN9 N-
D
mNW
V
|V
B
z >
&_ m}
-N9 NW
KM
_
N- L
]]Rn
R1
R2
{|} ~ U ~s R| }|~8|

aAb c edb
R3
3k
9ijijbKi
f~
`k ad
Total
E
I
fbYd 9gWh
Volts
Amps
10k
5k
Ohms
18k
Rule of series
circuits
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
8r]sQwNL @ LOLEQ Q]; = @QSsQ ]Uw@ LOL ;@e]LwL

]zNx e]QL]]Q]]SLR]Q]QLp;kLQ ]S=QLQ];QQUsL e y
^
&_ C}
CMHVD
P>N
R1
R2
R3
3k
10k
Au
Total
E
I
5k
Volts
500
Amps
18k
Ohms
Ohms
Law
s wp8Q=QU8LQ @pL UuL ]wY]@OsLnQ 8O; L]

LQ ] =; QQ d] QQ@Or@=]OQ @r@ u;QQU @ ff
] y
D
"V
R1
E
I
R
500
7B
R2
500
3k
10k
R3
500
5k
7=
Total
500
18k
Rule of series
circuits
IT = I1 = I2 = I3
Volts
Amps
Ohms
pL @Y=L E;QQw==@]QL@EQ]@;Q@Qs@O$]@=] w
8eQw]y
J
&_ }
U f$}
c ed
~s
KijbOdb
`k ad
]]R
R1
R2
R3
1.5
2.5
500
f~
`
fbYd
500
10k
Ohms
Law
Ohms
Law
Total
500
3k
5k
Ohms
Law
Volts
500
Amps
18k
Ohms
@f]S]RS=]wEQwLpL Q@Qn]wNO;sLEQ]kQ L @Kss YS

]E=rQr]]L; L ] Lpe] Sp;@esw@ Lw Ldsk]wEQ]L E OfL
@SRE Yr=; QkQ=]wEQ $w@k8Q]@ L rnQ=L fLQ] x
Q]@Q] Y Q U rQkL _Q] @Y] UQ= ; O;eYUYQ]
;@wp@U]wUdEQEesOwLYUs=p=Y] UQ]@ LEE =LQ] @
;LQf]EUYQ]8]QOL ]sLw ; Q SQQ]@ p xE]EEkL
pQQYsEE Q]ws; QL @Q GEOQ; QOL@sYQ
QOwr ]U Py

0J
_
"
G_
<

PD
R1
/V
;Z K <
7]
8T
AJ
3 k
9V
R2
10 k
5 k
3
]=E]QR8Q KUYQ= K ;]Q8L =; O; k @uL rs]

UQ@OLE dLPQ;UQr;@eE 8EQ;QSQO; wQk x s OfOL
;@w=sQn;@ ];Ow ];EEE Q_QnQ]@Q] E @]Q]]Lp$;QQU
LQ=]s@ssw @@ 8]wEQ S 8Us@ xQw] ]]Py
@YL Ep

@
6
@

KEY p O p O
]
8r]@QnEw Q x@]OLQkEQQr L]ErQQy
Qp
O Qp
Op
@
U E U E U U E U
l
G_
8T
UT
B
AD
PB
z E8FG s
m
Z -^

<
<
<
{ |} ~ U ~s R| }|~8|

f~
dQUQ]E Q8LQQ]@OL] S]@OUL=Qs]@OL]sEQ]p]U ]@]
r] ] @]Q =]]QEL E =]@OQp_ ]@ d]QL@rE@]ULn;@wp@Us x
LQ8Q;;k=QNEE=pQS;@wp@U pfE @ Q;; rQ@]Q]]
Y;fuEE rL e O;s O]Np@UOspfsO N 8EL r]OE
LdEEUYO88 eY]Q]Uys x ]EQEO @Qr]8 ] pN@]QQY]LQfn
QLwk]]E e]@QesRNQkQ @n@nEE N]kQ @O=Q @
]EE
e] R@=Es;QQU L prs n@Q@L L nw Lw]
w ULw r@ kkQ L]L E] Ye ELeQ8;@wE ]sLpLO
]wIUQ@=pe x]L EE U Qu x]E w;QQU
] ]p
GwkLQ]p ; QN NE ]8pU n@ @L@_Q]ps r Q]cQ
E ]QwQ r]Qr; QQN] ryL ;@eY]UQrLQenQLwnQU Q Q];
]nQ= @pLe ]@]QLQ]PfOL ELpR@]QL@EQ]p@kQw UL= ]@]QLOL]@OL@] L
Q nQLRSE pQ@R]=QO;dK]]REQQ]wpsE Q@n @
r s]S] ww]QN]]]QeE ]
]wp@UOw O;LQQQLwr;QUy z& rz& zssd

]QLfOL $n ; Q U]Qke ]d=ELQLp;y z
r ss
]QL]]Q]]r $nQ8; Q U]necL Q E EpL@]Q]]EQ]yx z
x S&x ssx
d
8QLssQ=pLOL PO;] wLQrQfQ]O]ue ] SQPy
]R\
N-
] u
~u
aAb c edb
fbYd 9gWh
/
A
&\ u
v\
<

`k ad
AN9 N-
s
Mf] \
]
9ijijbKi
B
M] \
Q
&N
<
/D
]
m\
M
0
s
<
u
AD
<
u
0B
B
SX
WJ
B
"
8B
8B
B
9;89
<
fH
"
N9 N-
KNWH
/N-
"
KH
;."4v684&%(%766W6
-.( -v.A+
"_
9V
R1
10 k
R2
2 k
R3
1 k
pQQp; R$7EOQLp6LY]EeLOL5 ; O;Q LQR@]QL@w = U]]Ur]

;@wp@UQ8uQ; O; 8pLpSQQLQS] nfn;Q8Ld ;Q L R]ww]uY] @O8
pLOL YO;E]k]@OL@8w]QkY;fR;Q];]ww]Rp@UQ=fsL pSQLwL
Ln@@R e@ ]Q]QrLY]S; QEr]]Q]]S]U ULPQer@]QL@N@;Q@Q
wsO S @pL Qw]]Q]]w]U wsOIS U] e@]Q]]w];Q@QkLQQ]
U]fn]]@OL@]YrQUR L]OL S]s@8QL eL y
D
5B
"
YD
N
"
YN9
N-
"
"
U E f$}
c ed
}|~8|
Kijb
9ijijbKi
f~
`k ad
]R\]
R1
R2
R3
Total
Volts
Amps
10k
2k
Ohms
1k
@f8@@SL sO;OEQQLwr]] L ydL @8]@OL]@

; QUpLQ Q];Spf8Y uQLw;@U;8 ]OE@=L; L ]Qn@n]Q_Q@
8@ IQR]p@eLw n; Qn] wwEQ I] ]O ]NQ
ROQ@pLpU ]]Q]]@;Q@Qd@OnQ @ ]]Q ]wQQfOL8L]O
Q @y

q_ C}
&_ 7}
WMH
IR1 =
ER1
R1
IR1 =
9V
10 k
IR2 =
ER2
R2
IR3 =
ER3
R3
= 0.9 mA
IR2 =
9V
2 k
= 4.5 mA
9V
1 k
IR3 =
E
I
R
R1
R2
R3
= 9 mA
0.9m
4.5m
10k
2k
Ohms
Law
Ohms
Law
Total
Volts
9m
Amps
1k
Ohms
Ohms
Law
d p@U8fQ pE@ UsLd8LOLQ@d@d]QLfOL] LOL ; Q

unL L QukQ@Uw@ LOL ;@e 8]wQILY]
sLNNLYu] uS] p;]wwLpLQUQN=]Q] Q@NS ULQe
LdL E UE]Q @ LOLpO ;QQUQy
l
j_
_
&_ }
MV
SMHVD
~V
SL
"
]R\\
IT
IR1
9V
-
aAb c edb
fbYd 9gWh
9ijijbKi
f~
`k ad
IR2
R1
10 k
4
IR3
R2
R3
2 k
1 k
IT
{|} ~ U ~s R| }|~8|
Qw]QLdQUS;E7QNe@6L ] p5QQw LdLSY] U ]$QQ@8QQ]@$

; O;]w] OS Sp@U wQ@RQ]] @w=w]Q= ON Np@U
u@Q@] Lp$Qww]pEr@UNQQ]@ ]k ]NQ]O U]Q]
w] 8Q]kQ;@ 6QLLdL fQLk8 U]P OQN]Qrs@SQ@
QLwN ksp;]@QQsQNQ@OQ]] L] f] 6]Onw
Y@Q@QQe ]dLQk K Q]Q$p@U ]y L_Q@8Q] p@U kQup@U
pf8 @pLP L Q]O ;QUQQQ]@ ]L @
w;@Q ; =]LOL ; QOy8=]QL ; O;SQ@N N @pLw L
N E LPOLO;QUQ =Q@ES] PN YL]]OL s
] L L] ]y
l
mX
N
qMT
Q
mp
7n
N
N 5}
"
7X
&N9 xN-
&N Y=
5]
X
qN9 ~N-
qN-
;X
wM
SM
E
I
SB
m\
R1
R2
R3
r
A@
fj
0.9m
4.5m
10k
2k
Total
9m
Volts
14.4m
Amps
Ohms
1k
Rule of parallel
circuits
Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3
pL @] Q8QQ ]Uw@ LQ] ] w]] LdQLOL; Q

Q Q];@y
J
E
I
R
Rtotal =
KMVD
R1
R2
R3
Total
Volts
9m
14.4m
Amps
1k
625
Ohms
&_ 0}
0.9m
4.5m
10k
2k
Etotal
9V
= 625
14.4 mA
Ohms
Law
@LQN]w e]Qk eY]Q]U@ NLOL; O;QfOL] =Ny ]

L r@LQs E UE]E]OGesQO;]sQLOLEQ Q];@s]
E UE]Q Q];rQLOL]8p@Rp
QL$]R]L ]O E UE] ]
Itotal
D
UE>E
Sr\u
PE8
U E f$} }|~8|
f~
8RQLOL ; O;d@QR@pU Q]ywQ$QepEE]Q Q];
QLd] rkL@8LOLC d ; 8;@e] Q]e] ] ]pLOL
; O;Q fpf=@Qr; QOrQw]Q]eQnQN]@]Q]]];QQULQ Q];@
$LwL] ]dQu L ] Y;f]QLQ Q];L E UE]fOL= pLOL
; O;8@ @Ny
c ed
Kijb
9ijijbKi
`k ad
]R\[
F F z F {
s
~=
0D
UV
Rtotal =
1
1
1
1
+
+
R2
R3
R1
]wp] ]Q LY UL ]]QE@ Y ]pQ @Q;@;Q]] eLOL C

f @r]kL QQk@SE@wL@LEQO]; ]@ESN];]wwEQL ]pLOL
Q @Q Q; O;
@f@SsQQn SO;kLk]wEQLpL Q$E] KOO]SL;Q@
O]]P]O]Ls]QEQ;QYs];Lw 8; O;dSQ8;@eEwQQkdLwOfOL
Q]snQ GEOsO;y
D
"
- z~
]>N
T
J
G_
8T
1
+
R2
2 k
R1
10 k
9V
R3
1 k
LUL n kQ7@ ] 6LUYQ5eOwkE@QkY] UQRS; O;s

@uYkLQ$]NeY ] xPG x8L ;Q L $]ww]Y] UQNpfLQ
EU]p=pQ xU8sL ]_QwQ=spE]kr G= w
]Q] ; QL Y] UQeLQn ;Q L ;@we@]RLsfI;Q=L8Y] UQ ]@e;Lw
; O;QSsQN]_Q=QN@L]PQr;@eY]UQs @@NEESUY8LpkrsQ
;@_ eYL@wLQn;@wp@UQNs ]=k] UOU QwQk;]@U ]IL
; E w]seEEr=pEO@r=pQ w] @y
-B
8B
D
Y <
<

<
"_
5
5?
+
9V
R1
-
10 k
R2
R3
2 k
1 k
r Lw ]kL0@PQOQ0@L dLEEEUYO xu ]Q ; ]Q8EQQ]

e]]wY]@OspLQN]ww]uQLYOQ;@wE L8 rQ rL ;@_
pLOL Ysu]OL
G ]OEeQE OLO ;QUQw xdQ C@]QL@]O;w
l
m
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-V

<
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5?
T
{ |} ~ U ~s R| }|~8|

f~
Q s@OIQfQ]LIQQ;;k@;QQUre]QwUQNQ@w]Q @
sL@]]Qs;QQ]O] x$@]OL,k]E8Q;QUd;] ] rpsL;Q
w@]Q]]r@O;] 88n]wsLLU kEw]uL x Q@@]OLu
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vr1
vr2
aAb c edb
vr3
9V
R1
R2
10 k
0
0
0
NOTE: vr1, vr2, and vr3 are all
"dummy" voltage sources with
values of 0 volts each!!
2 k
R3
1 k
NEww]@OL@@O;LQL Y; ]@O=@d=] w];]nN]YOQ@kL

; O; rO;E E ] ]@ CE U@E ]N y
@EE UEEYP

@

KEY O O
KEY 6 @ Ep Ep
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LY y
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L P;]wY]UQ]sQS]e]]Q]] @Q Q];E wn= U]pkL @]Q]Q Q]; U]
OLOnQ@O]w= ULYrLQ]LQLOLpQ@ @@ kN@8] ; QQU]pL
Q pnQL nQN ]LLOL YO;K]]kEOQLpkp ]R @n
QsLQSLQew@NpLLLeE Q@
]wp@UOeLOL ; Q]]eS@]QL@]y x dz x rz&x zssx

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S ss
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E ]wwQ] KrQ ]E ;RL8LQQw;Q ] ] Q@ ] EQ]r]E
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Resistance
Conductance =
|EGGFG z E
S]QLQSfOL]Ur;]pE_OL]ELpR C@O s]Rk]]NUQ@

]EQ Q];SLp]Ep_Q];SY k]pUSQw]NQLwSQULP ;Q LQ]
f] Kfw;]wY]UQ UQfOL]S;@wLQn]n ]nQ8]wp@U =@@ K]
sfOL]Y]wp@U N 8Qws;] eLL ]r dQQ@= L
;@wp@U w ]8]_Q@]8]wY]@ N wK]wp@U k@sE] QO
D
T
,D
PV l V
"_
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9V l V
7FH|E
8T
WV
WV l V
T
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ijijbKi
` f `k ad
Q Q];r];]wY]U N w$;@ N

sw]Q]Ep_ ]]$;]wY]U
N wLw@
LQQU sQ E8Q]NY]E]QrQQQUd;@E;QLp;] s=p@
QNLQ]p ; m Lpw EsOn ]] =Y k@OULO LR]@nE
I ;Q]N] QN@]$w]w] kQr]Q]QQPwL
w]];k n L@LOeL
]QkeNLOLY
E; ] QOL]k]wQw ULQRO]]wQ] ReYOQQnL8E]Q

eE@ _U@QNOpL@s@QNLQ U; ;EY;@ Q
;Kd]] Qr@U e]wQ@ w YL ]rL QLwL Lw]p
Q; UfOLs]w LYsO]Q]E ]Q QdLY]E QQ]sQ QL=sO ]]Q@]
E ]L ]
=LQLQ]Ns]e ];EQQksQ]QS @fs ; @ GLQ]O
QNkORQ k]se8L ]e e]Ss RQ@NL ]] =] ]w
Q]]$]S Qw@pNY uLQeY; ]w@Q Q ]w =S@N_Q]
Q Q];8]Lwn Q]w]8pLw u sQ@d]_Q]Y]Ep_Q];@
]e$ QN@e]Lw wp wQ;]Q]Y w@p8Q ] ]LQ =Q
]Q L @ wELELQSQ]f]
]O==]LOL P; Q;Lw ]] kYSL Q=L=QNQ OLpO @
;QUQESQLOLQfOLw]rQns@RO;@ ;Q]LQw] k p]rQ]]
rs] S;f]QnL rOLO]Q]@]k]r]@rQ]ORQfOLsL ]] G
kL
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Q @QQ sQ]]]Q@]QL
9V
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{
KV
5V
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R 5
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E z FU E
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<
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SV
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5V
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7V
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? "V
V UV
vX
UE8FG z |E
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0M
AM
WEG
Rtotal
R2
R1
R3
R4
LQ]R]Q]is less
;@than
E;QLRp;n, R , R , orSR]individually
LLsQR E EpLQ]O;@E;Q];Y]
]Q] PQ @Q;@E;8pQsQ]]]Q@]QL
total
UE>E
Gtotal
G1
G2
G3
G4
Gtotal is greater than G1, G2, G3, or G4 individually
cc
À i `k i a
gd
]R\p
D !"$#&%'(% )%+*),- $./-0%*.1.2*3**,1,4,540(1%!6R70*),7% %'(80(9 ):(%'(;1./(1<5!/-0*),

$./-0%*.

Gtotal = G1 + G2 + G3 + G4
=>:-?A@5.( B?C%'D*B% ./-0DE%*.A!F. )%'1.(G $H%'*).I%'(JK*B%'(K*B%4&*),)&1 -*, Mf]>L Q ):5&4"%*.$#
?;M*.N%+*).,4*)%K*+'N%&O ):8%'(P*D B<$: Q0(,!*R1.7% S"!"%*).DK5TU0("%1%0(%4.(GS%'(V&4( -*), ):
&*$+'P&&E%1<$W .D/-0E%+*).
1
Rtotal
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
R2
R3
R1
R4
5 $,1<54.(G2%'(*D B<$XR$0D*B%4 .P: 8% )%+*),F&4"%*. M4."%*/Y ):%'(&1 -*,Z ):6% )%+*),F&4"%*. Q #5?;
*.P4.5<&"%7M&1 -*)% Q )%'["!/-&8 :6%'(W"70*)%4 .

Rtotal =
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
R2
R3
R1
R4
5 D#?;M*1<$K*B%\ $0(QT5-%4M"!]%+*).: Q0(,!*S*)%Q,4*$]%R < ./(0E%+*).

M m 4\"&,4/( O0"/^*Q*
(+*%!*),Z&*$"0&2&.7%&#(*).D/P 2%'(*D B<$: $\0(,4*\!*2 .Y .(_% I4.Y%Q'(*.*),4T-"!; ):D*)+*),4,1&,
4+0(1%&`
ba
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<
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./-0DE%*.I!"T5\D $,1?/M?1%'Y%'W,1%"%&WV m V*./M!&*$"0/V4.Y0.(c%+ ):
S*B%'(K*B%4&*),4,1T$#( $./-0%*).DI"70*,4;%'(W4( 5&*),Z ):"!"%*).D f

m e
g E g
4c%X: X,4&E% $.8% SX B?

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7{
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"70*)%4 .% 2/-4<*./M*."?;: $f<s*,10& ):F< $,c%+*)G$#$0(&.$%#-*)./xB J&!]%+*).%*)4.(4.(G% Q*+'
$D $.(.7%"
Ohms Law for Power
P = IE
P=
E2
P = I2R
D8'(!W!&*$"4,4TSK*).*G&/U5TC*$/(/-4.(GS*). )%' B?u% S 0(:v*)1,4!*)W%+*)(,4K ):< $,c%+*)G$&&#60(.7%&#*./

&4"%*.
]R\n
R1
R2
R3
ijijbKi
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Total
Volts
I
R
Amps
Ohms
Watts
H B?;I: *).5TU*)%!0,4*%*(,4P $,102.x*).rP: 0(./^7TU%'(P*(( (4*)%qX'q_ m}*s?y"70*)%4 .

D*&/P .Y?'*BC% BG$0(&8*)I("&.7%;: $3z3#-=E#*.q
/ N{4.Y%'*)% $,10(. Q `
.Y4.$%&"%4.(G0,1_: 8% )%+*),| B?&;<$+"0D4./-4<54/(0*),| B?&4;%'*B%1%34*$/(/-1%4<_: m
z~ $. BG0 T
+*B%4 .p ):1+0(1"% _"&4&&#Z*)+*),4,4,}#1B*)+*),4,4,}#D $X %'(&?!"$
` H B?&!_*M&*0(Q :*)%\ ):?; @Z#
*).D/["4.QD B?;_/-41*)%/ GFR $0D*),F%'(% )%+*),6 B?;*((,41/[5TM%'(\ 0(+ Mv Q Mv*$3X%'(
}6*s?~ ):
< .D"&<B*B%1 $.M :Hz.(GTK4.R('5T5! #(4+0(1%3
.
BG0(+*B%1 $.M'*$8.( K8 Z&%3 .P%'(WK*)%'(&*)%!&`
Q
MU II U I GFH>E
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9;89
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I
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Aj3k;m&+j Q
t$vf+w%i
m((
X.( ):;%'2 7]%Q .U2!"%*)@$&_K*/-5TpG$1..(1.GY&,1E% $.(4&W]%0/-&.$%+I1.U%'(4*)(,1!*)%4 .U ):

X'(&_ }6*s?3I!I21L-1.GP%'(V $.7%L5%+I ):<$ ,1%*G#F0(&.$%#6*).D/C&!]%+*).`2=.C %'(&W? $/(&#6*R"%0/-&.7%
1G$'7%8!]%+*)@$.(,4TK0_*2<B*),40(_: 8=J%'( 0(G$'M .X&4"% $;*./M%'(I<B*),40(_: zo* $;*2%8 ):1.7%+ . T
.(E%/Q&!]% +#s%'(1.@74.(G_%'D*B%A%'T _ ,4,(*)1<$*B%H%'("!"%*).D; ):%'*B%A $.(8"!]% j` ^3 %" x,N&Q
%'44D $"%+*).7%0,1 /D8'(W<B*)4*(,180&/P1
. X'(&
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z % %'*2_%]?;
4.$%+I1.p%'(K1+0(1%W0(./-&W .D"!/-+*B%1 $.F`=&*).(. )%I B<('D*?&%'4_0(,1$
` D8'(!I!X"&4*,1,4T[4
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: )%'R< ,1%*GI/-
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< $,c%+*)G$_T$ 0 _ _:&&.4.(G! ,4,4TP* 7%'*B%X4.(G,4 $2 ..7%*)./P%'(Q0.7%3T $0 _ I:.D4.(G
! ,4,4TQ%'( 0(G$'%'*)%;1.(G$,1_ $2 ..7%;*./2%'(_&4"%*.T$ 0 _ :.1.(GQ4;" $,1&,1T\: %'*)%84.(G,4
$D $.(.7%&` }61@$?!"$#7?'.R*),!0,4*)%4.(G2*\<B*)4*(,4%*)4.(4.(G\% K*\%8 ):H $2 ..7%;4.Y*240(1%&#-
0(X%'D*B%;%'(I< $,c%+*)G$#50(&.7%&#5*)./M"!]%+*).<B*),40(;*_"& B% Q%'*B% $(,1%I"%; : D $.(.7%+
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%]?;.Y%'( $_%]? 4.$%+`
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% P@&[%'(\ .7%L7%_ )Y: X'(&
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c
`C --b ` a
k db
R1
d;i

R2
R3
]R\
Total
Volts
Amps
Ohms
Watts
Ohms
Law
Ohms
Law
X1<54.(G<B*),40(
4+0(1%"
{ >GF R z >
1
Ohms
Law
Ohms
Law
* 7 $,10(.!H*),4,1 B?8*)(,4*$D&%'(8(1.1,1 :1*./D*)+*),4,1&,
For series circuits:

R1
R2
R3
Total
E
I
Add
Volts
Equal
Etotal = E1 + E2 + E3
Itotal = I1 = I2 = I3
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3
Add
Add
Amps
Ohms
Watts
]"[
ijijbKi
` f `k ad
For parallel circuits:

R1
R2
R3
Total
Equal
Volts
Add
Amps
Diminish Ohms
Add
Watts
Etotal = E1 = E2 = E3
Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3
Rtotal =
1
1
1
1
+
+
R1
R2
R3
t
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3
^3 %\ $.(,1Tr/- 5%'(qV)%*(,1RV[%'( -/q1(,4c:TN%'(Y*.*)G$.7%Q :X*),4,;&,1&<s*.7%70*).7%1%4&&#A1%*,4
:v*1,41%*B%&W 7T>+'&+@51.GV ):8*).?&X5TSK*)@54.(GP1%&*$"TR% [" $,1<$: I%'( 1G$1.D*),H0(.(@5.( B?.C<s*!*),1
%' $0(G'U )%'(I%'( -/(# W5TS?; @51.(GP*+@5?8*)+/(% S ,4<\: I%'24.(1%!*),4,1TCG4<&.p<B*),40(&_: T 0
,40-%4 .&`J( $XL-*(,1$#|c:T 0p'*s<W
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4.Y*240(1%&#5T $0P*.P+'(+@T 0;?; @5TV*/(/-4.(G*Q B?*B%;%'_ )%% $f: 8D B?;8*,40(,!*B%4 .D $.M*+'
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%'.KT $0Q0"%'*s<$*$/-*I!]%+*)@3 &?'( 0n'(4,1%'(!A%+'(.( 70(3 ): V$ $fT+'(&+@54.(G VT $0(J?; @
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):A $.-:01 $.F`
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M: yT $0(/
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4+0(1%Y4.{/- &&.7%R . BG$0(+*B%4 .D`CU?4,1,IL-(,4 C U ):%'(U8 Z&E%+Y ):\ D $.(.7%Y:v*)0(,1%Y4.
)%'1\*./r**,1,4,840(1%2'(#J%'(&.q% C*CG&*B%2/-G$&P*B%2%'Y&./^ :3%'&
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R1
R2
R3
100
300
50
9V
n1%'r*),4,J $2 ..7%I4.U%'(!4+0(1%I:0(.E%1 $.(4.(GS*B%I%'4W( $D&W<B*),40(&&#F?;V*).UK*B%'(K*B%4&*),4,1T

/-%1.*),4,F0(&.7%8*)./Y<$ ,1%*)G$_/( $
R1
R2
R3
Total
Volts
20m
20m
20m
20m
Amps
100
300
50
450
Ohms
3 B?f,4%0"0(D 7"M%'*)%N-M:v*)4,!2'( $"%&/|`V5'( $"%&/VS2*).Q%'D*B%2%'(Y"!"% \.( B?y*%\,14@Y*

"%+*)4G'7%(4&M ):8?1#?c%'^,4c%%,4V . S"!"%*).D`qD8'(M1+0(1%Q?4,1,D&'*s<V*$I%' 0(G$'^*vVG=]0(V
?4I?;_ .(.(E%&/Y* $YN-5M4.Y&*IT 0P?&_?; ./-&4.(GD# V8=]0(D&?1" V\!*2 .P%&y: $*
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R1
R2
100
300
R3
50
9V
n1%O
' N-R"'( $"%&/|#1%'(&25Tq*=]0(K?4Y 25Tq*).x1.7%&.D*),8"!"% \:v*)4,40($#A%'P% )%+*),40(1%
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R1
E
I
R
R2
60m
60m
100
R3
60m
` f `k ad
Total
ijijbKi
50
Volts
Amps
60m
Ohms
150
Shorted
resistor
l %'(Q1+0c%X0(&.$%34.*&;: t
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100
R2
R1
300
R3
50
9V
E
I
R
R1
R2
R3
0
0
9
0
100
Open
resistor
0
0
50
Total
9
0
Volts
Amps
Ohms
n1%s
' N *)%1. B.(1%&4"%*.W*./P% )%+*),F&!]%+*)._4.(G%'(Q0( :A*,1,61./(1<5!/-0*),6"!]%+*).&84.
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` J1+]%#J?;
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R1
90
R3
100m
200m
45
R2
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R2
R1
E
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6 5
g i d d
R3
180
Total
50m
350m
Volts
Amps
R
90
45
180
25.714
Ohms
50(D 7"4.(G2%'*)%WN-I .D81.Y%'4D*)+*),4,1&,Z1+0c%#('(_ 8?'*)%;%'(W8Z&%?4,4,FD
9V
45
R2
R3
100m
90
90
Open
resistor
R2
R1
R1
R3
180
Total
Volts
50m
150m
Amps
180
60
Ohms
^3 %!_%'D*B%34.M%'(43*)+*),4,1&,|40(c%#*).Y .Y(+*).+'Y .,1TM

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120
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+
9V
R1
R2
90
45
R3
180
R2 "shorted" with a jumper wire
R1
R2
R3
Total
E
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100m
90
Shorted
resistor
50m
180
Volts
Amps
Ohms
l "' %&/C&4"% $ Mv"!"%*).D )P

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+
9V
-
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9V
R1
90
R2
45
R3
180
R2 "shorted" with a jumper wire
E
I
R
R1
R2
R3
low
low
low
low
Volts
low
high
low
high
Amps
90
180
Ohms
Shorted
resistor
Total
Supply voltage
decrease due to
voltage drop across
internal resistance
5
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%'S< $,c%+*)G[ 0(+[?4,4,,41@$,4Tx0]%+*)4./(*)K*G#;0(.(,4&V1%M'*$K.{"&BD&*),4,1To/-&4G.(/q% ^'*./-,4
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R1
5 k
45 V
10 k
7.5 k
R1
R3
R2
R3
E
I
R
5k
R2
10k
Total
45
Volts
Amps
Ohms
7.5k
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R2
R3
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45
5k
10k
R1
R2
Total
E
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7.5k
22.5k
R3
Total
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J( '(#-?;W*).Y0X'(&
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E
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2m
5k
2m
10k
2m
7.5k
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45
Amps
2m
Ohms
22.5k
^3 B?W#@7. B?1.(Gp%'*)%%'([4+0(1%V0(&.7%2!5\S
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R1
R2
R3
10
20
15
45
Volts
2m
2m
2m
2m
Amps
5k
10k
7.5k
22.5k
Ohms
R1
R2
R3
Total
40
80
60
180
8m
8m
5k
10k
% N&*),!0(,!*B%
Total
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7.5k
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22.5k
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Amps
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*),!
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%'\*)%"%TS"0((,1T[?8*9ZuV< $,c%+`n'(.C%'\*)%"%T[< ,1%*G?8*X4.&*$"/Y%
]"nM< $,c%+MHZM%1&I*$
Q0D+' Q #%'\<$ ,1%*)G$Q/- p*$ $-N9Q*),!" P1.D&*&/R5T[*K:v*$E% _ ): ZM: ]"V%
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4u
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ER1
Etotal
bOh
` f `k ad
10 V
=
45 V
20 V
45 V
15 V
45 V
]"[
40 V
180 V
= 0.22222
80 V
180 V
= 0.44444
F4@&?4#$.( .3 ):|%'( %'(&< $,c%+*)G$3/- $K*)%4 $J+'D*).(G$&/?1%'K%'(4.&*$"/"0((,1T<$ ,1%*)G$1%'(&"

}
ER2
Etotal
ER3
Etotal
60 V
180 V
= 0.33333
( $3%'(4_&*$" $.R*P"&4&X40(1%X! :%.C*),4,4&/S*"E FRF E: $1%I*)(4,4c%]TP% P( $D $"%1 $.YY $
/-4<54/-VC%'(M% )%+*),;< ,1%*GV4.7% p:*$E%4 .D*), %4 .DQ : .D]%+*).7%\+*B%1 D`n1%'x*p,11%"%,1Y(1%2 :*),4G&(*#
?;Q*.p/-4<*K: $\0(,!*2: X/(%&4.(4.(GP1&4"% $3< $,c%+*)G/( $[G4<.[. )%'1.(GP W%'*.R% %*),
< $,c%+*)G$#51.D/-1<5!/-0*,F"!"%*).D#-*./P% )%+*),|&4"%*.
J
Voltage drop across any resistor

Current in a series circuit
. . . Substituting
Etotal
Rtotal
En = In Rn
Itotal =
Etotal
Rtotal
for In in the first equation . . .
Voltage drop across any series resistor
En =
Etotal
Rtotal
Rn
. . . or . . .
En = Etotal
Rn
Rtotal
D8'(3+*B%1 W :|1./(1<5!/-0*),D"!"%*).D8% I% )%+*),&!]%+*).4J%'(*)*$H%'+*B%4 W ):|4./-4<54/-0D*),<$ ,1%*G

/- W% % )%+*),-"0((,4TW< ,1%*G1.2*<$ ,1%*)G$/-4<54/-&A40(c%`0D8'4!@5.( B?.\*%'(>>E F"F E8,8> B#
*).D/P1%!3*K'( % T0-%3%'( -/Y: X/-%24.(4.(GK< $,c%+*)G$I/( $P4.S*K"&4&1+0c%?1%' 0-%G$ 4.(G2%'( 0G'
%'0(&.7%&*),!0(,!*B%1 $j. Mv Q )/: X'(&
_ -}*s?W`
@4.(G2%'(!8: Q0,4*#-?W*.P8 T*).D*),4
T ?&%'(WL(*2,1W4+0(1"% _ 8< $,c%+*)GI/- 84.Y:?;3"%&
hXsfhb
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ER2 =45 V
ER3 =45 V
R2
R3
5 k
22.5 k
= 10 V
10 k
22.5 k
= 20 V
ER1 = 45 V
7.5 k
5 k
10 k
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R1
45 V
-
If
` f `k ad g9h
7.5 k
22.5 k
= 15 V
A ,1%*G;/-1<5!/-+jB./\?4/-8*)(,1!*)%4 .4.2,4&E%!J%A1+0(1%&#B?'(&8"& B Q1.*)%4 . ):"T

1&!]% +*;0&/Q% V/-4<54/("VI*<$ ,1%*G;1.7% _(&48( $D $"%1 $.**)%A ):Z*X<$ ,1%*G*0(&.7%
/-&<7!$`
R1
Input
voltage
R2
Divided
voltage
X.([/-&<7!Y:"
70(&.$%,1Tq0"/x*$K*U< ,1%*G T>/-4<54/(1.(GU $2 ..7%K4%'( I E z FH EEE#8?'(4+'o!K*
&4"% $M?1%'{*x B<B*)(,4p&,1&2&.7%P $c%1 $.(&/7Tn*xK*).50*),_@5.( Y,1&<`D8'(C B<B*),1C,4.7%&#
%]T5(!*),4,4T&*),4,1/V*SF I EE#-*@ $.7%*%?1%'P*Q"!"%4<"%1M ):6K*B%4*,D*)%;*).5T 4.$%8"&,1E%&/V5T2%'
K*).50*,F .7% $,
4u
ia
Xsfhb
bOh
` f `k ad
]Zx]
1
Potentiometer
wiper contact
8'(K?4D&\ .7%*$E%!I%'(M,1:%T}:v*4.(Gp* B?T5Q ,/(*s?.U1.N%'(V!/(/-,4M ):;%'V<&"%4&*),J&4"% $

,4&.$%` l c%;4 B<&/0F#$1%; .7%*$E%+A%'&4"%4<"%4V,4 $J% %24.*,j]*./:0(%'(&;*s?8*sTW:
%&4.*)Y, \-#6,4 B?;1.(GY&4"%*.2% R%1.*C, ]V*)./U+*)!"4.(GY"!"%*).D2% R%24.*K, \-` l W1%4W B<$&/
/- B?.F#7%'( $(D 7"1%_8 Z&%;&0(,1%&`0D8'X&4"%*.X*2*0(&/K%]?;&.V%&4.*),!9]X*).D
/ \W!8 .D]%+*).7%
: 3*.5TV?1 $1%4 .F`
D
1
less resistance
more resistance
more resistance
less resistance
2
>= :*Y ."%*.7%I<$ ,1%*G24*((,41/p%]?;&.U%1.D*),! ]*./\-#6%'(K?4D&WD 7"1%4 .N?4,1,/-4%*)%%'

( %4 .*,Z< ,1%*GI/- (&/PD%]?&.Y%'W?13 .7%*$E%3*)./Y&c%'( :%'(W )%'(8%]?; Q%1.*,4&`
Using a potentiometer as a variable voltage divider
more voltage
less voltage
hXsfhb
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If
` f `k ad g9h
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$0]%J,44@%'(C B(L-&/<$ ,1%*G/-4<7!/-&&#$%'(D %.7%1 $2%&" _ A< $,c%+*)G$ FRFFH z U>FH!J"%4%,4T2*W:0(.E%1 $.

):|&4"%*.X*)./.( % ):|%'(3K*)G$.(1%0/-X ):F*)(,14&/<$ ,1%*G`=.K )%'(? $/#$c:|%'(3 )%&.7%4 %@5.( $
,1&<4 B<$&/P% K%'(
uD&.7
% Mv/(&*/ T>.7%& $c%1 $.F#(%'(<$ ,1%*)G$W/- $(&/R%]?;.R?4D&X*./
1%' $0-%4/(%1.D*),A?; 0(,!/UDKL-*$E%,1T ]\M ):;Q %'V*)((,44&/U< $,c%+*)G$#F.( [K*B%%&?'*B%I%'*B%Q<$ ,1%*G
'*(D&.8% 2# ?'*)%;%'(W.D/ T% T>./Y&4"%*._ ):%'(W )%.7%4 %4&`
D8'(!*((,44&*B%4 .K :|%'(XD %&.$%1 $%&!;*W<&T20:0(,&*).DJ ):F $-%*1.1.(G\*W<B*)4*(,1< ,1%*G8:
* B(L-&/ T}<$ ,1%*)G$2 00+'r*Q*R*B%%T`M=>:*[1+0c%T$ 0 _ (01,!/-4.(GS" 70(4W*[%*1.N*) $0(.7% ):
q
< $,c%+*)G$M%'*B%V!K,4&2%'*.x%'([<B*),40(R ):W*).*s<B*)4,4*(,1R*)%"%T _ < $,c%+*)G$#JT$ 0o*sTx ..(&%K%'([ $0-%&
%&4.*),! :H*2 )%&.7%4 %*$ $%'*B%3D*B%"%TP*.&
/ V/-!*),|0(x V?'*B%<&< $,c%+*)GIT$ 0Y.(/P%]?;&.
%'WD %.7%1 $2%&?1*./P .(I ):%'W 0-%8%&4.*),!;: 0D"W4.PT$ 0(31+0cR%
Adjust potentiometer
to obtain desired
voltage
Battery
+
V
-
Circuit requiring
less voltage than
what the battery
provides
n'(&.C0&/C4.C%'(!I*.(.(&&#|%'(K.*2 I >E z FH EE8X*@X:&%Q"&.X%'(&T E8E8Mv .7% ,

%' I E z FH>Mv< $,c%+*)G Q *)((,44&/R* 7%'7TY&*)%4.(GK*<s*!*),1I< $,c%+*)G$8T/-1<5!/-8+*B%1 D`D8'(!0W )Q:
%'I%'(T%24.*,|D %.7%1 $2%&3**2<B*)4*(,1I<$ ,1%*)G$_/(1<5!/-!8<&TV 0(,4*1.[1+0(1%3/-&4G.F`
ba
9;89
5G
5140(1%( %4 .6#- FRF E#D%'(W% )%+*),60(((,4TM<$ ,1%*GI*) .(G4./-4<54/-0D*),F<$ ,1%*)G$W/- $&#
%'(W( %4 .D4.(GK"%4%,4TP/-&D&./-.7%30( .R&4"%*.Hz e zKHPMHN-vN-fH Q
l )%.7%4 %W!W*P<s*!*),1
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0"/P*$*).R*/=]0D]%+*)(,4W< $,c%+*)GI/-4<54/-&&`
*.(Ak$v$&+ 6Em0%WQjw%i
$bln
}F"
% _ %+*)@\*).( %'(&3,1 5 $@P*B%X 0(XL(*)(,4"&4&40(c%#%'(!%4Q.50(\D&4.(GK%'( 4.$%+34.[%'Q40(1%
: <$ ,1%*G_:.
8HW dr
xIf
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+
45 V
R1
5 k
7.5 k
+
R3
]Z[
10 k

Y0i|
bOi
R2
=>:F?;?;3% 2 $.(.(&%;*Q< ,1%%;%]?;.MD $1.7%]_*).

/ \(#$,4*$+@\%&"%;,4&*$/% \D $1.7
% ]X*./K&/%&"%
4, &*/V% 2D $1.7%W\-#7%'(I2%&;?; 0,4/M*/Y9ZuW<$ ,1%&`0DT5(4&*),4,1T%'(V7V\"4G.P4;.( %8'( B?.Mv(0-%42,14&/ Q
: I $c%1<$Q&*$/-1.G$X1.N/-4G1%*),H%W/-!",4*sT-&`L B?&<&&#: X%'4I,4&" $.[%'2 ,!*)1%]TY :J%'2<$ ,1%*G
&*/(1.(G2!<&TK4D $"%+*).7"%
E = +45 V
>= :(?;1-J2?&J% %+*)@J%'*)%*)J< $,c%%&*./W&*$"0(A%'(<$ ,1%*)G$J/- * 7F&*+'I&4"% $&#s"%(1.G
*) 0./R%'1+0c%I1.U*P,1 -+@5?!"2/-1&%4 .C?c%'p%'(\&/S%]%W,4&*/S ): $0(_2%&_ $.S%'(\ 4.7%*)'(*/
*).D/V%'(W(,!*+@K%&"%3,1*/P .Y%'(W 4.7%D&'(1.D/|#?;I? $0(,4/P (%*)4.Y%'(I: $,1,4 B?4.(G\&*$/-4.(G$"
E 2 - 3 = -10 V
E 3- 4 = -20 V
E
= -15 V
U34-"'(1 $0(,!/2*,1&*$/-TW:v*)4,1!*)A?1%'%'(G&.(+*),-(4.4(,48: J1A40(c%+J"%*B%1.GI%'*)%J1./(1<5!/-0*),
< $,c%+*)G$I/( $*/(/Y0(Y% %'(W% )%+*),6*((,41/P<$ ,1%*G#5(0(%&*0(1.G2<$ ,1%*GW/- 84.Y%'(!3K*)..(3*./
*sT54.(GS*B%%.7%1 $.N% [%'(V ,!*)c%]e
T MK*B%'(K*B%4&*),;"4G. ):8%'(M*/-4.(G$&<&*,4W*.( )%'(:v*%Q ):8%'(4
(1.D4(,1 H%'*)%%'(W<$ ,1%*G&&*$"0(&/Y*0+'R*),4,6*//MQ 0(Y%
?&~
+45 V
-10 V
-20 V
+ -15 V
voltage from point 1to point

2
3
4
1
8'(!8(1.1,1I!8@7. B?.Y*$3Q|$]r S>7_,>v/(4 B<$&/K4.N&)-W5T m 0D]%+*s<VW`~I4+'(' H#

* m K*).Y('5T5!!]%EE#*./M1%*.P"%*B%&/R*0+'
|QSv$B(vRD3vD&D5KvUvFDnC&\5|$7s
;q
T $ UBH #-=H2*).K*& $0(.7%4.(GI: 4G.3vD $,4*1%4&+A*$A?&,1,D*JK*G.(1%0/(&&`0;T" I #5=H2*).V*.7T
*)%'%+*&/\: .( 4.7%4.V*W40(c%;*) 0(./\% )%'(J 4.7%1.%'*B%840(c%#$*./.*,1,4T\D*+@% W%'
4.(c%4*,ZD $1.7%&À=.M%'(I*) B<XL(*)(,43%'(_,1 5 P?;*$J: $/K5T: ,4,1 B?4.(GQ 4.7%;4.V%'4; +/-&" ;
>+`
=>%2/( 7". %QK*)%"%&Q?'(!+'r 4.$%\?M"%*"%2*B%Q $?'(!+'^/-1&%4 .r?;V( -/U1.r%*$4.(GR%'M,4 7 $ H%'
< $,c%+*)G$"0(?4,1,H]%1,4,6R 70*), ` M/-&2 $."%+*B%$#?;*.R%*),4,4TP0(S%'(\< ,1%*G81.S,4 5 }Q ):
%'*2W1+0(1"%
0V
$
A9W
Xs
voltage from point ( 3to point

voltage from point ) 1to point
+10 V
-45 V
+15 V
'+ +20 V
!;#" If AW8HI %$j

&
2
)1
4
3
0V
8'(!K*sTRK*)@$Q \.Q1:?;Q/-+*s?~ $0(_L(*)(,4\11+0(1%W" M%'*)%I*,1,H $2 ..7%_*)

(&.7%/V4.[*2"%+*)4G'7%,41.(
*current
2
R1
5 k -
R2
+
10 k
R3
+
7.5 k
2
-
45 V
*current
=>%, A"%4,1,5%'(*21H40(c%#.-]0"%A?c%'\%'( $2 ..7%H*)+*).(G$&/W4.2*I/-Z.7%H: Y`/3 %!;%'
,!*)c%1 :6%'(I"!]% 8< $,c%+*)G$X/- ;?1%'Y"&%8% 2%'(I*)%"%T %'(W*B%%&T0 <$ ,1%*G!8.(&G$*B%1<$
.C%'2,4:%Q*./CD 7"1%4<2 .C%'(K4G'7%&#|?'(&*I*),4,H%'2&!]% _< ,1%*G/- I*)2 1&.$%&/S%'(K %'(&
?8*sTD 7"1%4< .p%'(,4:%*).D/S.(&G$*B%1<$\ $.S%'(4G'7%&`\8'(4_!ID*0"\%'2&!]% +*)q
G E G}21 \%'
3 B?9 :J,4&E% $.34.(GP(0'(&/p7TY%'(Q*)%"%T`_=.S )%'(_? $/#D%'(4)(0D"'54ML-%/R5TP%'(2"!]% +
B2~
1 G|%'( 3 B? ):H,4&% . GZDW4.[*2/(1&%4 .Y ( $c%I%'( 0X :&,1E% %4<X: +`
=>:|??;8% '( B?o?'*B%;*W/-1G$c%+*),(<$ ,1%%J?; 0,4/24./-!*B%* 7H*+'K $D $.(.7%J4.%'(!1+0(1%&#
(,!*+@V,4&*$/M $.M%'(W,4:%X*./M&/P,4&*/Y $.M%'(W4G'7%#-?I?; 0(,!/PW %'(4.(G,14@I%'(4"
*current
2
R1
R2
+
10 k
+ red
V
black
-10 V
R3
+
7.5 k
+ red
V
black
-20 V
2
-
+6
5 k
45 V
+ red
V
black
-15 V
+ red
V
black
+45 V
>= :3?;M?;K% p%*)@$K%'D*B%K*2M< ,1%%*).D/r*/N<$ ,1%*)G$V* 7 \(1.D*B%4 .D ):_ .(&.7%&#
"%*)%4.(G\?c%'P $.(,1TK7 $.K%'(I,4:%*)./M( G&1.(G\* $A%'(_?'( ,4_"%4.(GQ : $2 ..7%&#5?X?1,4,|"&
'( B?%'(W<$ ,1%*)G$&8*//P*,1G$(+*)!*,1,4T[% 8& 78
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Y $
A@
*current
2
R1
+ red
black
-10 V
-20 V
2
-
+ red
black
+
7.5 k
+
10 k
+ red
R3
black
+65 k -
R2
45 V
+ red
V
black
'+45 V
-15 V
red
V
-
black
-30 V
+
red
V
black
-45 V
+
red
V
-
B
0V
8'(:v*%%'*B%J16<$ ,1%*G&*//0("' 0(,!/8.( IQT-]%T#B(0(%H?;;.( )%4%'*B%H%' I5C DFE G 2HJI; :(%'&
< $,c%+*)G$&;K*)@8*\,4 )%3 :/-LKZ.W1.R'( B?n%'(MG$0(*/(/F`!Nn'(1,4W&*/(1.(G2< $,c%+*)G$_*$ $;7s#7&_PO)#
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%'Q4./-4<7!/-0*,6<$ ,1%*)G$/- X*)W1.[%'(\*) $4.7%+*B%4 .rvD 7"1%4<,4:%#Z.(G7*B%4<W4G'7%+`38'(\0( ):
%'\<$ ,1%*)G$Q/- X* 737B#|PO#F*)./S#QQR$0D*),!3S@V< $,c%+#?'(!+'p!3%'(2*)Q*$?'D*B%%'(2*B%%TR4
( -/-04.(GD#7L((%%'D*B%;%'(I*)%"%&T0 ,!*)1%]T2! ( $c%%'*B%8 ):6%'(_"!"% < $,c%+*)GX/- $_.(&G$*B%1<$
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8'*)%?X"'( $0(,!/./K0V?c%'VL(*$E%,4TVTW< $,c%+J* 7H%'(?' ,4]%4.(GQ'( $0(,4/. QT-"%T#$1%'(&&`
WF 5 $@74.(G2*B%;%'(I40(1%&#-?;X*.PX%'*)%%'(_:v*);,1:% ):F%'(_"%4.(GYv,1:%3"!/-_ ): 7 KD $1.7%8.70QP4
/-4E%,1T2 ..(&%&/\% I%'(:v*A4G'7%J :D%'("%1.(GKv4G'7%4/- :D*B%"%TWQ 4.7%J.70QX$E#$*$A.(&*)T
% K (,4%X%'I1+0c%`ZY51.DX%'("_%]?; \ 4.7%*)X/(1&%,4TM $.(.(&%/|#7%'(&TM*) D \[H G ][ E D2D I^[ C __VC 1
% W*+' )%'(``3./|#5*A0+'F#%'(< ,1%*G8%]?;.2%'( $8%]? I&,1E%!*),4,4T\ $2 $.D $1.7% _;aAb H-P& D`
cI4+'(' K> dA $,c%+*)GeW*s? v %42/-. )%/R*3CZS: 3'( $"%E?4,4,F? $@: $ E 1fI_1+0c%3 $.gG
black
Sh
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&
0(+*B%1 $.Y*)%*,1,}#(.( %-]0]%42,11`!/ )%W' B?1%3? $@-: 8%'(43*)+*),4,1&,|40(c%p
2
+
6V
8
3
+
R1
-
4
+
R2
R3
r;4.(GS*R**,1,4,J1+0(1%&#%'(V< $,c%+*)G$*$ $_<&TC"!"% W!I%'(M*)V*I%'(M0(((,4TU< ,1%*Gspth

< $,c%+À*),4,1T54.(G0(R< $,c%+*)G8*) 0(./M,1 5 $U }@ h]
(#)?IG$%,p
u0 V
0V
-6 V
u
u0 V
0V
+ +6 V
u

voltage from point v 4to point
voltage from point w 5to point
3
v4
w5
6
7
2
0V
8'([:v*$E%V%'*B%M%'(!M1+0(1%M!V**,1,4,4."%*/ ):1K'*$K.( )%'(4.(Gr% x/- ^?1%'%'S<B*),44/-1%]To ):

cI4+'(' K> xdA ,1%*)G$W6*s?W` J( M%'*)%MK*B%%#;%'(C40(c%Y 0,4/oC*y4),4*$+@^D sLz4Cq1%P .(&.7%
$.gG$0(*)%4 . (,4%&,1T'(!/(/-&.: $0(M<54?W#?1%'{ .(,4Tn*q%R ):QL-D 7"/%&4.*),!V: $P0DV%
&*$"0(I< $,c%+*)G_%]?;.MM*)./UcMdWC?; 0,4/Y]%1,4,F'( $,4/P%0(sp
sm 9zmxMn lei#i;:8HW :<$=fjW>?$j

Y $
+ 65 V
-
8V
+
10 V
-
+
3V
-
8V
-
11 V
-
{
-
2V
TU*).5TC $/( :"%&Q: $O*.7Tp%&4.*),1.r%'(P*D B<$V/-!*)G+*)R#]%((4.(GU*) 0(./U*$+@S% S%'

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J(0"%'( #|%'(x4),4 5 54P?%*$2: tcMdWn/- 5&.= %<&.C'D*s<2% RV*R*),J0.7%W*B%'N1.U%'
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4+0(1%,p
1
+
2
+
+
R1
6V
8
+
R2
R3
-
7

&
voltage from point w 3to point
0V
-6 V
+6 V
'+ u0 V
w3
6
(3
2
0V
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-] 4.(/P5TM*1.G,4_?4I*)%%'(W )%% $K8*$*).YL(*)(,4p
5
-
+
15 V
-
+
35 V
13 V
+
+
20 V
-
25 V
12 V
+
9
10
K*)@%'(X( (,4y1(,4#$=. <X 1%"%/K&4"%*.3<B*,10(*./KG$1<$.K< $,c%+*)G$/- * $A*+'

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&*$"0(&.$%+%+H | +1S%'(M%]?; C1+0c%+\ $1(,4`N=>:?;M?8*).7%&/N% U/-%&4.(M%'(Y< ,1%*GV%]?;&.
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0(.(@5.( B?.p

E3 - 4 + E4 - 9 + E 9- 8 + E8 - 3 = 0

E3 - 4 + 12 + 0 + 20 = 0
E 3 - 4 + 32 = 0
E 3 - 4 = -32 V
sm 9zmxMn lei#i;:8HW :<$=fjW>?$j

Y $
1
35 V
-
15 V
-
13 V
+
V
+
{
20 V
-
+
+
S
E3- 4
25 V
12 V
+
10
Measuring voltage from point 3 to point 4 (unknown amount)
E3- 4
5
-
+
15 V
-
+
35 V
-
13 V
+
'+ 12 V
+
{
20 V
-
25 V
4
-
V 12 V
+
+
9
10
Measuring voltage from point 4 to point 9 (+12 volts)
'
E3- 4 + 12 V
@T

&
1
5
-
+
15 V
-
+
35 V
-
3
+
{
20 V
-
13 V
+
0V
25 V
12 V
+
10
Measuring voltage from point 9 to point 8 (0 volts)
E3- 4 + 12 V '+ 0 V
5
-
+
15 V
-
+
35 V
-
+
20 V
8
13 V
+
+ 20 V
+
V
25 V
12 V
-
+
9
10
Measuring voltage from point 8 to point 3

E + 12 V + 0 V + 20 V = 0 V
7Y %((4.(GQ* $0(./Q%'(3-,1 54 8}>#?;3?c%8%'(< ,1%*G**I< ,1%%? $0(,4/&*$/Q1%&#7&*$"0(4.(G
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@(
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1
5
-
+
15 V
'+
3
32 V
+
{
20 V
-
+
35 V
-
13 V
+
-
25 V
4
-
12 V
+
10
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6V
R1
+
R2
R3
- 1 k - 3 k - 2 k
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,F5<\zFM>}hVL<ssZzMsU ep
R1
R2
R3
Total
I
R
1k
3k
2k
Volts
Amps
Ohms
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R1
R2
R3
6m
2m
1k
Total
Volts
3m
Amps
3k
2k
Ohms
R1
R2
R3
Total
cMz >Fz5Zz\5\VzS!szz8LV5LFzL\5}\eRsfgz<fz,S,PVF
<5S>A5VFz8hV8`tf;8`t55UV`p
6m
2m
3m
11m
Volts
Amps
Ohms
1k
3k
2k
R1
R2
R3
6m
2m
3m
1k
3k
2k
R1
R2
R3
Total
24
24
24
24
Volts
24m
8m
12m
44m
Amps
1k
3k
2k
545.45
Ohms
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<
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E
I
R
Total
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11m
Amps
545.45
Ohms
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@
mgm lPl#Z"; nsn Zl n le n !
IR1
Itotal
IR2
Itotal
IR3
Itotal
6 mA
=
11 mA
{
=
2 mA
=
11 mA
3 mA
=
11 mA
24 mA
44 mA
= 0.54545
8 mA
44 mA
= 0.18182
12 mA
44 mA
= 0.27273
u
u
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fx=,F5sp
Current through any resistor

Voltage in a parallel circuit
In =
En
Rn
Etotal = En = Itotal Rtotal
. . . Substituting Itotal Rtotal for En in the first equation . . .
Current through any parallel resistor
In =
Itotal Rtotal
Rn
. . . or . . .
In = Itotal
Rtotal
Rn
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6
IR1 = 11 mA
IR2 = 11 mA
6
IR3 = 11 mA
545.45
1 k
= 6 mA
545.45
3 k
= 2 mA
545.45
{
2 k
= 3 mA
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Voltage divider
formula
En = Etotal
Rn
Current divider
formula
Rtotal
In = Itotal
Rtotal
Rn
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fraction
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8

!
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6 V
2
I
total
8
R1
I
I
3
R
I
4
R
R2
I
R3
- 3 k
- 1 k
5
YAsLAFzsPF= Fz,<sLM5%zS>L%5F>L\zL,p
I
R
R1
R2
R3
6m
2m
1k
3k
Total
3m
2k
- 2 k
total
R
11m
545.45
Volts
Amps
Ohms
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1
6 V
+
-
8
I
I
R1
total
I
I
+ IR2 + IR3
I
I
2
+
R1
R2
I
R
- 1 k
total
R1
+ IR2 + IR3 7
I
R2
+ IR3
I
R
R3
4
R3
3 k
R2
I
3
+ IR3
I
R3

2Rk
5
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@h
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3
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IR2
IR3
R2
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PcML\\zentering
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I2 + I3 + I = 0
2 mA + 3 mA + I = 0
. . . solving for I . . .
I = -2 mA - 3 mA
I = -5 mA
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1
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R2
4
R3
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R2
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A series-parallel combination circuit
100
350
250
24 V
R1
R2
R3
R4
E
I
R
100
250
350
200
200
Total
24
Volts
Amps
Ohms
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S,<FS,zz.Ls5
Yi"p c
<+S#,,^5\F~,P,Fs^F\zL%5Fgx^Wz})VLLs}\&gs5,
5 S,f ], gF5 Ls5;L?~L\zL,m<
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FF PZ
m ), d ),e>z\, \MLL\zL8sz+,)~tFFVzx,,MsFVz
5\F~,
m ), Z^ g\
+% Fz}!), zFz \y>zs)^ ) ,es5LX) ;zLf Ff
F}, S~|,;LV) d >}ML5`s5L S)^J F+)=05LzMz~85Z Fz,,
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m ), W,# 5 d
5
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~,SP)
m ),z \=5S<s=s}\Mfx)fc<
m ),}AL5ys}\5?\z),s% F+,,>f\%),F+FzL
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m ), , JzS5 >, F5c 5\As}\> PAz),s! F+ g5)pz

x5F)MzzAz >% F+,]LPzS[ ><
m ),_ , > 5; 5 zSL=L0 F+, Z<sL# f5 S) Az >Fx+M LsL5
Fz}#}|fz\ Ls=XX)SFFzsU>LF5gcR,U)+^JA$^),%so;LVzF|,U,F%
+>
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zSFL= L+ <s}\ 5Uz SP S5 >=
m ),z >gLf Ffs
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jR +m w por l l fih[ei w Zb{qh
dR
A series-parallel combination circuit
100
350
250
200
24 V
R1
R2
R3
R4
E
I
Total
24
Volts
Amps
250
200
R
100
350
Ohms
m)++b~c/c+~ `W ` `c+Rc)Rm)~+`/`~R`+RbR$R
` ` b[$+WZZ}Z$)~|%+R))z+Z9Wc$Z))9R$+~R$)+
R))R}`)+Z~/cyc^}/
%
71.429
127.27
// R2
24 V
3
// R4
u+}++ )s z WzZ+R)Z$`~Z9 )) R$+`Z$)xz`+R

ZR`c+R)~+ d } d #)-+5 u+ d R)x+))+Z~/cz)
dR
R$+`Z$ ` ~Z~)FR/)+R,u+ d A )x`)W` )

R$+`Z$ ` `/`Z ~)R/)+R,
[++Z`W}`}R)c}z+R)R))$+~~R/u~)ZyZ+R
R1
R2
R3
R4
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
Total
24
I
R
Volts
Amps
100
250
350
200
71.429
Ohms
127.27
++W+`Z$b+
)`-+cZ+~bWZRmR+c) )b~R)Rbc}|+`)
~)+ R$+~R$/[)`cR u+b|`XxZ~R}c)[+ )+bR)c
) Zz+~)b)`qcZ+yR)x/`Z +R+)g]$+~~RR)cZZy
R)c d yyZ`c^}/+[Z~/c+~])~+~$+~~R])x/`Zy`+b)
)R)cy|+y+[$)]Z+ %+/`+ p`)p)`]+zq`c+ WZR
Z`WZR9 [ y yy )b}Zp+ u)R`)ZRc)R` +[)+RZ+] %|+R
u+ -"z)R +Z-))R+R)Z$gR)RR x[)+_ -"z)R ))R+R)Z$
``/`~R
198.70
24 V
R1
R2
R3
R4
R1 // R2 -- R3 // R4
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
R1 // R2
-R3 // R4
Total
24
I
R
Volts
Amps
100
250
350
200
71.429
127.27
198.70
Ohms
y `/`XcZ+~Z+)RzZ W}cZb+ `+ +9[+ zrk

!#" y))+r`
c~b+z+
R1
R2
dR
R3
R4
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
E
I
R
100
250
350
200
71.429
127.27
R1 // R2
-R3 // R4
Total
24
Volts
120.78m
Amps
198.70
Ohms
u \)+gR$+~R$[cZ+~g}/~W+p)`/ìc+Z$p`+ d $ b~~`gp)+
)+ c)Z$+Z
I = 120.78 mA
24 V
198.70
// R2 -- R3 // R4
I = 120.78 mA
y
%]`)u)& b\ '++)))~icZ+c^}/~+$b)+)` c}|^
+/~(Xu++*)_p)Ru)-b)+Z~/c+~++R) )z)ZRR
,
I = 120.78 mA
,
24 V
71.429
// R2
I = 120.78 mA
127.27
I = 120.78 mA
// R4
c )-~)Z~. ~)R/9`+Z )+Z+)Z$[)++9+) )c/g

R $+`Z$u)x/`ZRxug+)b/J++))+R))+c+Z$]++ )Z -xWg)+`
)+`/`rZ+)Z$&Z|~r~++)++++)Z+)Z$`+RR)b c +
)c+)R$|+#) )+q`/`%Z+)+ ` Z+R
dR
R1
R2
R3
R4
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
E
I
R
100
250
350
200
R1 // R2
-R3 // R4
Total
24
Volts
120.78m
120.78m
120.78m
Amps
71.429
127.27
198.70
Ohms
y
_++)+c)Z$g)++9+R$+~R$gR)) [ p p (Z``+
[+ r "01
]b)+z)$RR`c~+|/`g}c)+R
I = 120.78 mA
,
24 V
71.429
R1
R2
R3
R4
I
100
//R2
+
8.6275 V
-
// R4
+
15.373 V
-
I = 120.78 mA
E
R
I = 120.78 mA
127.27
250
350
200
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
R1 // R2
-R3 // R4
Total
8.6275
15.373
24
Volts
120.78m
120.78m
120.78m
Amps
71.429
127.27
198.70
Ohms
RR`)2 < _+ ` )`/`Z}R))q~`Z$/Z3 ]< _+ ~

} q`/`Z_cZ+/q))+u`]Z)/`Rr+]R)WR~~`}%)[)+u`+)+`)
c~b] +p/`+1)+$[~}~_})x/45
)+R0/+R/[[+`+ZuxZ\'u`/+
+y}/~b)R$+Rcg)b+~~`c}|`)%}`Z+c[+z+ZZ/}+

,
dR
I = 120.78 mA
100
350
250
+
8.6275 V
-
200
+
15.373 V
-
24 V
I = 120.78 mA
R1
R2
R3
R4
8.6275
8.6275
15.373
15.373
I
R
100
250
350
200
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
R1 // R2
-R3 // R4
Total
8.6275
15.373
24
Volts
120.78m
120.78m
120.78m
Amps
71.429
127.27
198.70
Ohms
J"~` )+p~~})bW)u`~c+ )++ iXcb~Z)6~)Z++b`+R

)|+7 ++ ~+9[+ [q+Z~++Z))ZqZ+-8
!#" 9]bZ }cZ~+-)
c)Z$]+)+ ` }$}~
R1
E
8.6275
86.275m
100
R2
R3
8.6275
15.373
34.510m
43.922m
250
350
R4
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
R1 // R2
-R3 // R4
Total
15.373
8.6275
15.373
24
Volts
76.863m
120.78m
120.78m
120.78m
Amps
200
71.429
127.27
198.70
Ohms
p_+ +F~u~``Fc)Z$-~+<+bZ~/c]ZF)+)+$`+Rb)
/+Zz}` )/%
dR

,
I = 120.78 mA
100
R2
1
250
+
8.6275 V
-
200
+
15.373 V
-
34.510 mA
24 V
86.275 mA
350
=
,
43.922 mA
76.863 mA
I = 120.78 mA
g|ì/+R\+. -Z9R>X)+ZZ+)c+Z$p`+Rg+ ) +
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d $ r%F )qc `b~~Z')Zc++Rc)Z$z)+`)+

+ ))+-)`" d ` 9@Z` /+R\ +/RAXR)> )`[+R)-|+Rg}+ +
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)
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0"
dR/
1
1
1
F
2
100
G
24 V
3
2
G
F
350
4
F
vi3
6
vi4
200
vi2
250
vi1
0
0
NOTE: voltage sources vi1,

vi2, vi3, and vi4 are "dummy"
sources set at zero volts each.
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Polarity of voltage drop
+
Direction of electron flow
+
-
R
+
R2
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+
R1
+
+
R3
-
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R2 loops aroundR1
+
-
R
+
R2
loops aroundR3
qc++)z~_Z
}/ `/`~R ` )WRc)Z )+Z))Z
}`y)+))~ i/`z}c ` $
`tq >q4
+
R1
R2
+
R3
-
R4
-
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R
d `
R3
R1
R4
R5
u+[|/x~_
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kq)b)$~)?zR")+Z
R2
+
+
-
R6
R7
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c/c+~px/`)+y~_q_+b~qz+R

+
R1
+
+
R6
-
y4 )_R
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)$~)zZ +`tq_~-~`g+)W`~Z)$) + ` . g
R1
R3
R4
R5
R5 and R7
loop around
R6
y e-+) y _ +Z))Z`"}/~+[.y)cb+B)+b/`})9W`~

Z)$) Z)W~) )`[ + %+N+[p)+)-1`1<c+
~)~~cZ+

+
+
+
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R2
+
+
-
R1
R3
+
+
+
R3 and R4
loop around
R5
R4
R5
R6
-
+
-
R7
}~-+ y ~_)+Z))Z`}/+_`tq_~+b+c)RcW`~Z

+
R1
+
+
R3
R5
R4
-
R6
-
+
R7
-
~)
+Z`++R))~4y)c})+R+*)_[)Rp__~Zicz+$b
y )+ y
R2 loops aroundR3
R1
R3
R4
R5
}~ )+Z))Z`%+++] z|+)+R u+R)+[y+/`)R yZ R

)+}Z/x/`Z`R )+~~`'
+
R1
+
+
R3
R5
R2
-
+
R4
-
R6
-
+
R7
-
u+[)b~~|R9 }gR Ry+/!q}cZ~+++Z`)g+N+}cRR

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)Z~ ~) ~z c_)}c++Z-+`+Z]R$+~R$)`c y * p* )_R' . +
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c/c+~pu& +~/
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F ZWR`]]xZ )Z+Z}R~ ` cW+R$ )`}/`5WZR cR(
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c}R6
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W`` RRF `)+R)` [' `+Z +~}+9+-! q_~]b`bW)$
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++Z/x/`}+ "+ `))c2 ~+B ~r RcybZ~/c }% gbWZ!
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)+Z[ q)++z ))~-+ BcZ+yuWZ_+
)+ `)+pZ W+p)Z~`-`/`~RcZ+~/`}Z uX+ m)y+bZ)+}D t q}
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)p)/+++-xZ +))+R[+}p~. y)q$`~~` ) '
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|+)4 5 [Z`)~+u++~Z~~X R)RX-`/`~R+cZ+~R`+yccR}i %[ q
~_x)z W '* xR
"_+ZR` ` ' * }+-)+R$ ]zZ$`g
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}Z|+~) X`+}Z/x/`+~+[
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!k 8 *$ 9 *kE 9n
k o5
$k
.>>
S
R4
u+p[)+-|/xzZ_~}R+Z~/cB]bx~$)ZR+1g` y9+-g)Rc)( Z
F`R q_++)+Z+bZ~/c)}ZR)R)Rb`F`/`Zu)Z
ysq_)
+}cRu`)/`$)b)z|`(
jR}Beut9[ w h w fn}yxop{qyh w por l l

+
+
1
d
R
+
+
y ` y )[~ `/`~R~)/ )+R _)-` [ ` y up~ZR$+~R$] y

` `)ZR6~)R/`)Z2")}+R)R 9 -~#}))`r)x/`Z#+
c/c+~y0~yR
+S8E
"~/R
gZR3 )-+)b/`+B ~ ++cR` )yu`Z+0u+ycZ+~R
R1
R2
R3
R4
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
Total
Volts
Amps
Ohms
y _R7+RR`~+ cZ`~[rc )++W))R)) ]R)b~]+R D~

)+)`-``+Z-cW+R$`$~)Z`X`+4RZ) ` Z++
c/c+~"$~~`)Z `)+R%)`$/~Z ]2]% qWR~[` )`$WZ/r$)y+/`+
+` `$)~ +/`+R
Z)+pZW+R ~+ ] +)++ /-)bg)Z+R)Z$+
/+# W* )/ D p $`$)~ [y/`+RyR)+~y ")+ ~+$ %)}
` gg}RZ))R +`) g`Z)) g)`' ]bx/`)[ |~+~ )+)ZR[
)z`~B ~+~_}`R)x/`ZRu``/`_+yZ`+Z
4)
R1
R2
R3
R4
R3 // R4
Total
same
I
R
R1 // R2
Volts
Amps
same
same
same
Ohms
u +b+ `~Z ~+ ZZ$#)

)++)ì-+cZ+z (+/)
`R )+))++` )x/`Z* ~W`+Z~`+])+[`gX+ ZyW*
gZ+R)Z$R9 +`RZ$)R ~-)}+ Btq++ +`~`[+
r B`)Z~x^ `/`ZW+)Z~+R }cZ~+6~%+WZ)`+`+ZyZ~/c+~`+R
"~/R'
]z+RR)}cZ~+B ``+WZ)b)+zR)cq~Z )+)R~
o

+Z~)Z /`+RF~R)c`+])Z +R+ZD ~y)+R~ `/`~R
d /
c+`)( iy ZZ$)~c[)+g)`cy }cR)R+~ x/ R)+z)$)+R~

~Zc+`)p}RZ))[)`czZ
R1
R2
R3
R4
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
Total
same
Volts
Amps
same
same
same
R3
R4
Ohms
same
y
+RR)|+g}+ `y`+WZu)+z)`r)x/`Z u+R +R]
} `~+~)F+ +cbWZ$/`+)Z~/cX)+/+~F)ùR)c~u
) )b +~Rc)g+ /`)+`~ZW+Ru++`9) )`)+ 4
X/+WcZR}_+`"cW+R$p`)qc/c+~+~rW+`+R)R )+ `) '

/+/ 7
b`)Z ]Z> W )+]R)xi}RZ))R"~b`+`)+R+)`/`+Z~/c+~i)x/`Z]-
`)+RcR}`_^ R$
)+yR)+)~Z )++ `~cW+R$R~y)x/`Z
}RZ))R$)z)`/`%R)x/`Z3 E }RZ))
R1
R2
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
Total
same
Volts
Amps
same
same
same
same
Ohms
y e-R`9`+ [+ [q $`~~Z u))+br"Z+9~9)+`~/

BgR)+r c
)~bx/ )+`ù)x/`Z-+RcRR`FZZ~+b)`
c)Z$~cR)
!#"u *
mR) % )+`
`~`& ~)+$`/~)RZ$ [`mR$`)%X~D ]! q} q)+4
"~/R
)+R$~y) )++$ q_+ 9$`$
)[Z) ] z) ~+ ~
yZ+)R}R~`g)x/`Z
,
ER
y+]$~])+z+WZ2z)2/+b>"` ~g*)}WZ~Rc

bR+/`/ "b` +
,
I=
(same)
ER
%+g+Z+b`)rr/~}cR)R~`+1~p+g$bR`)] +z)b+Z)
R~W`+ q)+B /c)ycR
I=
I=
E (same)
R
u+R)4 [[+ q 7

!#" bZ)`+ Z+)R
~g~Z)) z!qs+
cc)~+/`+``+)

R1
R2
R3
R4
dd
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
Total
same
I
R
Volts
Amps
same
same
same
R3
R4
Ohms
same
~ )`})x/`Z]cRq|R-~-)+u/`+u`b`+$`$)~)Ri}Z)R)+R-~b+r`}Z+%
Z+}cRRb}Z)R)+p+z`+Z/`Z+)Z$/4z++)+g` )x/`Zy+
+ru+b)+~[ [ p ` y ~ c4* rq_+Bg)+-`+X)`/ìc+Z$1~
W)+ `g WRR`) )Z~gZW+R/)`+ ` c+Z$/*
u+R)4 A `pc)Z$ cR+Z Z+)R++ -`
cR ~))B `~+z

R1
R2
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
Total
same
I
R
Volts
Amps
same
same
same
R3
R4
Ohms
same
++`R/` B )}++Zr~)`/)b`y[+ zq ` )+b+~g

)Z~q~Z_c/c+~q"+z}~WR)R$5` }]W*)2-_+ZZ`|+)45
<R
~R ]`RZ]Z` }% ])< `W+]q_+` )~)bZ)y]ZZ+)q x)/q
Z"~zZZ+`)( 5
)R % rx }c)+z-)+ S * WZ~b+R$`) 5)
+z' zR`Rg)`g[+ q +W`+~Z+[b)+ [ y ` y y Z+4
+ 9
]|+ g`R)+-/`+R`cR9c+Z$[`+/+
R)c/
$)+~)R Z`)Zzy+yxyR)+~y~9Z))g/`zc])+`/`~R
c+`)
R1
R2
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
Total
same
I
R
Volts
Amps
same
same
same
R3
R4
Ohms
same
}+ }b++ )` [+ q8"1

)+ Z+%(+R)
R)c}RZ))~ S c+Z$bZ))~+'
)}cZb+>g+ +)`~
/++%g<u#~) %+}<~) )`+Rg_~)+ +}c|$WZ/
)& t q&%W[+ q % ~+-)Wz/+Z(p]RZ)+R)g+`+Zu+1Z``+
>
A )}cZ~+B ``+WZu)b)g~zc i)+z+~#~g~)Z~
c/c+~
q+z~]c ` +)`W)+g``Z ]~`[
r
q_+ N)z)+ /`pcR +~-)ì~`[ R+b`+Z )
/`gc E g+RcR ~))/`+z u)`cz`+
R1
R2
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
same
I
R
Total
Volts
Amps
same
same
same
same
Ohms
y R m+}cRRs) 4 Z+~ )+ +~/z+~)

c+))X)+~Z$+) ``q_++"/`"`RzR$~ Z]RZ`/`~R

c+Z$R_)~Z))[/`gRZZ)$)])`/`~Rc-+~ y`Wz)ZR
Z)$) ~}~_}~
R1
R2
R3
R4
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
Total
same
I
R
Volts
Amps
same
same
same
R3
R4
Ohms
same
u+`$ [ y uu/`+RcR)ZR9c)`/`ZrZ~`) g
` y %)ZRc [ ` y }_+`
R1
R2
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
Total
same
I
R
Volts
Amps
same
same
same
R3
R4
Ohms
same
+ +[ qZ))Z~ )+)[Z+~)+/+ìR)c~+Z
Z)R~S`]+zc+)R$2~ }-)++))[c+Z$
cR/`[c +/`+R
R)czRu)cRZ+)R]]_R)Z ++RcR ~`cu`+/`+R)x/`Z
R)}RZ))Rc+Z$R
R1
R2
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
Total
same
I
R
Volts
Amps
same
same
same
R3
R4
Ohms
same
[ Zg`p|+/R~RW)~+R)[+ q Z% +R~R y }W`~

`R)x/`Z}cR)R%++}.~)}.q_++ R/p/`+R]R`% y)
)
!#"u 9) $~~`)R }Z)Z~ )R)+~)+ /+~sc+)R$ yZRRZ
)~X`+ +)~p ]R)Rg`9~ZicZ+~ > 3q_+;g)Z+)R[)+
) `/`~R%c-+~cR` `) q_+ ))c+Z$u)++
}cR)R( B[+ z+9+~ ~ZyZ~/c+~ )`)`/`gc+)R$ $ù)+ +3 z)
}$}+/`/bZ+)Z$/4
b)+R)`+pZ+)Z$i))+ R$`+)z)pc+Z$X)+
+}R-[+pZ+)Z$i))+
%c+Z$q++ iZ))R3 +~yc)Z$i)+
}RZ))R}Z+)Z$u))+ k g~Z))R
R1
R2
R1 // R2
R3 // R4
same
I
R
Total
Volts
Amps
same
same
same
same
Ohms
~))Rq+g/`+`/)b`+R+Z+c) u+z`))c+`z4)_RZ)b
$/q `W~}+ `X+}Z`RcbR/` q+}+c)+}cRZ WZ!RR
$+kq$ y+/Z /`$+~))`~Ry+ZyX])+[ZZ/`++}c}+y~~~
}~WR)R$ $`$)~`)g` )Rq0 )1 q_+ `+Z$)Z +}cRR-}Z)Z~~+)`
R)c+Z) Z+)R$)+Rs Z]|+R q/`[`c)Z$u`~ R )+z+~
)Z~``/`ZcZ+~u-+`+)+`)zc+
BZ+R)~pZRb)Z)))pù)/+kq +y)R2Z+}cZ}+
~)/` R
+y c+Z$6`+)WZy)+))_+z)%)`c#~rù u/+z
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a
#
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)
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+~) cR)}R)~WZ/~ "))[+)R
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R+ZuZ+p+c+R`++R+`}~})+
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u+}+ R/+ ]c)Rzz )Z* ZRz
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u+
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u+ } u}~`ZZ$ +c ]+-/`+)Zr}R/+Z`XZ)Z
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ZRc)`+c)y)ZRc)bc)Z$g)++c}c)g)}}ZR`c)3 Z R)WZ
}c+`-+ )} qZRc) u+zRZ)+zZRc)zZ+)Z$+x)+R+z`c). Z
+}}c
+)+u`+c Rr R +c}"i~ ]z)gZ/c ~)`+)+Ri+Z)
R + Z
/cr ~rWR+Z/RWc ZZ+ +/cRy Z+
i+ "+R))+/cu
Z-)r
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`~
` `~x)+R)x/`Zg ")+)+ WZ++W))`W))Z+) Xc+)R$

[p]}

]

DArsonval electromechanical meter movement

50
0
100
"needle"
magnet
magnet
! wire coil
"current through wire coil
"causes needle to deflect

meter
terminal
" connections
m)
#++$ #% #) # #c$ #Z & #R #Z$ ' ##}( #)' )+ m~$)+) #4 #R*#)+,+./#Z/ #Z$u +0 Z0#.1)#Z/#Z+3+~W#[(#*)#`/yD+0 Z0#[2#R~+c+0#Z*#R #[$
X #- ~c$ #R* #9 #R+$ #RZ+* #R1 ~"+)& # #b ##}0 #)~$. #Z[))#-)$[
#c$ #R* #&~]R`* #)3 # ##}( #) }k q } /$ #R)+~$) # ( #*4u3#`/
)3 # #c* #Ry}+ `/ #Z( #R $/ #Z/)}Z$ #g) #` # q #65$`$)~ / #Z+ #R+$ #R%
`* #Z%
#Z[)`6 5`$)~ <
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+ )
#-)$8 q_~)+g9 '%-: +; Z`( #& #R< #R$$ ' + #-Z0 #<% #<=: ~* #R
u #z& #Z 0 #4> #Z`? -8: u)3 #g% #Z )$R3 @%-A: / #Z+b! q%#R~) #z+}( #g r #)R`( #
`%> q%#Z~$}) #-)R`( #]+/ #}_ #~$/9)`0 #R/}`)+`t q_R++`+ #Z% #Z -b

#Z$y C#Zz $ #+$ #RZ* #$ #R}~D )T) #- ##}0 #%D
: ~ e+B #Z& #Rpp_( #4+ #-% #Z
W)~(
u-# <Z# *R# p&R# <R# $.~"&# `pc# "Z+3#R~*#R)`p)#bkq[c)$#Z$y

#Z$$#ZÈ#4)_~ D$xz#c$#Z&#R#Z$z`$#b)~ *#Z)~)&# #}~$#Rc)uc+*#R$z}$+)3#
#)R# }(y# )3[# ~$]`)[# `)3Z# u})_~))[# 04# GF_#p#c$#Zb%#Z#Z$/%#p#)#R}(#y
)+)+& Z# $*R# *# )# +}(# q# Z`(# !H#)Z# ~x$R# ")# 04# R)_IR# `++R# )+$Z# Z# $/
Z# ~)3Z# W` KJ
L(M&L]ENPO>,QR4O HS=T
W
)UBV
A "zero-center" meter movement

0
-100
100
XHY&ZZY&[A\/Y&]_â`$b0c ed*# [ d b;c$b0f # ZYgf # Z # [.c d b([3h]0i3j # c*k # D ` d Y&[Bfgâ]Bâ[2j l#md c$Y&[j #)d b0n%[ doqp Yac$kic$b0](b 1 b0[3n
ZYgfBb0[n?h Y&b(] d Y sr b(` # âcRc$^%htk # j4c$Y9c$k # [ #)# j] # d i d \ # [3j # j r b0c*kb([l^9Z^&n&[ # c*b_h 3# ](j `*Y%Zu^=\ # `$Z=â[ # [.c
Z=ân%[ # c XHi`$` # [.cAb0[Y&[ # jb(` # hvc$b0Y%[Ec$k`$Y&in%kwc*k #=r b0` #r b0](]\`$YBji3h # ^xh ](Yh q.r b d*# c$Y&` 5 i # Y%[Ec$k # [ ## j] #
Z # htk3^&[b d Z or kb(] # hi`$` # [%cc$k # Yac$k # `>jb(` # hvc$b0Y%[ r b(](]y\`$YBji3h # ^h Y%i[.c # ` h ](YBh qBr b dR# c*Y%` 5 i #/
F Y%Z # Z # c # ÀZYgf # Z # [.c d â` # \2Y%](^&`*b0cz ${|.dR# [ d b;c$b0f #&o ` # ](z.b([n4Y&[lc*k # âcRc$`$^%hvc*b(Y&[Y â[i[Z=ân%[ # c$b 1)# j o
ZYgfg^ p ] # b(`*Y%[,fgâ[ # c*Y r â`tj}^ d ct^gc*b(Y&[2â`$z o h i3`*` # [.c h^&`*`$zBb0[3n r b0` # c$Ylj #3# h cc*k # [ ## j] #,F i3htkZ # c # ` d
â` # b_j # ^&]0](z d i3b;c # j Y%`>c*k # Z # ^ d i3` # Z # [.cPY ^&];c # `$[3^gc$b0[n?h i`$` # [.c X \2Y%](^&`*b0cz ~d*# [ d b0c*b(f # ZYgf # Z # [.c
r Y&i]_j6i d c>fBb p `$âc #7p ^%h q â[3j Y&`*c*kxi d*# ] #)d$d ]0z9b h Y&[3[ # h c # j c*Y9^ d Y&i`th # Y X
kb(] # ZY d cZ # htk3â[3b(h)â]/Z # c # ÌZ<Ygf # Z # [.c d ^&` #p ^ d*# j Y&[ # ] # hvc$`*Y%Z=ân&[ # c*b d Z # ] # h c*`$Y&[ Y r c*k`$Y&i3n&k
^h Y%[3ji3h c*Y&`>h` # ^gc$b0[n=^<\ # `$\ # [3jb_h i]_âÌZ=ân%[ # c$b(h 3# ](j o ^ C#)r ^&` #7p ^ dR# j Y%[ # ] # hvc*`$Y d c$âc*b_h d J c*k3âc>b d)o c*k #
^gc*c*`t^&h c*b(f # Y%`` # \i] d b(f # Y&`th # n # [ # `t^gc # j p z # ] # h c*`$b(hhtk3^&`*n #)d ^%h `$Y d$dd \3^%h # kb d b d c*k #d âZ # \k # [3Y&Z # [Y%[
#*) kb p b0c # j p zh # `*c$^&b0[9Z=âc # `$b_â] d>d i3htk ^ dGr ^ ) â[3j r YBY&] r k # [9`$i pp/# j=c$Y&n # c*k # ` 5
^f&Y&]0c$^&n # b d ^&\\](b # j
p/# c r## [c r Y
h Y&[2ji3hvc$b0f #d i` ^&h #)d ^%h `$Y d$d ^&[^&b0`=n.â\ o c*k # ` #4r b(](] p2# ^\3k.z d b(h)â] Y%`$h # âcRc$`$^%hvc*b([nc*k #
c r Y d i` ^&h #)d c*Y%n # c$k # `>h)â\3^ p ] # Y ZYgfBb0[3n d Y&Z B
# q b0[3j4Y b([3jb_hâc*b([nZ # htk3â[3b d Z k2^gc>\kBz d b_h^&] Y&`th # b d
jb(` # hvc$]0zl\`*Y%\2Y%`Rc$b0Y%[3â]c$Yxc*k # f%Y&]0c$^&n # â\\](b # j p/# c r## [c$k # \]_^gc #mdo â[2jlb([Bf # ` d*# ](z\`$Y&\/Y&`*c*b(Y&[3^&]c*Yxc*k #
d$5 i2â` # Y c$k # jb d ctâ[3h #p/# c r## [Ec*k # \]_^gc #) d A k r
# Y%`$h # b d â] d Y?b0`$` #md \ # h c*b(f # Y \/Y&]_â`$b;cz o Z=^ q b([n c*kb d ^
\/Y&]_â`$b;cz b0[ d*# [ d b0c*b(f # czB\ # Y Z # c # `>ZYgf # Z # [.c J
NOPHSL
HSIQ
QS Q
)U%U
Electrostatic meter movement
force
Voltage to be measured
[ Y&`*c*i[3âc # ]0z o c$k ## Y&`th # n # [ # `t^gc # j p zc*k #7# ] # hvc*`$Y d c$âc*b_hPâcRc*`t^&h c*b(Y&[9b d d Z=â](] Y&`h Y&ZZY&[?f&Y%];c
ân #)d 5
[ ^&h c o b;cb dHd Y d Z=â](]3c$k3^gc d i2htk9Z # c # `Z<Ygf # Z # [.cHj #)d b0n%[ d ^&` # b0Z\`t^&h c*b_h^&] Y&ì d*# b([ n # [ # `$^&]c #)d c
b([ d c$`*i3Z # [.c d w
zB\b_h^&]0](z o# ] # h c*`$Y d c$^gc$b(hZ # c # `8ZYgf # Z # [%c d â` # i d*# j Y%`Z # ^ d i`$b([nf # `*zlkb0n%k
f&Y%];ctân #md

Z=^&[.zxc$kY&i d ^&[3j d Y f%Y&]0c d 8 [ # n&` # âc^&jfq^&[.c$ân # Y c*k #<# ] # h c*`$Y d c$âc*b_h6Z # c # `7ZYgf # Z # [%c o kY rH# f # ` o b d
c*k #r ^%hvc7c*k3âcb0cAk3^ d#*) c$` # Z # ]0zk3b0n%kE` #)d b d c$^&[3h #%o/r k # ` # ^ dP# ] # h c*`$Y&Z=ân%[ # c$b(hZ<Ygf # Z # [.c d8r kb(htkj # \ # [2j
Y&[ c*k # Y r Y # ] # hvc$`*Y%[ d c$k`$Y&in%k r b(` # c*Y<n # [ # `t^gc # ^8Z=ân&[ # c*b_h 3# ]_j â` # Z8i3htk ](Y r# `b0[4` #md b d c$â[2h # d
r#9r b0](] d*## b([}n%` # ^gc # `6j # ctâb(]sc$YEh Y%Z #%o n%` # ^gc # À` #)d b d c$^&[3h #w ` #md i]0c*b([nb([}] #)d$d h i`$` # [.cj`t^ r [ `$Y&Zc*k #
h b(`th ib0c>i[3j # `c #md c Z^ &q #md0 Y&`>^ p2# cRc # `>f%Y&]0c*Z # c # `
Zi2htkZ<Y%` # hY&ZZY&[â\3\]0b_hâc*b(Y&[Y 7
# ] # h c*`$Y d c$âc*b_hxf&Y&]0c$^&n # Z # ^ d i` # Z # [%c=b d d*## [b([â[j # fBb(h #
3
o Y&`
q [Y r [,^ d ^ ?

k #)d*# ^&` #4d \ # hb(^&]n&]_^ d$d c*i p2#mdo f # `$z d b(Zb0]_â`<c$YEc # ] # fBb d b(Y&[
fBb #)r>d h` #)# [?c*i p/#)d
[xc$k # hâc*kYj # `t^qzc*i p/#&o ^ p2# âZY # ] # hvc$`*Y%[ d c*`t^qf # ]0b([n<b0[^fg^&hiiZuâ` # j # 3# hvc # j
`$Y&Zc*k # b(`9h Y&i3` d*# p z
f&Y%];ctân # p/# c r## [\3âb(` d Y Z # ctâ]\]_^gc #md Y&[ # b0c*k # ` d b_j # Y c$k #xp2# âZ ,
# h)âi d*#
# ] # h c*`$Y&[ d â` # [ # n%^gc$b0f # ](z8htk3^&`*n # j o c*k # z<c # [2j=c*Y p2# ` # \ # ]0] # j p z8c*k # [ # n%^gc$b0f # \]_^gc # â[2j9^gc*c*`t^&hvc # j<c$Y6c*k #
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voltage to be measured
electron "gun"
(vacuum)
viewscreen
electrons
electrons
plates +
light
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p2# c rH#)# [?c r Y\]_^gc #)d
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c*k # n%](^ d*d c*i p2#
=v

<
k>
+ <
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c*k # Z<Ygf # Z # [.c>h^&[?k2â[3j] #
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`t^gc*b([nYa Z â[3j4^h Y&b(]` #)d b d c$^&[3h # Ya - %< J
500
F.S = 1 mA
black test
lead
red test
lead
d b([n kZ D dI ^ r or# h^&[xj # c # `*Zb([ # kY r Z8i3htk4f&Y&]0c$^&n #r b0](]j`$b(f # c*kb d Z # c # ÌZYgf # Z # [.c
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# K# h c*b(f # f&Y&]0c*Z # c # `Z # c # ``$^&[n # b([ # h #)d$d Y& @ f&Y%];c o2r#&D ]0][ #)# jc$Y?j #md b(n&[l^ h b(`th ib0c^&]0](Y r b0[3n9Y&[](zx^
\` # hb d*# \`*Y%\2Y%`Rc$b0Y%[lY&HZ # ^ d i3` # jEf%Y&]0c$ân # c$Ywj`$Y&\^&h `$Y d$d c*k # Z # c # `Z<Ygf # Z # [.cm kb d6r b0](] # c # [3jlc*k #
Z # c # `ZYgf # Z # [%c D d `$^&[n # c*Y p2# b0[n^ p ] # c*Y8Z # ^ d i` # kb(n&k # `Hf%Y&]0c$^&n #)d c*k3^&[ p/# CY%` # sXHY%`*` #)d \/Y&[3jb([n%]0z o&r#
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\`$Y&\/Y&`*c*b(Y&[b([nh b(`$hib0cIhY&[[ # hvc # j
icIkY r jY r# h ` # ^gc # c$k # [ # h #)d$d â`$z<\3`*Y%\2Y%`Rc$b0Y%[b0[3n<hb0`th ib0c l# ]0] o b0Y&i3Ìb0[.c # [.c*b(Y&[4b d c$Y^&]0](Y r c$kb d
Z # c # `7ZYgf # Z # [%cPc*Y4Z # ^ d i` # ^9n%` # ^gc # ` c$k3â[lb;cAjY #)d [Y rAoKr k3âc r# [ #)# jEb d ^ { {
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h Y%[[ # hvcI^6` #)d b d c*Y%`Gb([ d*# `$b #mdGr b0c*k c*k # Z # c # `Z<Ygf # Z # [.c i d b0[3n6c*k # ZYgf # Z # [.c D d Y r [ b0[.c # `*[2â]/` #md b d ctâ[3h #
^ d c$k #6d*# h Y%[3j?` #md b d ctâ[3h # b([4c*k # jb0fBb_j # ` vJ
500
F.S. = 1 mA
Rmultiplier
black test
lead
red test
lead
k #d*# `$b #md ` #)d b d c*Y%`b d h)â](] # j,^ ' Z8i];c$b0\3]0b # ` ' ` #)d b d c$Y&` p2# hâi dR# b0c { {8 c$k #xr Y%`*Bb([n`$^&[n # Ya
c*k # Z # c # `PZYgf # Z # [.c>^ d b0cP\`$Y&\/Y&`*c*b(Y&[3âc # ]0z jb0fBb_j #)d c*k # Z # ^ d i` # j4f&Y&]0c$^&n # ^&h`*Y d*d b0c) # c # `*Zb([b([n=c*k #
` #)5 i(b ` # j Z8i];c$b0\3]0b # Ì` #)d b d c$^&[3h # fgâ](i # b d â[ # ^ d z=ct^ d 9b0z%Y&i D ` # âZb(]0b_â` r b0c*k d*# `$b #md h b(`$hib0cI^&[3â](z d b d
Y%` # ^&Z\] #%o ] # c D d j # c # `*Zb([ # c$k # [ # h #)d$d ^&`*z<Zi]0c*b(\](b # `Hfg^&]0i # c*Y8Z=â # c*kb d Z o- %8 ZYgf # Z # [.c
` # ^&j # ^&hvc$]0z8Ci](] ed hâ] # âc^&[9â\\](b # j=f%Y&]0c$ân # Ya m f&Y%];c d Y<jY6c$kb do.rH#. ` d c[ ## jc*Y dR# cGi\?^&[ g
c$^ p ] # CY&`c*k # c r Y dR# `*b #)d hY&Z\/Y&[ # [%c d J
Movement
Rmultiplier
Total
Volts
Amps
Ohms
[Y r b([nc*k3âcsc*k # ZYgf # Z # [%c r b(](] p/# ^gcsCi3]0] ~d h^&] #Ir b0c*k Z Yah i`$` # .[ csn&Y%b0[n7c$k`$Y&in%k<b0c o â[2j<c*k3âc
r#>r ^&[.csc*kb d c*Y6k3^&\\ # [ âcâ[9^&\\](b # j c$Yactâ] d*# `$b #)d hb0`th i3b;c f&Y%];ctân # Y& ) %f Y&]0c d)o&r# h^&[ ](]2b([=c*k # c$^ p ] #
^ dId i3htk J
) @
NOPHSL, HSIQ QS Q

Movement
Rmultiplier
Total
1m
1m
10
Volts
1m
Amps
Ohms
500
k # ` # a^ ` # ^h Y&i3\] # Y& r ^qz d c$Yj # c # `$Z<b([ # c$k # ` #md b d c$â[2h # fq^&]0i # Yac*k # Z8i];c$b0\3]0b # `m [
# r q^ zEb d c$Y
j # c # `$Zb0[ # $c Yac$^&]h b(`$hib;c7` #)d b d c$^&[3h # i d b([n kZ D d7 ^ r b0[lc*k #' c$Yactâ] ' h Y%]0i3Z<[ o $c k # [ d i p c*`t^&h c
c*k #- & Ya c$k # ZYgf # Z # [.cc$Y=â`$`*b(f # ^gcIc$k # fgâ](i # CY&`c*k # Zi]0c*b(\](b # ` J
Movement
Rmultiplier
E
I
1m
500
Total
10
Volts
1m
1m
Amps
9.5k
10k
Ohms
[3Yac*k # ` r ^qzAc*Y n%i` # c$k #>d âZ # fq^&]0i # YaK` #md b d ctâ[3h #r Y%i](j p/# c*YAj # c # `$Zb0[ # f&Y&]0c$^&n # j`$Y&\^&h`*Y d*d c*k #
ZYgf # Z # [.c^gcCi]0] ed h)â] # j # 2# hvc$b0Y%[ o c*k # [ d i p c$`$^%hvcPc$k3^gcf&Y%];ctân # j`*Y%\C`*Y%Zc$k # c*Yactâ]c*Y?^&`*`$b(f #
^gcPc*k # f&Y&]0c$^&n # ^&h`*Y d*d c*k # Z8i]0c*b(\]0b # `` #)d b d c*Y%`)b0[3^&]0](z oy kZ D dP ^ r h Y%i]_j p2# i dR# jân.âb([?c$Y j # c # `$Zb0[ #
` #)d b d c$^&[3h # CY&`c$k # Zi3];c$b0\](b # ` J
Movement
Rmultiplier
Total
0.5
9.5
10
Volts
1m
1m
Amps
9.5k
10k
Ohms
E
I
R
1m
500
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c*k # aY c*k # ` o c*Y9htk # ht9^&hhi`t^&h z=Y& r &Y `$K
L LHy HSHBQ I
) +
Meter movement ranged for 10 volts full-scale
500 F.S. = 1 mA
-
black test
lead
Rmultiplier
9.5 k
10 V
+
red test
lead
10 volts gives full-scale

deflection of needle
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NOPHSL, HSIQ QS Q
)&
W
A multi-range voltmeter
500 F.S. = 1 mA
-
range selector
switch
black test
lead
R1
R3
R2
R4
red test
lead
k
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500 F.S. = 1 mA
-
1000 V
range selector
100 V
switch
10 V
1V
R1
R1 = 999.5 k
R2
R2 = 99.5 k
R3
R3 = 9.5 k
R4
R4 = 500
off
black test
lead
red test
lead
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LLHy HSQ O GO SPG QS Q
500 F.S. = 1 mA
-
1000 V
range selector
100 V
switch
10 V
off
black test
lead
) -
R1
R2
R3
R4
1V
R1 = 900 k
R2 = 90 k
R3 = 9 k
R4 = 500
red test
lead
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NOPHSL, HSIQ QS Q
)%
250 M
24 V
250 M
+
V
voltmeter
-
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250 M
24 V
250 M
+ voltmeter
(10 M)
-
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LLHy HSQ O GO SPG QS Q
23.1111 V
)BV
250 M
24 V
0.8889 V
9.615 M
(250 M // 10 M)
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500 F.S. = 1 mA
-
1000 V
range selector
100 V
switch
10 V
1V
R1
R1 = 999.5 k
R2
R2 = 99.5 k
R3
R3 = 9.5 k
R4
R4 = 500
off
black test
lead
red test
lead
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100 volt range
100 k
100 V
= 1000 /V sensitivity
10 volt range
10 k
10 V
1 volt range
1 k
1V
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Amplified voltmeter
red test
lead
Amplifier
black test
lead
Battery
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Potentiometric voltage measurement
R1
250 M
"null" meter
24 V
1
R2
250 M
null
2
adjustable
voltage
source
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unknown mass
mass standards
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R1
250 M
"null" meter
24 V
1
R2
250 M
null
2
adjustable
voltage
source
+
V
Adjust voltage source until null meter reads zero. Then, read
the voltmeter to tell what the voltage is across R2 .
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500
F.S = 1 mA
-
black test
lead
red test
lead
^ d b([k
n jw^&Z\ d ^ d ^&[d c9d)[3jd)j,`$^&[ndCY%`8Y%i` d âZ\]ed9ZYgfd)Zd[.c o ]ed cgi d jd cHd`$Z<b([Sd c*kSdxâZY&i3[%c8Ya
\3^&`$^&]0]ed]`9d d b d ctâ[3hd6[Sdmhd d$d â`$z c$Y<f d kBi[.c o f=Y&` p z.\2^ d$do c*kSd<Z=^gY%`*b0cz?Y&Gh i`$`Hd[.c d Y9c*k2^gcY%[](z Z r b(]0]
n&Y<c$k`*Y%in&k?c*k
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.l%ml1n 0T0 ,+*-,GS ,o5p 2
q r
500 F.S. = 1 mA
+
Rshunt
black test
lead
Movement
red test
lead
Rshunt
Total
E
I
Volts
1m
Amps
Ohms
500
SsHtuvtwSs?xyezd{z'|}:wSdK~ta6ut'zdgud{+w

s9sHd{g
uGt'zdud{8sHdg~9ye~H|{
d|{
9tH|&}_yesHwSyDG"udg|~wSsHdg $
w
s9sHd{god+|&{d9dgs9uye{Sd9
d?zt}D|&xdC|sHt~H~9Sd+ud9dgs\ut'zdgud{?"A+Su#i ~ ||SS}ey:dKG9tHSd+d{9dgs
t}:w
uG{ $ h
Movement
E
I
Rshunt
Total
Volts
0.5
1m
Amps
Ohms
500
tsHudg9
dut'zdguGdg{|&{#9SdG~wS{ye~at \|!
|&s|&}e}ed}_t{xwSs|'Hy:t{B
{St'ye{Sx9|'9SdyesHwSy:P
d{St'9
|&9Sdzt}:H|xdV|sHt~H~\9Sdut'zdgud{gS~9wS{g
|{
;Hdg~8}:dK|S~"9tH|&} $ uw~38dV9Sd7~H|&ud h
Movement
E
0.5
I
R
1m
500
Rshunt
0.5
Total
0.5
Volts
Amps
Ohms
t {St'H
|'9
dCwSsHs9dg{_9SsHtw
x7HSdC~wS{-uw
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d|}e~9P
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!9
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sH|{
<wSs9sHd{~|S<y:{#||&s|&}e}:dg}
t{
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q &
)- n?+*-,o/.l, )10 ,+*-,op32 ) p3 )4 p*65

Movement
0.5
E
I
1m
Rshunt
Total
0.5
0.5
Volts
Amps
4.999
Ohms
500
C Sdg{B-w
~ye{Sx+Su#i ~ |" $ ye{HSd<sHyexXt}:w
uG{d<g|&{d9dgs9uye{Sd;HSd!{SdKdK~9~H|&sHk~9wS{
sHdg~9ye~H|{
d h
Movement
0.5
E
I
R
Rshunt
0.5
1m
4.999
500
100.02m
Total
0.5
Volts
Amps
Ohms
_twSs~ddVtw

}e!
|zd|&}w
}e|&9dg;9SdV~H|&ud+z'|}:wSdta
3w
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d
P
~9w
{7Zg|&}wS}|'Hy:{
x<Ht&|&}6sHdg~9ye~H|{
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9
d
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d tsHuwS}||t |sH
~SwHSd7|&sHy:9SudHyetwS}
|zddd{#utsHd
|&}e}ed{Sxy:{Sx h
Rshunt =
1
1
100m
= 100.02 m
1
500
sHdg|}}:y0dHSd~wS{Cs9dK~y~3Htsta-|&{<|uuGd9dgsye}e}w

~w|&}e}:dVd{
g|~9dgy:9Sye{9SdSsHt&HdgHy:zd+udH|&}
{!shunt
Stw
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yDK
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~9sHw
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d+|&uudHdsoy:{HSd> t}:}et'ye{Sx
SSt9txs|&S h
qj
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CSy~
|&s99ywS}|&s|uGud9dsCy~C|&{#|&wHtut&Hy:zd?wS{Sy:8u|&{w|9w
s9dK;!9dg|s9 |&sH{Sdgs) }:9StwSx<9
d
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d
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ye~?Sy:xwSsHs9dg{s|&{Sxd
y~7d{}et~9dg[yDHSye{9Sd!uGdH|}\Stw
~ye{Sxt&HSd!ud9dsm t&Hd!|&}~9tyDH9Sy~7|&s99ywS}|&s7ud9ds79
|&9
d
{Sdgdg}ed!dg{9ds~7|&dgs9tT|uG~|&{[g|&{ye{
y|&9d;dgyDHSdsG|Tf&t~9yDHy:zdgf#w
s9sHd{7tsX|Tf&{Sdgx|&9yezdgf#wSs9sHd{m
ot{
{Sdg9dgGHt7HSd8
|&9dgs9
|s9xy:{Sx7y:sw
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ye~oud9dgs\y~\|S}:d89tye{
y|&9d?|
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t{
y:9yet{Z"d}edg9sHt{
~ t'ye{SA
x sHtuxdg{Sds|'HtsHt
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|&sHxye{Sx7t{
y:9yet{Z"d}edg9sHt{
~ t'ye{Sx
sHtu
|&HdsH9tHSds9dK~3&t _HSd|&sKi ~C}:t|S~ $
~y~9Sdg|~9doy:9GuwS}:9yeS}edPsH|{Sxdzt}DHud9dgsH~g&|&uudHds~-|&{XdCxy:zd{uts9do9
|{Xt{Sdw
~9|S}edos|&{Sxd
;ye{
ts9ts|'Hy:{Sx~9dzdgsH|}~wS{s9dK~y~9ts~C~y:H
dgyDH|XuXwS}:9y:At}ed~y:H h
A multirange ammeter
500 F.S. = 1 mA
R
range
selector
switch
R1
R2
R3
4
black test
lead
red test
lead
t9yd+9
|&C9Sds|&{Sxd?sHdg~9ye~9tsH~|&sHdVt{
{Sdg9dg;9SsHtw
x<9Sd~9yD<~9t|~o9tGdye{<|&s|&}e}:dg}y:99
d
udHdsVut'zdudg{KsH|&9Sdgs9
|{kye{k~9dsHy:dK~V|~yDC|~ye{ZHSdzt}:9ud9dsVdK~yex{yGCSdG
zdAt~9y:9yet{Z~9yD
ua| dg~Vt{|y:9Wt{
}:t{Sds9dK~y~3HtsV|'7|!9yeuGd&t twSs~%d |ZsHdg~9ye~9ts+y~~yedKk|tsy:{
x}e?
ts|
y dgs9dg{I wS}:}:~9g|&}eds|&{
xd
|~dK!t{!HSd
|sHyewS}e|ssH|&9ye{SxGat 9SdudHdsut'zdgud{7" u j & $
y:9X~9w
G|?udHds-dg~9yex{B'dK|sHdg~9y~3Htsz'|}:wSdy~Sd9dgs9uye{Sdg+HSd~9|ud9dKS{SywSd&w~ye{Sx+|{St'{
9tH|}w
s9sHd{gut'zdguGdg{wS}:}:~9g|&}ed?d dgHy:t{;s|'9ye{Sx|&{uGt'zdud{\sHdg~9y~3|&{
d&
ts|&{!|uGud9dsoyDH
s|&{Sxdg~at ) % u )
|&{
) % 9
d7~wS{8sHdg~9ye~H|{
dK~otw
}e<d7|~~w h
q %
)- n?+*-,o/.l, )10 ,+*-,op32 ) p3 )4 p*65

500 F.S. = 1 mA
+
100 A
range selector
switch
10 A
1A
100 mA
R1
R1 = 5.00005 m
R2
R2 = 50.005 m
R3
R3 = 500.5005 m
R4
R4 = 5.05051
off
black test
lead
red test
lead
t9ydZ9
|&<HSdg~9dk~9wS{sHdg~9ye~9ts!z'|&}ewSdK~<|s9dTzdsH}:t' j &%& jku y~j &&% jkuy:}e}eyDPtSu~g?ts
& j % && jotSu~ _t|Syedzd\9SdK~d}et's9dK~y~H|&{dg~g'|&uudHds6~wS{-s9dK~y~9ts~_ta9dg{
|zd\Ht+dw
~9tuG
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+{Sd+9Sye{SxX9td|C|&sHd?t& Sd{#~9y:gy:{Sx|&uudHdsC~wS{sHdg~9ye~9tsH~\ye~HSdP |HtsCta t'dsy~9~9y:|'9yet{
^8{
}:y( d9
dzt}:9ud9dsKS|&{#|&uudHdsKi ~Cs|&{
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t~9d
~9w
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d;u|;t'zdsHSdg|&|&{<~9w ds8S|u|xdts|'C9SdzdsH}:dK|~
}et~9dV|wSsH|wSdVHtt'zdsHSdK|'9ye{Sx2S tsC9SdVd |uS}:dVudHds8|t'zd9Sdt'dsy~9~9y:|'9yet{~|&I wS}e}D~9g|&}ed
ye{
y|'Hy:t{|s9d"9Sd7twSS}ed~9wSyexx}:}eye{Sdg~sHd
s9dK~dg{f|SSsHt y:u|'Hd}edgw
|&}HtfGye{u|&9Sdgu|&9y~ $ h
PR1 =
E2
(0.5 V)2
=
5.00005 m
R1
50 W
PR2 =
E2
=
R2
(0.5 V)2
50.005 m
5W
PR3 =
E2
=
R3
(0.5 V)2
500.5 m
0.5 W
PR4 =
E2
=
R4
(0.5 V)2
5.05
49.5 mW
{ 'VC|'9\sHdg~9ye~9tsotwS}ot*s ?3w

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> $ SwSC
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current to be
measured
Rshunt
+
V voltmeter
-
current to be
measured
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9
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+
A
-
Load
Cod
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A simple ohmmeter
500 F.S. = 1 mA
9V
black test
lead
red test
lead
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500 F.S. = 1 mA
9V
-
18 mA
black test
lead
red test
lead
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500
9V
F.S. = 1 mA
black test
lead
red test
lead
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d;{
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w
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|'99dsH
9
d{~w
9s|HSdut'zdguGdg{gi ~Cy:{9dgs9{|&}sHdg~9ye~H|{
d+s9tu9|'
xwSs9d h
E
9V
Rtotal =
=
I
1 mA
Rtotal = 9 k
R = Rtotal - 500 = 8.5 k
t'9
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= ( g y:uS}eTSwKBHSd~9g|&}edXto|&{[tSuudHdstdg~
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ddgS}:d~ddg
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d}:d?~ydt&_9Sd7~H|}:d h
q j
.l:l ?0T0 ,+*-,\ ,o5p 2
An ohmmeters logarithmic scale
15k
1.5k 750
300
150
100
75
{
{
yD3G|&{
{St&d?|&
Ss9t|SdK7ye{;|V}:ye{SdK|&s?"dzdg{ $ |~9Syet{BdK|w
~dCHSd?~H|}:dCtwS} -xd6HSdsHd
y
:
9

N|W}etx|s9y:9
uGy#~9g|&}edo9SdT|utwS{;t&VsHdg~9ye~H|{
d~9
|&{S{
dg1ts;|{xyezd{y~H|&{dt{19
dZ~9g|&}ed
ye{
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{
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{
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|&
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d7d3ddg{
9
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|~
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|}D~H|&}ed?d dg9yet{
St}:}et'ye{SxXtwSs8dK~yex{yDH#9Sd zt}:C|'HdsH!|~|~9twSsddxd h
Rtotal =
E
9V
=
I
500 A
Rtotal = 18 k
y:9|&{#ye{HdsH{
|&}ut'zdud{Cs9dK~y~3|&{
dVt&j&Q|&{
|~dgs9yedg~Cs|&{Sxd+sHdg~9y~3HtsCt&6 jXS9Sy~}edg|zdK~
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dX|& q ~H|&}ed {Tt9Sdgs+tsS~g
HSdX9dg~Vs9dK~y~3|&{
d
xyezy:{
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d
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rg
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q m
)- n?+*-,o/.l, )10 ,+*-,op32 ) p3 )4 p*65
total =
E
9V
=

I
250 A
Rtotal = 36 k
test
= Rtotal - Rinternal
Rtest = 36 k - 9 k
Rtest = 27 k
rg ~H|}:dd dg9yet{W" % ju t_udHds?wSs9sHd{ $ h
9V
E
=

total =
I
750 A
= 12 k
test
= Rtotal - Rinternal
test
= 12 k - 9 k
total
Rtest = 3 k
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27k
9k
3k
0
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I
(current)
E
(voltage)
ionization potential
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Simple high-voltage ohmmeter
black test
lead
red test
lead
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~ h
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q K
black test
lead
red test
lead
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t
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"Megger" movement
Magnet
1
1
2
Magnet
3
3
CSd+{w
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}:t~\ye{;HSdV|&t'zd8ye}:}ew
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Stu}:
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High voltage
Red
Black
Test leads
:y 9Zye{
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0
Magnet
Magnet
3
Current through coils 2 and 3;
no current through coil 1
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qq
"tye}e~ q |{
r SyZsHyezdHSd{Sdgdg}edX9t;HSdsHyexg|&{
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9
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d
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output voltage
3 copper wire
iron wire
3 copper wire
+
-
iron wire
3 copper wire
+
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-
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junction
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with the "swamping"
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Rswamp
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MEASUREMENT
ELECTRODE
glass body
seal
silver
wire
+ + + -
- +
bulb filled with

potassium chloride
"buffer" solution
silver chloride
tip
+
+
-
+
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voltage produced
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glass membrane
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chemically "doped" with
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REFERENCE
ELECTRODE
glass or plastic body
silver
wire
filled with
potassium chloride
"buffer" solution
silver chloride
tip
porous junction
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V
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strain gauge conductors bonded
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strain gage
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( E is unknown; I and R are known )

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( I is unknown; E and R are known )

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g
B1
R1
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1

28 V
B2
7V
R2
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I
chosen node
g
R1
4

B1
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1
2
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7V
R2
B2
S*$T$()"W.+0+ P N
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Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)

applied to currents at node
- I1 + I2 - I3 = 0
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+

B1
R1
I1
28 V
I2
I3
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h
R2
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}
1
|

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o
B
jnzc
Voltmeter indicates: -28 V

h
|
R1
R3
|
black
|
28 V
R2
+
7V
red
Voltmeter indicates:
h
+
-
R1
0V
h
red
R3
|
+
|
28 V
black
7V
R2
Voltmeter indicates: a positive voltage

h
|
R1
+ ER2
-
R3
|
red
|
+
28 V
V
-
black
R2
+
7V
-

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A
Voltmeter indicates: a positive voltage

h
|
R1
+ ER2
-
red V black
28 V
+
h
R3
|
R2
+
7V
5..NO,E+
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Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

applied to voltage drops in left loop
- 28 + 0 + ER2 + ER1 = 0
P "+=9;,7J $KHA"7$$<.+B"EDK63(("
9 0
+ J $j
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- 28 + ER2 + ER1 = 0
Ohms Law: E = IR
. . . Substituting IR for E in the KVL equation . . .
- 28 + I2R2 + I1R1 = 0
. A,!W9KL5.+G9e9L2G$C$(lEDK63(("C+
8DK6K*$(l%("6"$+<"Q%&.+B.Z-" P 9;7,7s1%3A"$Q"3.V4"%$%c$<3$W$A+B"
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- 28 + 2I2 + 4I1 = 0
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Voltmeter indicates: 0 V
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Voltmeter indicates: + 7 V
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Voltmeter indicates:
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- ER3
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red
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Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

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- I1 + I2 - I3 = 0
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Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
- 2I2 + 7 - 1I3 = 0
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Kirchhoffs Current Law
4I1 + 2I2 + 0I3 = 28
0I1 - 2I2 - 1I3 = -7
All three variables represented

in all three equations
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{
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{
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- 28 + 2(I1 + I2) + 4I1 = 0
Original form of equation
. . . distributing to terms within parentheses . . .

- 28 + 2I1 + 2I2 + 4I1 = 0
. . . combining like terms . . .
- 28 + 6I1 + 2I2 = 0
Simplified form of equation
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- 2(I1 + I2) + 7 - 1I2 = 0

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- 28 + 6I1 + 2I2 = 0
- 2I1 - 3I2 + 7 = 0
. . . rearranging equations for easier solution . . .
6I1 + 2I2 = 28
-2I1 - 3I2 = -7
Solutions:
I1 = 5 A
I2 = -1 A
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node 1
|
|
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{
I1
|
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node 2
I2
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+
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I3
|
{
I4
R5
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+
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- I1 + I2 + I3 = 0
Kirchhoffs Current Law at node 1
- I3 + I4 - I5 = 0
Kirchhoffs Current Law at node 2
- EB1 + I2R2 + I1R1 = 0
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law in left loop
- I2R2 + I4R4 + I3R3 = 0
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law in middle loop
- I4R4 + EB2 - I5R5 = 0
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law in right loop
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in left loop
- R2(I2 + I1) - R4(I2 + I3) - I2R3 = 0

in middle loop
R4(I3 + I2) + EB2 + I3R5 = 0

in right loop
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EB1
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EB2
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= Voltage across all branches
1
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ER1 = 8 V - 28 V = -20 V (negative on top)

ER2 = 8 V - 0 V = 8 V (positive on top)
ER3 = 8 V - 7 V = 1 V (positive on top)
:+"+
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{
IR1 =
20 V

4
=5A
8V
2
=4A
1V
1
=1A
IR2 =

IR3 =
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IR3
IR1
1A
5A
h
R1
-
20 V
+
28 V
-
+
B1
4A
{
IR2
R2
+
8V
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+
1V
R3
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+G9K77 P c$)"OK.6ZQ?$0.r$<#G$?$-+.K6YjD'.'.K..(0d$<+d,!.<,E3(c$#"f9L#6,#b,7rV2l%!0+X9R$+X.$@$()"O8F+<ZWI
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B1
R1
R3
1

28 V
3A'21'`+B"c$%?+J!#E+%EZe$+:c$
R2
7V
B2
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h

B1
28 V
R1
R3
1
R2
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+BKc$LV#D$$%7<Y>Hl7*,5$
o

R1
R3
1
h
R2
B2

jnzc
j!n
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+
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h
h

R2
R1

24
28 V
-
R2
28
4A
6

0.667
Volts
Amps
Ohms
4.667
R3
+
2A
6A
+
24 V
R2//R3
R1
B1
R1 + R2//R3
Total
2

R3

6

4V
4V
-
S2DK6Y?1HAN;$<(Q,!.#,>3(?$^9Rc$<+.K6Y_$(
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h
h

R2

I
R
R1
R3
R1//R2
R3 + R1//R2
Total
1.333
3

2.333
Volts
Amps
Ohms
E/cz p
Mn L/E 7
1A
R1
4V
o V!n&Mq

3A
2A
h
R3
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R2
+
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+
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7V
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+
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With 28 V
battery
With 7 V
battery
24 V
+
ER1
+

4V
-
ER2
4V
4V
With both batteries
ER1
ER1
24 V - 4 V = 20 V
+

4V
-
ER2
ER3
ER2
8V
4V+4V=8V
3V
+
20 V
+
-
ER3
ER3
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+
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R2
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+
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B2
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battery
With 7 V
battery
6A
IR2
1A
IR1
{
With both batteries
5A
IR1
6A-1A=5A
IR1
{
2A
IR2
2A
IR2
4A
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4A
3A
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2
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R1
R3
28 V

R2
2
(Load)
B2
7V
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7V
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4.2
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|
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R2
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R1
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0.8
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2
(Load)
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E
I
R
RLoad
Total
Volts
10
14
Amps
0.8
571.43m
Ohms
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11.2 V

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2
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2
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14 A
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+ P c89KL9KB$%(0f$+=,E+51$W&+$+:(v3(.
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RThevenin
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EB1
h
R1
EB2
h
R2
EB3
h
R3
= Voltage across all branches
1 |
1 |
1
+ h
+ h
h
R2
R3
R1
$<"+
8$()"`(v3#G$%?+="1EZ8FDZ:6KH6$+Iv3#G$%?+A"U9K
J M"71^V2E8F+%
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R3
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28 V
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Itotal =
EB1
R1
EB2
R2
EB3
EB1
R3
R1
EB2
R2
EB3
R3
1
1
1
+
+
R1
R2
R3
S&K6Kj$(J&+$+j")"$%4,!("[%>Hz'#DK6KH(KM9R?$h@
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$#EYd0+6ZQ.()"r$+],7@G$>_$+D$DKK")"$%4,!
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%E'(%("7$0>.W$(=0+1.+
Z:.#G$<+L+
8$#
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EB1
Rtotal =
R1
1
1
1
1
+
+
R1
R2
R3
EB2
R2
EB3
R3
1
1
1
+
+
R1
R2
R3
Q$<()"L,7
" P $#V%(")"%$A,7&$+
$%
K`9R6K6KUV2W(v3#
KA$<+
t / I Z:?K6K.?+B.Z-"V
t I B Z 5I-^,7&%!0+%X9
+
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"!+(T9Rc$<l@"HAN
K.W+$+W,E3(%7$&"+
3(#,!WA0l+$+L")"$%4,!
14 A
571.43 m
.Z7J "R_X9,1;$(K?K34"*$(GB+
K?$%DNVB,!<+B"<"j$("T$%9*+C,E+
Z@'`+(1B$#"B.+G9zK3I
Etotal = (14 A)(571.43 m)

Etotal = 8 V
0

E/H
rq
21
p q
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^]Mnl n Mn o V!n&Mq
571.43 m
14 A
DuA
+
8V
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DK)"+U5.+G9$#D$O$<(Q$<+D$DKB")"$%4,!>)"=8F+B3(A0zVY$5HANs$#L%(,7?'(<+,7
K+D8
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{
Ohms Law:
IxR =E
(total current) x (total resistance) = (total voltage)
EB1
h
R1
EB2
h
R2
EB3
h
R3
3x
= (total voltage)
1 |
1 |
1
+ h
+ h
h
R1
R2
R3
. . . or . . .
EB1
R1
!(
EB2
R2
EB3
R3
= (total voltage)
1
1
1
+
+
R1
R2
R3
6K?K6ZJ "](v3#D$6+[)"=.+D$<(..NZ@+j$#QV!(17#H+$++$+=,>+57#"6+=ZD$<,#(0^$+BNE$(1
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+BKc$DN
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4658794:4
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8$(:DZ@'.K.H#7T03(f$+Q$<(f'`+G9K70(6"<"6'#D$(0UHU?$<"V.$7%#
K
F!#71(.W+R&+$+2K6ZC'*(0#A,7
I
N
= 5HAN_+
3([!#71(.j(v3(.
KH1$[>m(DZ@'.K.Q,!.#,>3(?$ P $#
Gm+6Zf3.Z
+G9K7^`%A"%8P1[!((+%EZ$%EK6K6"
3A"!$<#G$L$<(^K6+
0L%("6"$%A,!W%("3.Kc$%HANQ._N%1D$"%$!'4+G9K7&0(6"<"6'#D$6+J6"Rv3#DKO.l
K?3#T$+@$#^!(77(.
%("6"$%A,!:P.7$()"L,7B" P I -
RThevenin
EThevenin
0.8
11.2 V
RLoad
0.8
y?$W$()"REDK63(T+D8K6+
0L%("6"$%A,! P $<(=0+)""6'#G$%(0W'4+G9K7!9R6K?KV2
RThevenin
RLoad
5.6
R
P
0.8
39.2
9BG$$<"
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5.6

Bu I
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11.2

0.8
39.2
Amps
1.6
Ohms
78.4
Watts
89;T9K7%$<+@$<Y&@K6+G9;1KE
K?3(8F+L$(^K6+B0&%(")"%$A,7Q I t-
.A"$1B0H+
8 I -
P 8F+R>m(DZ@'.K.@ P +
3#
'`+G9;1!0(6"<"6'#D$(0WV/Y-$<(^K?+?
0L")"$%4,!9j+B3.K60W0+,!%1
"
RThevenin
E
I
R
P
RLoad

6.892
8.615
Total
4.308
11.2
8.615
8.615
0.8
59.38
0.5
37.11
1.3
Q96.49
Volts
Amps
Ohms
Watts
+G9K7U0+)""?'2G$6+W.A,!%1B"0&8F+V`+D$T$<(C!(11(HW%("6"$%A,!A0$($+D$DK
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"(0
N
8F+$<(!K?+?
0G%("6"$+(I=a (9R6" P ?849K;.A,!%1B"M$(!K6+B0^%("6"$%A,!V I L
'`+G;
9 1!(
0 6"<" 6#
' D
$ 6
+ WR
9 ?K6_
K DK)"+C*
V ^.K ("<"*$#J?$&B
9
B
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m
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H4"%$%1
0O+D8 I
P 8F+=Em(DZ@'.K.@ P
FR %

E/H@.
RThevenin

4.716
R

Mn/7
RLoad
6.484
5.895
I
P
%R
Total
5.895
1.1
27.80
Volts
11.2
5.895
0.8
DuB
1.9
38.22
Amps
66.02
Ohms
Watts
8.Y
+B3=9K7%j0+"6N(..NI,!.<,E3(?$:8F+:ZGm+6Zf3.Z'`+G9;1:0+)"<"6'#G$%?+[G$:$(*K6+
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3Q"?Z@'.K6Y@"E$M$#K6+
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@:G_`CEI=9@:G7
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N $(G
EK?$% P f+ R
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Delta () network
h
RAC
RAB
A
h
RA
RBC
h
RAC
RAB
_
RC
RB
Pi () network
A
j!n

Wye (Y) network
h
h
jnzc
Tee (T) network
RA
RC
RB
RBC
6N5H40-+D8O(E$%9j+ Nl R
$;)"'`+B"<"?V.K.L$<+O,7
K6,E3.K6G$&$('(+B'21CEDK63("+D8a%(")"%$<+#"((,7("<"Yf$+^8F+Zl+#
6N
+ &$#D$V*E#("I60+1$),7DK6K6Y;$<+Q$<(f+

$(1 5H40 P
"V#
K?Y570W8P+BZ$<(O$7<Z:H2DK,>+#((,>$6+A"DK6+(BI
#D$)" P c89Kf2
0W$%9*+H"('#G$%^%("6"$+(>$%9*+ " P
!
+ (
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8P<+
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N
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3.K)0V2L.+]9BXYs$<+,(KH,5$%),7DK6K6Y0+E$1Z:.(Q+#
(E$%9j+ >
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R
N
40
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!(1G%T"17DKvB32G$6+4"!3A"0Q$<+Q,>+?7$*+(W(>$%9*+ @$+@$<(^+D$<(7
To convert a Delta () to a Wye (Y)

RA =
RB =
RC =
A0
RAB RAC
RAB + RAC + RBC
RAB RBC
RAB + RAC + RBC
RAC RBC
RAB + RAC + RBC
To convert a Wye (Y) to a Delta ()

RAB =
RBC =
RAC =
RARB + RARC + RBRC

RC
RARB + RARC + RBRC
RA
RARB + RARC + RBRC
RB
E$%9j+ "B%^"17W8Pv3(7$K6Y&. '.#B"^Si'4+G9K7&"Y"%$%EZ-"^C$+

'#6,^,E+E7%(0&HB+
K63.Z:
(
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K?K%("6"$+<"C(v3#DK.&EDK63(
N
N
FR %
E/H@.

%R
Mn/7
Dut
40W,E+51<"6+Q8P<+
Z+(T$<+@$(^+
$(1(70J.+D$.5
+
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3AK60;$#
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R1
12
10 V
R3
R4
18
R2
18
R5
12
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("\ij3(%1$Q2DK6Y/")"[)"O8F.K6YiH5
+BKH(0 P
A0
3.'*7<'`+B"c$%?+-!((+%EZ-"W%O+
8KY_#EK6' P "H4,!O$(1BJ "T+.K?Y]+(@"+B3(#,!C+D8
'`+G9;1(I=XT,>+B3.K)0-3A"V!(11(HJ "j
+ B&
+ $<
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N V
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3(*K6+
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3.K)0
(1c$<(7T$<(
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89;=9K7%$+-$%@G$%("6"$+<"B P P A0l^B"LV21HANQ,>+#((,>$(0l.U
&dfe P
40-
"'*(,>$.(K?Y(W40xN7(1%D$ivB3#HEDK.7$
N
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Selecting Delta () network to convert:
R
AB
18
BC
SL8R$%7L$<(
R
AC
R
12
10 V
R4
18
,E+51<"?+]ILILI
6
R5
12
.d P 9e P
,E++4N
3(G$%?+-
#>$%9*+ _$+%E'.K6
,7C$((Z
P 9KQ,>+
3AK60x$3#$<(6"
Th
o
Du
jikml
jn

&npo!nq

6rts

u converted to a Y
g
A
R
R
R
10 V
C
h
R5
12
R4
18
v 8L9;H'218F+Z+
3(O,7DK),>3AK.D$6+A"=,E+%,5$<K?Y
P $<(>
+BKc$DN("TV*>$%9K77z'4+H$<"OS
Iw
P P A0zi9R6K6KMV*Q$#
N
"%DZ:.Q$<(^,>+?7$0Q,!.<,E3(?$BB"C.H$<(+%?NH#
K`,7H#,>3#c$ P A0;9;,7H$A"8P7*$<.+B"IEDK63("jV2
, @$+O$#
+%6N.#DKV(%60.N^,>++AN
3#%D$6+I
RA =
(12 )(18 )
(12 ) + (18 ) + (6 )
216
36

= 6
(12 )(6 )
RB =
(12 ) + (18 ) + (6 )
72
36
= 2
(18 )(6 )
(12 ) + (18 ) + (6 )
108
36
= 3
RC =
10 V
RA
RB
2
R4
18
RC
3
R5
12
ixk/izy.FR %s\ l s{% R}|o
9o
~

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Du
")"%$<+#"
A0
P +D8,>+B3(<" P %EZHW$#f"
Z:^G$ ( Q 40 @ P %("'2,5$%HEK6Y
IjSI#DK6Y57..N@$#
,!.#,>3(?$.+G9B"R-"1.(" X'#%
K?K.EK`,>+BZfV(.#G$%?+ P 9KW%.WG$L$#T8F+
K6K?+G9R..N AN
3(%("
h

RA
588.24m
4.118

686.27m
RB
RB + R4
5.882
E

RC + R5
5.882
392.16m
20
15
RB +
// R4
RC + R5
18
12
686.27m
8.571
Amps
Ohms
Total
Volts
10
Volts
4.706
392.16m
5.882
R5
686.27m
14.571
Amps
Ohms
fZf34"%$3A"f$(Q
+BKc$DN=0++B'A"IAN
3(%("&8P+BZ$(f$%DVAKHQDV`+E^$<+;0+E$7<Z:H#=$# B+
K?$%DN("LV*>$%9K71
'`+.B$#"&S
294.12m
294.12m
3
h
392.16m
R4
5.294
1.176
294.12m

RC
,w
P P A0si P "71H.N@.+G9$#^
0.0W3.'jF+&"3AV$
,>$ P B"B6"!$<(=,7B"T9R?$B+
K?$%DNV*>$%9K717'4+H$<"
A0siB
+
+
RA 4.118 V
+
5.294
4.706 V
V
+ 1.176
0.588
V +
V
RB RC +0.588
V B
C
+
R4 R5 +
5.294
V
V
- 4.706
-
10 V
-
EA-B = 4.706 V
EA-C = 5.294 V
EB-C = 588.24 mV
N5.+G9$("
+BKc$DN" P
+G9$2G$9K
+%6N.#DKV(%60.N^,!.<,E3(?$
9;f,17$%%A"%8P1L$#EZ$+-$<(O"%DZ:^'`+.$<"S
,w
P P A0]i._$#
DuB
4.706
V
R1 R2
R3
jikml`|
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&npo!nq

6rts

5.294
V
0.588 V
10 V
R4 R5
5.294
V
+
K?$%
Nf0(+B'A"B,!<+B"<"
,!.#,>3(?$(I
A0
4.706
V
P +
8j,>+B3(<" P %Êm+B,5$<K?YW$#C"%DZ: B"&$<(EY79K7%[.s$<(C,E+51$%(0
N
S*$M$<()"j'`+.$ P 9K,>+B3.K)0@$% L$<(("B+

K?$%
N("CA0Q0(>$1Z:.(I%(")"%$<+j,E3(%1B$#"$<(+B3.N
Q$(('2@G$0
3A"T+D8 .Z7J " `X9z
R1 =
R2
R3
=
=
R4
R5
N
v <
4.706 V
12
= 392.16 mA
5.294 V
= 294.12 mA
18
588.24 mV
6
= 98.04 mA
18
= 294.12 mA
5.294 V
4.706 V
12
= 392.16 mA
Sv3(6, W"6Zf3AK.D$6+W9Rc$<
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1
R1
12
2
10 V
9R?K6K"7%$+:1?8FYQ+B3(L9j+
R3
/.
DF`G.gX4(UX
R4
18
0
R2
18
R5
12
0
N

ixk/izy.FR %s\ l s{% R}|o

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4a4:794
A9CIEM@`G/=.8==GJLC6=.mEMC/=9@:G7
+z %!>+9<! 92<#(& + &l29%

: B T (
" X . x 9z#(T+_\-T _#x: \\ 9+ a %T_ \
_ " :" c\ 9969\/R92\ #x .z _29T WL T9 _
/\% T%1 2% K zR L @ "9%zR+ \1 "WL 9 " 9
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x 6 \ 9 95 9T9z6 _ "z 98"9#z.
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9%62R z{\. :\ \ 9 \ ]`\ . 6. 9
|6 < iiTFc 6l<o/n As{
e
e
= electron
P = proton
N
e
e
N
P P
N P
N
N

P
P N
N
P
= neutron
e
e
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+
electrodes
electrolyte solution
The two electrodes are made of different materials,

both of which chemically react with the electrolyte
in some form of ionic bonding.
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Lead-acid cell discharging

load
+
I
PbO2 electrode
Pb electrode
electrons
electrolyte:
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At (-) electrode: Pb + H2SO4
PbSO4 + H2O + O
PbSO4 + 2H
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Lead-acid cell charging
+ Gen
I
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PbO2 electrode
Pb electrode
electrons
electrolyte:
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At (-) electrode: PbSO4 + 2H
PbO2 + H2SO4
Pb + H2SO4
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symbol for a battery with
an unusually high voltage
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Ideal battery
8.333 A
10 A
10 V
1
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0.2
1
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2.2 V
equivalent to
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-
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Scenario for a fully charged battery
0.1
indication:
V+ Voltmeter
13.2 V
-
13.2 V
0.1
100
13.2 V
No load
/) 3 "09+) % "@
indication:
V + Voltmeter
13.187 V
Under load
Scenario for a slightly discharged battery
indication:
V+ Voltmeter
13.0 V
-
13.0 V
5
100
13.0 V
No load
indication:
V + Voltmeter
12.381 V
Under load
cL)%!z X 3/
Scenario for a moderately discharged battery
indication:
V+ Voltmeter
11.5 V
20
11.5 V
No load
c X 3 : )T
20
100
V + Voltmeter9.583indication:
V
-
11.5 V
Under load
6H ! Fc H o A{
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Scenario for a dead battery
50
+ Voltmeter indication:
7.5 V
V
7.5 V
50
7.5 V
100
+ Voltmeter indication:
5 V
-
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Under load
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Continuous current (in Amps) =
Amp-hour rating
Charge/discharge time (in hours)
Charge/discharge time (in hours) =
Amp-hour rating
Continuous current (in Amps)
c I_2 T x 0\ \EI\ ) 3 x 9 a%!%T

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Mercury "standard" cell
cadmium
sulphate
wire
cork washer
mercurous
sulphate
mercury
solution
_
glass bulb
wire
cork washer
cadmium
sulphate
solution
cadmium amalgam
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Hydrogen/Oxygen fuel cell
- load +
electrodes
hydrogen in
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
e ee-
O2

electrolyte
O2
O2
H+
H
oxygen in
O2
H+
e-

O2
O2
membranes
water out
a ! 0 % 0 ' ! 0%+ 03 H A03^!A )0! %M

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Solar cell
wires
thin, round wafer of

crystalline silicon
schematic symbol
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-
load
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wire resistance
+
Source
-
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voltage
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drop
voltage
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+
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Load
jsomething less than

jsource voltage
wire resistance
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send-view of
jsolid
round wire
Cross-sectional area
is 0.008155 square inches
0.1019
inches
Z ` + ! % +3 M % "| Z+"3 `" 3) E '! '! '

3 Q ! 3vu '_ u _ n B@! ' 3T ^ @ +0 0` = " Z r !
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x
A = r2
A = (3.1416)
0.1019 inches
z2
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F`M `[' 2 !|{ Z 0 Z M` }F ; 0 " % F

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send-view of
jsolid
round wire
Cross-sectional area
is 8155.27 square mils
101.9
mils
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A = (3.1416)
101.9 mils
r_r
z2
A = 8155.27 square mils
:y @" = %o! o . +"% Z Z @` } % % 9 FZ

3 . ' " `7 n ' ! Z p 0 ' +0 0` + ! '@n 3 ' ~0
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A = d2
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Z )! 0 oZ' 0 )0 3' 3 3 [ 3 ` " Z 20
0 A ''A 0` D [ !o !M = ' 0 0 m7 % @
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Area = 0.7854 square mils

Area = 1 circular mil
1 mil
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1 mil
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Area = 4 square mils
Area = 4 circular mils
Area = 5.0930 circular mils
2 mils
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g4g4444g/ 4 4444g4 4 |444g444/ 4g4444
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A = r2
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480 V
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excessive
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480 V
arc!
Load
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jump the gap, allowing some
current in the circuit. THIS WOULD
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e~U~Rx|/X}cq`~j~:|B|ez~UzA|B}XUzX w w zR-~.[zR` w }[zX&'~`~5|]y~ w O R|x XxzX \j
w &[.\FzR w ~9[~-zXx w '}[zFz12' zFy"|}].]}[ ^]\xo\[;R}[}l|x \~| U9
~ O| ]x- w .~ )zF| \~]
z~.A w -2\x.\32 5]"~.[B w w zR~.[Zq]x~~ w R+]`x|X } ~ zX2 }gz XF zXy{+| X.x v w \.~
5Az{x + ~]
o B %À
"Hot"
blown fuse
load
"Neutral"
no voltage between either side

of load and ground
"Hot"
load
blown fuse
"Neutral"
voltage present between either side
of load and ground!
w \ x-X ~.X w
~)
~\\ ~~:B}}[ [ F|] xx|`.U]Bxx|]Az" w }[zF`B` w }zO]x3[x 3[}[~Az
[F|]xx|`|zR.\.R}[}"RB]xzX~ZFzX}|XqAxzFyIo w ]xv~-zX w -}[zF'z)XxzXR w \x.9|\x~zX{y w
2) ~5R [ Be w x~:-[ x] \ ~. F ~y w ~|O \x\
~/ vF ~~.q[ {2 zFx.F R~.\ ~R x| BzR w zXB}['5=|2- zRzOZ] x Bxx.\ %|BxzR|\ .[ zX]Z4[1~.X!= w
} ] Z4 \ ~X }} \ [ x lBx|oX q] x~R x| zR|] 1X y{zXx| zFy"y{zFB}B~.\ zzX|2] ) x ~j w BU ~~.[ Zq
Ao v*
` 3 3e 3 9i5!Y - 3
X
xx|]\U w [x|ezF|BB}Rx|5)`+z- w vF% w R w ])BzXj \~:xzO w ]y~.]}[ZqU~[) w 3|Bxz`\~~lzXBBx.1R4[B
w [x , X~).~ \~'Bz a
X_ F~ Fl w zX w |B} X ]y ]'zXA w zOZ ]x Bx|x ]|BxzX. U. [zX ]4Z [ [
[x - }[}jzF}}[zO w '|~ Ry ] \|x X}X ] } [ \~ } ~5| \ RzOqZ F+ Ry \}FBz R.~ o" w '~ zX w )|zO \x
~B|B|B}[ /O zFB U. U1zXxzXBe
} w zXB w zOqZ \x]Bx|x ]|BxzR| \ . [zX1|B} X ]y ] ' [x vy q | ]xy w |x ]} O. [qZ ~ w z= w Xo Rx
zRe w R [x] Be ]xZ R|x zF~ zF . [zX~\ y~:2 3B \x~:z=z`' w R~ w ]4Z \~ ]|x A ]Z ]x | ] U
zmX Rx Rg [~5* ] } \ |x [D~ w z=/e7 w \x{~ U~"BzXx [x ".x 1Rq \x~' \.x BzR U~ [X UTzzF| \'
[
w *\qZ \FzX | \x~zXmq ]:. [B~ w z= \ |x R w \x\/ w ] R|x ,[. ]e \zzX2| ]mzX}$ ]x)]zX | zF~zR
|zR. \. R} zXe`zXxzOqZ ]x w 1O. [Be Z ]x Bx|x ]- ]4Z \~|B|x y X.x [}D|BxzR| \ w " zXe`zXx~-zX/ 1 [x]
xzXyzOqZ \x:| ]y{2| ]x O.x + Ry R XT w .x w Xo RxB*~ X~~:z` R. \ w zOqZ \x}[ w zR zF` zFx~ X
.~ \ zF X.x [}|BxzR. U3~:2| \ e| \ U~zX \ [|By ]A~ w F~}[z X/~ Re{q ]+ ]x OzFx~~zXy X~:: X . [B.~ \~
R|x U~ [X+ \NzL|BxzR. U\
\} UxzF [ ]4Z \~+| Xx:| []B } Xx}[L~~ \|`. [B } $zL Bx.x \~:x \~I
4[ $ w
x|x ] } ]Z ]}~ \ \~.~ XxzX9x ] } \.x )~ w z`zFex ] } \ xz` `| zF; R|x y' w }[zO \x w R; w 'BzFxy X}l Bx|x ]
} ]qZ \}[~zRl]zXy{y{zX|zO \x}[z X~]4 ) zF . [zX1zXjzOqZ \x]Bx|x ]! ~BzX [ R. [qZ -zXl~ w z`"z`] x|x w ]|x
R|x -zX w \x ]4Z U~ U~ [X U"z" | \3 \x: [1 w z` zF . [zX~FxzFB= RB}v ]. UzFx~ o w y{zF~:
|zX|BB} RxB`) w \.~ \4Z [ \~)~:|x [ }[.~ ]xqZ " w O)zX+ |BBx|ez~ X R|x B [ZFzX}[qZ U w |BxzR| \| zF_zR
w ) zXe`zXxc~ R qe~5zOqZ \x w oO|

9 /~ )~y R}[}8X w [ zF` zFx \.~ [X U'z)y ]} X~ \+| Rx O| cz)5vz| \ \~zXx w |Bx|zF.~
zR.x 1R4 * x D w #]Z ]zR B U~.~ Z ]Bx.x \FU
9 ]\F [-~ D~:2| \ X}}[ U~ [X+ \~ w w O& X`zFy R. X}}[;zX2| ]~z [. \xxB|` [x]
Bx.x \ ; w \qZ \FzR/ R;zOZ ]x Bx|x ]- zXe | zFje w \; R;2 ,R|x || U $zF| \ \e3 w ]xy X}}[X
y RX+ . + \}[B~\zXx= ]=. ]x+ X}l ]4Z U~- X} } \ X|BxzX. U. [qZ |x ]} q`~] { ]2| ] BzXD w " \.~ [X
zR.x 1Rq \x\4 ~-.~ [ X X w &X|B|B } [o O. [zXl
.~ \#
~ X.x {|B|x y X.x [}|x R. \ [_. ]xy~zR3y O yBy]Bx.x \FUjB`* R|x X}[~z|x R. Uv [m. ]xy~zR w zO
y' w ZXzF} Rq `xzX| w \ [}}j|~ O \} w ~:| Re R. ]ex . \xxB|`| { x \
.~ \~A X1 U~ [X U{zB}[zOt X~:\=~:}[zOFzFx X= w ]|x ]5 o]zFx w .~ X*
y y R yByp} \qZ \}
zR%]Bx.x \FU
w )2 \~:|B} X
z e~5 R}[8} {e~ ,v 1XxzXB \|zO \x~=~:. \y ~zX; w 'BXxzXB \; zF` zFx
+| O w z w }[z F w Rc qX3 w ]I w ~ B}[zO-~ w ]|x $ }[}zXB}[L2 $ w FxzFB Ui|~ O q
zXe`zXx~:. [}}l]zXB+ \| \z" w }gz X`y Xg [B .~ R ]x3zXx2| ]zF|B } z &XxzFB
*m--,$&-, l%)!

zXe`zXxXy{|+X5x|R.[B][~,; xX~~.\~~:y ])zXAx|\~.[~:|XX~.\mzXm w 1|ezX.\F| X}zFx' Bxx|]
z |x oO| |x w Xo Rx-zO ]Z ]xUl 1y qm]zXy \X]xz~~~.+R.[zX~ w ]x| w ZXzF}Rq`xzX|]x.1O|\
=$ [.x |x \.~ [~:| X *[ ; x + |zF.~ \~ zF \xe~zR w ]x w Rmx| qZFzqReX zFx#e~5RXly q$2
U~ [X [B
[x w ]|x 'ZXzF} R X]xz~9~ zFy{|ezF ]9 ~ |x | [o R} R;y~:BzX X}}2 ]}[zO ]x| [
} y \ w
~ ~ w ' F~ F` w 'ZXzX}| Xq `xzX|~-.x U~:B}. [B{xzXy |x .x U~ ~:| Re y q X.~ &R] ]B + ]|x [B
|BxzXB } ]yg w } 2 [B \}} w ;|~ O |x UA } [*y ~-zR! Ry{+| X 5/
o=
5 % -A=: e
X
2300 feet
wire resistance
25 A
230 V
Load
(requires at least 220 V)
25 A
3 w }zgX_ w \XezOZ1[x])[}[}BzX)zF}\x|R.} \~~ w XXXZXzX}~\lZ];~zXBxZFzX}|R{zR

RF"ZXzX}~\` w ] ;X ]:|]x2'~Bx| w R w )[x|B1BzgU~:l BxzF|Dy{zFx. w R {ZFzX}~X}zFB" w 'qF
zXF| ;ezX w w
~B|B|B}[X mx.] Bx zF` zFx~zXA w ~'[x \% w [~'}1qZq\~#y R4[y'yzX} ]xRB}
`xzX|_zR ZXzF}~&R }[zX w 1 } ] BX w zRcoF w x|X D~. B w yD ~)q 2 j1 RT].\xy [ w
y O [ y'By X }}[zOcR B} x|\ ~. ~5R zFxoF w | \ zR x|X
wire resistance
R=
E
I
R = 5 V
25 A
R = 0.2
)=BzO w R w '[x.)} ]R w [~RXF"]zXx9oF w |U)zXx|XeB` w zOi`z1'].]xy +) w
Ry{zFB3zX%x|\~.~5RzFx"~|2\e~.o#RD} ]BX w zRx|U]z1`z" w R\BU]RBzX w \x3zXxy'B}B
l
R=
w ~zXxy'B}x|]}O|\~ w "x|\~.~5RzX zXe`zXx w ~~:|2\e"x|\~.[~:|XD w x.o];} .]x

Rx w zg= X w w }z=zX`~~.y [} Xxz#}zO]xX~.} .\x/R|+~}\BR w R}F qR*~]xz~~:~U.[zXR}4Rx|o
7-zX.- w O3 w w } ]R w ZXx.R}-zF w -zF|zX w x|F.[zXlX w x|\~.~5R-ZR}[e[ x|oF~U~
X~v w
} ] R w e x|oX ~.\ ~X +R }[zXF/ ~3y{zXx|
1 B}3zzXx
} w xzFB w )}[zXB"|[| w R"~ w zXx
zX+U X D\ ]x.1X ~.\ ~X ~3 xzF~~5~.\ | zF+R }2R x|o ]x.1X ~.\ ~X +R }[zXF/l} [ zO-~/1X ~.\ xA w xzXB w ' O |[ |
w R w xzXB w ~4 B=_zX+U = |2\ x|\ ~.[ ~:|X [ ~*m zXe~5R 'zFx' w 5=|2 zX zF` zXx"y O |] x| X }
2[ B1X }[]B} R .U
w)
~|U ex|\ ~.[ ~:|X U ~3zR~.] Zq\ x|X }j zF` .[ Zq
y O |] x| X }[~-oR 2
zXBe] w
zX}[}[zO B{R B} X
{]zX|B|2] x1R x w ezX:zXyzX w 3 |X B}F F~.\ ]zXzXB}[z)~[ }Z] x[ w q Zg[ B}zON~:|2\ 3x.U ~ ~5R Xz=z`
zF` .[ Z4 5B
A
442'4q44g4 4gg44g
<
+g+q+ggF Q
a|qqq4/ d a^g4ql d
4 4g4444g4444g44gg4g44gg4g4444g4gg44g4gg444ggg444ggg444g
g14444g'+4gFQ4g4444g4444g44 4 444g4444g4 41/
g1
oF4g4+4gF Q4g4444g4444g44 4 444g4444g4 g/
X W
Ao
v* ` 3 3e 3 9i5!Y - 3
<q4q14444g'+4gFQ4g4444g4444g4444 444g4444g4
q2qq4g4+4gF
Q 4g4444g4444g44 /f 444g444
gB
K 44g4444+4gF
Q 4g4444g4444g444 444g4444g4
+gq1=qE 4444+q4444g4444g444 4 g4444g44
Fg4444g44a+q4444g4444g444 2'g4444g44/
gqf 44g444'+q4444g4444g444 g4444g44 f
n 12g4444g44a+q4444g4444g444 / g4444g44/f4
<RgQ BH qqE 4g+q4444g4444g444 /1 g4444g44/
4E 42q4444+q4444g4444g444 g g4444g44/f4
+RE 1=qE 4444+q4444g4444g444/ g4444g44/ 4
X
H g4444g44a+q4444g4444g444 g4444g44/f
XV+V 44g444'+q4444g4444g444/g g4444g44 4
qRM 44g444'+q4444g4444g444/ g4444g44f4
K
44gXQg/NV+2qF]/tV+2qqqg+q
7-zX. w O w Xx.U~zXx"~:|2\e1x.U~~5R[_ w RzOZq{|XB} Rx|q[Zq\_ w Z]x~:xRB

BzXeRz w y~5 y [} |T8v y [} w [~'B*[R.U~) w RB~'Rx| `|2\|\_z$~.\[T w
x|\.~ [~:| X zFxyB} 2} O w ~oX~.X% w \~.1FBx.U~zFx"~|Ue1x|\~.~5RRx||]UTz2
.~ \D w \ } ]BX w ~y oX~Bx|\\D]eR]xz~~:~.\ .[zX+X}Xx.1,~3y oF~:Bx|\[x } XxAy [}[~\
w y .x zFx-~:2| \ |x \.~ ~5 R e~A w z w y"y | ]x8vy1BzFx3z w y" ]| y | ]x8v y1 B w
q ` vy | ]x~2| ]xvv y [} q - ` -v]y2| ]xvv y [} " w v yk]zX}[By{{zR
w | XB} FX w FB|x \~ X.x F R}[}{~o R } \ X~ lv]y `+ z w [xZ ]x~y R}[}y RF U~] zFx Ry{|B } X
[xzF
~3} ~:. \] F~ lv]yD w [ w zFB}2 |x ]|B|x \.~ ]. U\ F~ v y
w \De~ [B" w -zXvy . \x3zXx-~| U e|x \.~ [~:| X D w 2} R zFxyB} B= w } \BR w o\B~
z2 &[*y ]. \x~ X w &X.x 1*;~F R|x y ]. ]x~\ w ];e~ [B{ w B zRv ]. [y | ]x'v]y [ w
|~ Ry zXxy'B} B= w } \BR w + \~3z{2 #; \. [*
y ]. \x~ X w &X.x 1[;~+ X.x \F| y ]. ]x~\
}[} w \.~ B ~-zXx-~| U e.x U~ ~:| Re #R|x Z X} zXex X=1y O. \.x R}v]y } UvyDzXxv y1 +
y w 1|B.x ] ]x{zme~ $v y } U w zO \qZ \x\ w ] oX} [Bm w xzFBL |x w ]|x D w $]xz~~:~ U. [zX R}
R|x o&[~ R}[.x 1X`"=BzO
[ [x B} Rxv*y [}~] zX=Z ]x~ \}FX w \ 1R } B' w z`B=~ w R2| \Be~:+ XxvzFxv]~5zXy
B~+ Xx' `zX`)zX3y ]| R}v~5z=/ w ]|x zXB}[$ w 1 } + oRx y \~ [zXe~zR } ]BX w % [` w R w [ w R|x
=BzOj= w )~:2| \ .x U~ ~5 R ~zRv*y ]. \xzXx-v]ygy q12 y{zX|x X|B|BxzX|B|x R. F
qz [B{+ FzzFBx Ry{|B } [x] \B \.x }[z=zX4 'zFx- |x w R w X {JzXx } \~~3zR.x U~ ~5 R
zOqZ \x '} \BR w zR%XXF U ~~:*y [B' w RA X .x Xqz [B'z'e~ zX|| \xv [.x " w y{z~5 zFy"y{zF{52| zR
] } \ |x [o R}
[.x y R=` FB.x U` X.~ B|zFBx3zXxy'B} X~~ w
o=
5 % -A=: e
l
R=

. . . solving for unknown area A . . .

A=
Rl
A = (10.09 -cmil/ft)
2300 feet

0.2
A}[
= \B116,035
xR}[}[D~cmils
zX}[Z4BzXx / #ZX} "zR
F{x B}Rxy }~\ \x \[BzXBx~zX} [x
~. RB} X` e w RF`zXB} ]zFB w 18OF[x w UXUX)]y*[}~c[~cX \+O X= w \x 1X~v w ]=
}[zO \xv~. XX~.X} zXB w OF gRU` RF y [}[~~zz{~y X}} 1Rxy 1 w RAzFBxvx + Bxx ]
~ y"z` U~5v Ry{|~\ \ zFx [BzzFBx Ry{+| F 5| XB} vzFx zF|B|! \x[x c[x " qxU "#gR
A[x AzXB}
w qZ "~`1$ UL X~ R#x F&~ % O ~:| Xx:| x ,~ zF$ \x' \ "zO \Z
]xUxzFy w 1~5R`|zq[zRvZFzX}|X

`xzX|j( #{ R
x vzFB}[ w qZ " \
Z ]xB+ F]" ]|` RB} X
F~5zFxBj} \ ~)~ " w R) "#;g R
{ [x {AzXB} w q
Z `zF {zzXBx|zO \x) [x] \ ~!| \x:zFxy X$ F
jz=zFg [B OzXxA [x .~ | R} F` w O* "#" X
[x w Xc~ { xzF~~5+~ U| zF+ R2} Rx o)zX, #e U x } Xx
y }~\ v F x ~:. [}}%.~ D]zX|B| ]-x X ~ 1 [x y O \.x R}A Xz=z`$ w z [" XBB} \~~ X x . -.x w X$ X
O/zXx/
# F zX "#{g R
.~ }[
Z \xA [x ` w ]zXx-~:| \ ex \.~ ~5 R" [}}~5| }[}j 0\B v]y } UU
R=
l
A
R = (10.09 -cmil/ft)
2300 feet
4107 cmil
R = 5.651
\y2 \y' ]x3 w O3 w [~~3` J|! \xRFX -zX"#XgR zF|B| ]x3x XX w R- w qZ 5AzxB~
zRR FX) " [D w * \.[x [x \~z X4 x | \$ -[D w )x w F~3` IzX%x \~.~5R" X
2300 feet
230 V
wire resistance
5
5.651
5.651
Load
(requires at least 220 V)
Bx'zRR}[x wire
[x resistance
x U~~:|Re$ ~.[y& \~0` X%zXx7
F F T-`zFx:B+R ]}[X w ~~ 9 O z=z
y'e w x \.~ ~5 R" ;z R}[}zOb
Ry{|~)zR Bxx \ w ;~zXx" "ZFzX}| X
"zR-RXDZFzX}~\ Z ] 3zXBx'}zgX
6
Ao v*
` 3 3e/9 3 9i5:9Y - 3
8#
x \.~ [~:|X$ {cX~$lzFBx[x.[B;x \~.[~:|X$ {zR;
F F {AzXB}mx U~5x. w [x ' Bxx ]z;y& ]x
R X Xy{|~ T ~FzXo RN+~ X/ <X~y X}=} vXy{zXBzX [x x U~ ~5 R" o Ry X
[m ]x ]" [
[x | ]xzXxy X$ F \~| \ R}[}[\
[;|ezO ]x- x ~ w ]x w ' Bxx ]~ Xx y w;w [ w \x w X5=| [o R}[}
]e zXF ]x \
> \} UxzX+ [ [x] ~\
]\ ~)`;z X@ ] Ry{|B} x U~ ~5 R" {|BxzFB} ]y zFx | \" 1zR ~:zFy"]`)B~+ RxU7 A`B|B|zF~ w qZ
?
| \" )zR~zX } [] R}[By [y+ Xx\' #$ \F| &y ] ]x~ )=$ ]| &y ]x~ R}[}j=< q
"$ \F| &y ] ]x~-}[zX+ X
[~ w zeXBx 3 w B ]=zXC \{x \.~ [~:| X$ R}[zX w -}[zX) &y \~ [zX$+ U y1: D8x~:\X -AzXB}" " U
z ] \xy [ w )]xz~~:+~ U. [zX R} Rx ozR% w + Xx\
E
Area = Width x Height

A = (4 cm)(3 cm)
9R}~z' \{z'=BzOt w ~|! Ue-x \~.~5R" -zRX}By [=Byg[1 w BA|BxzX| ]xzXxv w ~cR|B|}R.[zX
8v y1 DBxzXypzXxvRB} zR%~| \ex U~~:|Re$ \~\ ~ " w Rv w [~c~-` F\ v]yDAG ]:|B{B|DzXx
2}H zXxy'B}B` w qZ
F
A = 12 square cm
R=
l
A
R = (2.65 x 10
-6
R = 27.604
-cm)
125 cm
12 cm2
~3FzXDRD~+ X= w ~ w ]xA w [= U~~3zX"B~+Rx3y R \~vzXx;I -}zOJx U~~5R" \~A zFy"|Rx \z" w R
zR~:|ReRx1[x ~. \~\ ]Z ]D w ]~. {y R ]x|R}/ w {Xx oO ]x3~:| \x U~~5R" X
J w "|Bxz=" \`x zFx ]x*
y [[BDB~+Rxx U~~:|Re$ &~BzRBXy& ]|X}}[$ \x \F w R$zFx ]x
y + B_xzXBe [x Dx U~ ~:| Re$ X "5~:{' " \zmy R D~Bx w O xzF~~5~ \|zF+R}Rx ov[~oR} B}O \
|BxzX| ]x} R w Re R}[}/ w ~- zFxx \~|zX10z oF w zX w \x X~A w ]~ w zFB}[j

w []x 1X~ \} \BR w R U x oX~ \~/ w [ x oF+~ U xzF~~5+~ U| zF+ R}
LK zXèzFxx U~ ~:| Re$ e x oX~ \~/
Rx oB X}}zX w \x3 XzXx~3! o2
U+ R}
Q % S RG F ~ {|BxzX| ]x51zR R=D zXe`| Z y O \.x R} "FBx e+~ UDz1 ] ]xy '
NM8O P R
w * \=zRT ]ex \.~ [~:| X$ zR! { zF` zXx3 Z ]D} \BR w X Rx o,D w [~3zFxyB} B 2H}
A=!| U ex \.~ [~:| X$ %zFxjy O \.x R}
~ Xx q [
Z \- B+ ~jzRv y [H} qjzXxv&y \x~&y .x \ K zX=Z ]x~ [zX
XzXx 5 " ] w \~ '5AzB ~ &~ X q 8 #F{U
\ v&y ]x~| ]x'v y [H} q\jzF&x X q 8 #F{U
\
v]y!| \xv]y } UU

|x [BZFzX}| X
'`xzX| x + # ~].x . X}8 ] Fx U~ ~:| Re$ o R} B} O| zF~zXx w " [x U~y~:
! y X zFx
[x .~ #[~ w zF~ ]j
- 9- 3% 5 3v=: e
8#!
X Y( *m-&#& 1Z+-,]!"\[J&%,]j)!
]zXy [ w w q
Z ;BzX.$ \tzFt w |XB} $zXx~| \e;x \~.~5R" \~{ w O]R}[}-FBx U~ ]x ~:| \! \O
\y{|! \x|RBx 'zXvR K ]}~ [~\ vXzX~:~| \ \ w O w [~&y oXF~:| \ 'x \.~ [~:| X$ 'zR/ 1y R ]|x R}%y q
w XB
w \y"| ]x OBx X`XzF ]x .x [ w
U~ ~5 R " OZ RR}[ U~ \}[zF.~ xAe]~zXzXB{ wzX x~~ | R \c Xe{x U ]~ y{~5 | R ]x " O | xX B}zR w y' ]exv~5 3w ! X w ]x~5y R UXx w x ]zFy{B | w ]x O c Bx R {BzXe w ~:` \x
R}[}[{~| \ ' U
K
zXxy' }
R = R [1 + (T - T )]
oWV
ref
ref
Where,
R = Conductor resistance at temperature "T"

R
`
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^
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ref
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load
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50 m
15
Wire2

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50 m
15
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50 m
250
14
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50 m
Amps
280
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49.677m
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Where,
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Rref = ^ Conductor resistance at reference temperature
Tref, usually 20o C, but sometimes 0o C.
= _ Temperature coefficient of resistance for the
conductor material.
T = Conductor temperature in degrees Celcius.
Tref = Reference temperature that is specified at

for the conductor material.
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"Ohms Law" for a capacitor
i=C
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dt
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Time
Voltage
change
Capacitor
voltage
EC
Time
Potentiometer wiper moving slowly "up"
Capacitor
current
IC
Time
/
HK"
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quickly in the "up" direction
(greater)
Steady current
+
-
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-
+ (faster)
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V
voltage
-
1 (1
8 ; 3
878 5 6 /:3c8:7
Time
Voltage
change
Capacitor
voltage
EC
Time
Potentiometer wiper moving quickly "up"
Capacitor
current
IC
Time
NB"BK&'"r'g(+8 ''B"&c"

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Time
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different rates
Capacitor
current
IC
Time
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x E
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C=
v
d
Where,
C = Capacitance in Farads
= Permittivity of dielectric (absolute, not
relative)
A = Area of plate overlap in square meters

d = Distance between plates in meters
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equivalent to
x E
x 4|
y {I}
Ctotal
C2
b7912
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Series Capacitances
Ctotal =
1
1
1 1
+ +...
C1 C2
Cn
5 ( 5 L2
K -5
>5FK2 #
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C1
C2
equivalent to
Ctotal
b79!2s

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5 ( 5L 2% 5 @
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Parallel Capacitances
Ctotal = C1 + C2 + . . . Cn
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Electrolytic ("polarized")
capacitor
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-
curved side of symbol is

always negative!

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Capacitor equivalent circuit
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9 J2 cKEJ5 H H E2NK<2H5 H Y2OKJt2dab H 3lCJ H PK ? 15C 8 H H Et7
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H 82 J H Z
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H 9aKEsS75 H KbJ H J02 H
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P J 8! J2da M@ deK<2 H 9 J2c K H
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3 K^N J H 5 H 34 1E H d2 H @
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H X H H EkcZ H s
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B J2 HMH H 529<E H
2 H F
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E mY 712h mK<32 H r2 H J; H 3q: J H 8P2 K2 J
2 S2 HH K Y2P@4WlI
l H H 6 P Jb743J 7
Ert9 J2"
c K Y
JB ! JX
H 2q
J Q K<2 H H 3r2 H H B H !X8L
a J2 H 3PXba5712YP2 J6
KDg J H 5 H 3; 1E H Y2 H JfN K L3d H K 5k H Y7
2 J
6g J H 5 H 8 H H _
E J2Z <cZkN KJZ 3;B H
magnet
. . . after breaking in half . . .
magnet
magnet
vk
uwlxI yz!{>v 1xw x

z.y | } w x
y z z u y{Fz w x
zly | } w
d{J HIH H 52PJ5"5NK6 H 92 H H c H H

a(2dc? 2dab H 3B H 2 .X H 3J 7
Er
Y2|KES 712-`JXba}KhK 6 a9
B JL2PJ H KEs H 6nK<2PJ H eF@~ 7Y2KcJ2 H H 5F2JK5S5hK6 H 9PK H B H l H H 4 H K
2 H >9BcZgJ H
B JL2 H
B H
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ak H .YNK5 H 9
KE,5 7
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H m<_ H ENmk5 7
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K <c J
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6 J22 V P J H 82j
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magnetic field
magnet
WIl
c J2r
K 8akt JEs 3o_ H E` H H 52PJ5 9pLK 6 H 2JK59B6 OK JL2OK<2J hKeF912 H 2 2OKi7hK82J2da 9B H H 5F2>9p 3o2 H
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ZJK5NK H IchKOK EgKua5 J H E2 H 2 H m<27X H ms2 V H 3 H 2 sK0Y2PJ
60 3ZjK6 H 2PJ5B71gJYNK5 H `J2 H 2 H
mb J H mFJKM H 5
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<cIeF@E HRH EP9 2 H H KY7 H H 82! 3rjK6 H 2PJ5_ H KEL71gjJKM 32 H -E H _ H E
J2 H D 3I2 H b7
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7
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X
2Y3J7
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H gJY2jJJEJ JKE17NK i9
E JK5 H 2 H b J H Z 35 dO2 K82 K7 H @
s 1E H S2 H P J H ; 3j
K6 H P2 Jnj
KJ8P2 KJ^2N K
2 Klj
K 6 H 2 JK5M_ H C
E JK
bE
75 H EXb|
a K H H 52P J55N K 6 H J
P2 J P9 KEH2b7
J
2 JK"2 H P J H E 2N K<22 H j
K 6 H 2 JK5_ H E- i3 KS qR5 K H _
E m H j
K H 8P2 mSL
K 6 H 275
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bE H Y2 H JK2 H H Y7L2o 3 H H 52
c J2N JD2 H K<2 a3 J YN J
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a J^2 H P K H E J H 52 J P@
H 2 H . l 2I2 HCH H 5F2
J`
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K H 7
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g J3J YN J
N J
6 J
E JK5FO2 K<2 H EfXba-2 H K2 L
JK5%d275F27 H 32 H L
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b J H
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a JKIE JK5FO2 K<2 H E
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N9 K E HH -3 H c H ZN K H 2 H KgX Jp J2da 2 H j
j
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KDj
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J H 32
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K6 H 2 J H @k^
3 Kfg J H 5 H
3 J
JKX
76 82
H K|
Kf H j
K H 2j
K 6 H 29;2 H_H H 5F2 (
c JL2g JC2 H K2 }
JC2 H J G J H 82%2 H J^g J(2 sj
K<25
2 H j
K6 H P2 J5S_ H E03J 5 H 1E175 H EVX8af2 H H j
K H 82.j
K 6 H 29 KE02 H J 0X H 5 H
mj
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H J c JBj
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K H 2j
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K H 82?j
K 6 H
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v 1 v
1
z"{ w x
z
y w x
zlyo}
2 D2 H J
magnetic field
iron
magnet
(unmagnetized)
H
H J 7a 7
jK6 H 2J H EfJ -X H 5 H jK 6 H 2J H EWK J2^JX 7
6 82Z5 H ?2 D2 H H jK H 82
jK6 H 2>@ ,LK2Y2 H .cZNK<2. H 32 H H LK H 82IjK 6 H 2JK H g82 H E H Ef2 <cK E,2 H J P9
2 H J scJ
jK6 H 2PJ H JsY75WKDcKuafK ?2 DX H K<22OK 52 H E-2 <cKE 2 H jK6 H 2>
N iron
magnet
attraction
H 3 H H 5RJ
6l2 H hK<27PK 8jK 6 H 2JK5!
H 2J H 4 3NJ k`[deK<2J+m<3 H 7
jme9VKF] TX Up \ jK<2 H PJbK
JK% H 2NK<2 H KEJaGLK 6 H 2J H `J2S5 Y2J27 H 82|K<2 H K!JaG PJ H 82.2 H J H H 5F2 gJ(2 05 13J
2 K H gb2 H hKjK6 H 2JK5 _ H KEt3J 5 H eF@tWIZjK2 H PJQKKqK H jK6 H 2JK5 2 Y H E H 6 HTH 9YK E2
H 2NK2
K H
2.5 JE H H Ek3 H jK6 H 2PJ5H` H K!JakjK6 H 2PJ H EeK H 5QK !J_ H EZK H J2 H ^ TX Up \ D`pJ6 82a
jK 6 H 2PJ 5>e |S RX UB \ D`2 H Es2 H g
57E H jK6 H 2JK5._ H E
eF@7I32 H 2dc" 9EJQKjK6 H 2PJ5(jK2 H PJQKK^K H
2 H Y2OK
6 H Y2@P%2 H
H H 5 H 3gK H gb2 H NK jK6 H 2PJ5_ H KEr9u2 H aFK 5F27NKalX H 5 H pJ6 82a(jK6 H 2PJ H E
J ,2 H 8!J 2 H EJ H 5F2PJ P9
Y jK ?2 H H p2 HFH gb2 H N K p_ H KEr
uwlxI yz!{>v 1xw x

diamagnetic
material
magnet
z.y | } w x
y z z u y{Fz w x
zly | } w
repulsion
3Y
K 3 H jK6 H 2PJ5(jK2 H PJQKP2 H EI2 H H 2PKJrJL2IjK6 H 2PJK<2PJ ,K<32 H K H gb2 H hKP_ H KEZJl H H Er9
J2^JPKJKE-2 NK H 6 8 1EV \ RU \ \ @gJK9
35 7
H 9tJK H 5 H PKa_87NKbJ2da 3J ^KD H LK H 82ZjK6 H 2>@
+-)l,R)l/
2 LJ H OK:@q?a
] S \ ] UB[` K f5RK H E TX Up \ \ eJKFK-NK27
OKaq 1557
PJ
6fm H jK H 82Pm,LK 6 H .
m H L
K H 82>9 mCJ
2 JI H K822NK<2I2 H jK2 H PJQKPjKJ82PKJKLK 6 H 2JK5(_ H EfcJ2s
H gb2 H NK P H P@
H 5N KO K 52 H P JKdP2 J5l 3iKbaHjK6 H 2PJ5.jK<2 H PJbK p2 E1 H CJKZ5RK H EG \ RU \ > \ @
F]V RX UB \ jK<2 H JQKKK HH K JaHjK 6 H 2J H EP@
TX pU \ ZjK2 H PJQKKK H jK6 H 2PJ H E,cJL2fD H EJpH57
2da @
TX Up \ (jK<2 H PJbK \K 527NK as2 H EV2 f H H H gb2 H NKojK6 H 2PJ5^_ H E(X8aVLK 6 H 2JRJ
6WJ2 H

B JL2 H EJ H 52J P@
9O
^BFIC?A@FEDfB?
H EJK5 H aI 312 H H QK<2J YgJX H 2dc HRH jK6 H 2JKK E H H 5F2JK5J2da(cK9ubJ H jKba( 2 H 5RJ H 2PJL_B5
EKJ 5 H J H 9BY27SX
H EV7
sK Y2(X8aZK55JKE H 2>@} H K gJV8a1J5RJY2%K G
PJKd2PJbK O H Y2 H E0cK
H 5F27
PJ
6. H EgKuaFJ T" Z S2 H ]uF[ \ 3 H H 52PJ5RJL2da}K EjK6 H 2PJ X H J
6( H bK2 H E%2 ( H K 2 H >9
K E|J D2 H
15 H E H d2PK2 H E|J2M5 57!J H a%Xba H g1 H J H 82J^3J 82o 3NJcZ
H 5bKe?aNKJ
6
K H H 5F2PKJ 5H57
H 82%2
76 f
K H 2PK !cJ H 7 H E H EKXB H KfjK6 H 2PJ5H5 NK9. H Y2 H EGcK FK X
H
2 C
1E175 H
K E H _gJ 2 H 2PJ 3I2 H 5 NK D HTH E1 H J H YB H 2 2 H 57
H 2>@hK<2 X H 6 K K
5 < H 527
H <K 2!2 H Y2P K Y2M 32 H 5bK M H J ^c K M5 1_ H ELK 3[ K 52I<K 2o2 H^H Er@M HRH E1 H 2 SPuK a 9
H d2 H E
NK E02 k H KJ H gKJ ( H 5F27
H 2 H .3J (3J7127
H 5Q K H ^KJ H H EJ gJ 2 7(EJ 5 H afNK H E02 H cuK af3J FK
cZ
H H cX
OK 5, 345J H 5 H H H 52 jK 6 H 2PJ 5@
H 2PKJ H E H g1 H PJ H 82.
<c H Ef2N<K 2.2 H j K 6 H 2KJ 5_ H EV
bE
75 H E0Xba,K H H 5F2KJ 5D57
H 82KJ K cuK a1
PJ H 82 H E( H H EgJ 57
b K 2 I2 H EgJ H 52J 3' <c%@;W!J
H H 2
1E 3
<cJ
6Z2gJ 4 H Q<K 2PJ YNJ FKJ ;5TK H E
2 H \B Ua
S @YtJ DaHY2PK 2 H EP92 H H 32YqNK E-7 H uK a1!2NK 2"2 H j K 6 H 2KJ 5 71gHbJ H ?
1E175 H E XbajK
57 H 82Yq5R K atJ 6lcJ H cJ X H J H 82 H E^2 H K H EJ H 5F2J _K o2 H 57 H E_
6 H o 3{%
K H ! H 32"N K E
`J k2 H m gJ 25
gJ tJ 6 D
m 8!J 2J BeF91cJ 2f2 H 2b7
SXkB J 2PJ 6jJ k2 H EJ H 52J k 3 H H 5F2 f <c%
v 1 (1 z z u y{Fz w xF
zly | } w
The "left-hand" rule
H} K HR JQ(_ HRQZH NJbP pH NJ PKJp ^ J H Hq gP H qRKatJpgDcJb H N H| K H JbFN1g Jb HT

NKtJbgL jH _NNJ PH m Nm ^m P bHTT
gJ pHf HW K H JbH_ HRQ gP g JbgrK,RgP H qTKPatJbgscJb H J Jp HRH Jp PH HT! Jbg J J NJ PH
c H K L LC xK L N O} gP H T KX pHjPsH H Kr L K HRHbH K C NO C H
H K H K g H K H JQ(
_ HTbZ O H `K H n H a NL H _ HRQ N1geZcJ HC K LH K L N
HRbH PJbCN H T c H TKV
cOK , H cJp H Jb K J NK hH c H H} H JbP Jbg K HR JQ%_ HTbg K g
H cJp H cJ b Jb H K H K K H ? _ HTb cJ ZK H _NNJ PHF K HR JQ
` K W! e KPJ aB
magnetic field
H K L N C K HR JQH_ HTbx O H H H OK PHT XbaKs J pH cJb H J C J hK I, H gP H

N g H cJb H p J g J H Xba H t X H m gP m mcOK N m cJp H Jb H J gJ _ HTbL P H
J TK bpH j X UB \ ]] \ <]<` Lq e K J H a NOrKNK b PHTpH C Jb HF P H `"eJprK
HRbH PJb\RJpOgJ T
W^
\ ]L X Up \ J K J H H_ cJb H Jp H H H H PK H K K HR JQ_ HRQ cJ Hf K K HL
HRbH PJbZRgP H L g gJ T g K b gP H qRKatJpg` N L N HZ K HR JQk_ HRQgT K
uwlxI yz!{>v gxw xF

z.y | } w x
y z z u y{Fz w xF
zly | } w
HRbH K H J NK p aq ! PN PHT Jb NOjK%cKua|K iF K<gJ J H H H g a H^ K HR JQ?_ HRQ
J | t N H\ CK !H RJbK Y g H bH K HP _h ` H n H K Ng JQRK J Jb H!H KOO Jb ! a
LHT JQRK K CH t N OR
W K HRbH PJbTK b a8q p KX pH K HT HRbH K HO _N K gg JbTK J LJbfK(cJ H VKPJ HR a m HRbH q
LH ONKgJQRK m H tJQ HT KONJp H^ NK \H H LH ONKgJQRK P H| L J g g HRbH JQRK e c H
l H PNK NI HFL ! XttJ H ggK LgbHFi hOWK KONJp H J H \ Fq ] \ ]<
W^ H H ggK LgbH J I H K HRbH JQRK p a8q bbHTL cJ O K cJ O K CH ONKNJ J
XggJ p!L NK J TKf
X H K NK HT ` H H K pn!H e?Xba H K gN JQRK J K K H Jb._ HTb{ K K
HRbH K H J J g K HT Jp H H KnJQJbgJ a C t N H NK H ngJ J PH _ HTb{ J cJ b X H P J X bHP
H ZK pn!H H} cJ Ok
Xba H K gg JQRK J KLRg H N g H J H H T gJ Jb H K
H nJQ H NK ^H NK X bHTHTpHT PJbRJ a aHRbH PJbRJ ap
Relay
Applying
through the coil
causes current
the switch to close.
HT Kua R KX H h HP K NK PH p J gbH cJ O K PTY hH PK H HT Jbm H H H m

` H H P JRJbg H J
c J p ]PRU HZ cJ O K K g c H Jbg H J cJ b K bp cJ C! PbJ g
b HT KnKJbe
Multiple-contact
relay
Relay with "normallyclosed" contact
f ,R
H HTpH c g g Kx N K K H JQf_ HTb cJ b X H` t N H K g NK
N P
HbH qNK P bH! K PHT NK I H K H Jb^N1g Jp HY N HT XbajK}Rg H q TKPatJbg(cJp H cJ p

X H PJ H H\ H K LH Jp H J LK e H Rg pH _Ng H K hH bH NK [` Jp H mgJ OggJtJpgnm
hn J J e cJ H\ n X h Jp JpgjJb H} Jp H J eHTpH f c
v g xw xF
zly |Rue
| yo}z w z x } {z w z
y
]
H, K H Jbf_ HRQ O H, N HT XbaKgP H qRKPanJbgcJp H T KX H H K aJbN H K !H Xba

NK Jbg H c Jp H Jb K_ J Jb !H K K ! OKJb ^ Jp H c g Jb,
K_ J hK Hh Hq K HR JQ
_ HRQ
c J b X HF J H PHT K b g H KgJ e H J bH N
H_ K H JbD_ HTb O Hj N H Xba`K HTpH K HR `[TK bpH` H L X Up \ ]V ] \ u] M
CC e J i J NK P H N ` p J g JbTK J Be N H gP H e g g HHTpH K HR
K f H t X H CNpHRH J m gP m LH Xba H c Jb H
W
@FECfBiR*ZZOBq? ^@%io? CB
H XNg gH c a PHRjFLH K N HTCH F | LL hK J J HT `g J ` TfLH JQe g c

a g Jb Jb J i gJ J C Hg K H_ Sa PC H K H K a K ! K K JTK J
Jb H J H h Hf K H J c H NK H X HRH g K HT c J `pHq hK g HRH LgbHPHW a PHRjq
LH K g HRLH K HR JQ\ hK J J HTT

cJp !T c H HTHTWP HR KTnNKJb HT cJ H VKPJ nNK J J HT K JQK PHT cJ K H J H H
K H ngJ H K H c L H nNK J J H\ X HfH K p cJ Jp K HR JQ a !HRj\ NK HRbH PJbTK Y a PHRjT
J HRbH JQJ a H XhK JbCnNK J J HT K H|M K H `[?e G gP H `JYe HT J KN H `le K l c H ^`l"e
H _N !^ g HRH K H HR K PHTj H K H ZXba H _N dKuc H nNK J `[ldIe cgJ bH l c H J
HR K H K H K gP H Xba,K H D`ll?e W b H W dKuc H nNK J RKVX HCgH PJp HT
K H XgOKJQRK b a H!H\ c N
J K H J W c H NK H H\bp cJbgLnNK J J HTjH K cJ P
m g hNhChV}q H nNK J a a K H JQ?_ HTbC P H Ym m(W^NK p FHTpH PJQ
K H ` HRbH L Jb H O H e
[t[efL H nNK J a aP K _ HTb_H H Im

X KN H m a H _ HTb{ WNK b M}HTpH PJQ
N H T
_ HTb, O H ` LC e J JXg PHTr H HLbH g HqHTpH q
[tRanO, H K L g
K H LH J LHT HRH P Hj K r X UB \ U X ]<
[ejWteOr_ H K L g i K H Jbl_ HTb N1gW h H PK HT JbKC Jp H K H K
teTg} HNhn J J \ K H Jb!_ HRQ N1g g g qKJb H | CHa! K H K H PJQK
W^hK b IjHTpH PJQRK HT J ! KN H
nVxti[O HFhH J_h LH K g H\ K K H PJQK K R HT KN H\e K H JbN

g KNK p P
H^!H RJL_h HT J ! KN H K\ N Jb H K H JQK `[be H g HR Jbt H H `[ H K PH H CH KXgJ J a LH K iH K J H
K K H^ K HR JQN1g c H H K H K PH !H RJL_ HT J ! KN HCH K L H J_ K K H^{HTpH PJQ
N H e
cKJ II HY NqJ X H JbggJbge a g c H NK HYL H nNK J J HT HRHTF OK cJ
K H J NK-cJ HRbH PJbRJ a XN c H NK H!H H PK N J H H a !HTLY gNJ LH K g HRLH H KO
HTH hK J J HTT W cJ j CL CnNK J J HMpH g c H Jb LH K }PHRLhH PK g H c H NK H
X N J WK CHR PJb a !HTjR c H H H H J K NK b a C H hK H\LH JQ a !HR NgJ OR
K p J gpH|CHR PJb a PHRj K H HT Jb K HR JQ._ HRQLH K g HRLH O _ H J RK bbHT H X cgJQO
uwlxI yz!{>v gxw xF

z.y | } w x
y z z u y{Fz w xF
zly | } w
! K g Q H J CHRH YqYUPK qdN H aH Jpg

XNK !H H H ocK i PJbJbNK b a%t cLK H u
cgJQOcK { K PH e H nJ HT Jb P K H a PHR RK pbHT
N H gJ fH HT X H JbgK H K KJb
R H hK J hK e
Quantity
Field Force
Field Flux
H tLH K g H h VcgJQO H c bHC a PHR J

a !HR cgJbO !t} !m HRH qJ b PK qYN H
< V! K Jbg K J NK J H m HPH qJ p OK q
H PNK J NK ! K K K H NK LH t `:NPa !HTLH
Unit
Measurement
andof abbreviation
Symbol
CGS
SI
mmf Gilbert (Gb) Amp-turn

Maxwell (Mx) Weber (Wb)
English
Amp-turn
Line
Field
Intensity
Oersted (Oe)
Amp-turns
Amp-turns
Flux
Density
Gauss (G)
Tesla (T)
Reluctance
Gilberts per
Maxwell
Lines per
square
inch
Amp-turns
Permeability
Gauss per
Oersted
per meter
Amp-turns
per Weber
Tesla-meters
per Amp-turn
per inch
per line
Lines per
inch-Amp
turn
HTTM H t X J H K b
HZ K LH K | HLH PJQ H m JQ N m gJ LHThH JQK b

JpN Jbg H}H K K LH K b NK X HR JQRK ONKPK H _t X J H X ,K H J }nNK J K K
H H OK aLH JQ H
Jp NK H HTP!H K H K V H HR K J gJ X HRIHTH NHTbq O H NHTb N a K HR N KN H
J F NO Hf K LH K NK X HRIHTH HjHRbH JQRK nNK J J HT}HRbH L Jb Hq O H gP H
H NJ tJ HTLH gJpNLK tJp KD dK K H Jb\JbOgJ P
K HT J ! KN
A comparison of "Ohms Law" for
electric and magnetic circuits:
E = IR
Electrical
mmf =
Magnetic
Jb H NK MH LH KXNJ J J Jbt H HR! KNK p {P\H J HT J ! KN H HH hK J JpN

H HT N KN H K K H Jb K PH PJbK J H | J J K \ hK M Jbg H H J KN H KF N P >
v#" " %$& w
$')(+*,-*.0/1'
y32'0.4&0'0.4* z
6575
:A comparison of electrical
and magnetic opposition:
R=
8l
9A
8l
A
Electrical
Magnetic
H J H |RK !H K b g H J H HC K H PJQK tJ gHT K H K H ghn J J K b H K P X H JpN
H nNK bN K KP H R n ;!H J hK K H K K HY pH g J J K b{ H K P X H Jbg H hK
H K=< CRK H K H H J q NK q H HT h KN Hf K K H PJQK Ir K HR JQjN K hK b
?> VU X7@
J H N H OK J h JpN N gJ gJ K HTI H m deK m K HR JQRJpOgJ P
Jb H K}K r K L H_ J_R |AI J NK HjHRbH PJbTK H J dK F B Q
X H KNK b NKtJbgqKq H J ! hK ONKN HT H J ! Kh H K I H N H g g fJ KJ HTC KCJbPRgJ
Lhn!Hf+D E J P Jp PH K E @ J !
0FWF
GIH?JH^@LKZNMROBPO @}AQSRe@BMM@BiC
a K H PJQK NH LH K XgJ J q K X H PK HC !X HH Yg gH K Jbg 4T`H bhg K H H
H Jb H KJ |
nNK J WUN HTb Jb H J V W aH nNK h HRQ O HX[Lq JbtJ gHT X HqpH g i Hq K H JQK N
H J K K J ^Y H OK H H JQRK K J RYH pig K H} H nNK J N ,H J Z [
H nNK aLP K N
JbnJ H X f H R n ; H J NK K H K HF K PH PJbK \`T H] J p !H\ H nNK J J H
NHTb Jp PH J Z W K N r gH J 1 [^ Jb !H K ,%N HTb, O HA LC \ K Z K h 1_^ f NK \ H
NK H NOK C HR KJb Jb HThH H Ya H^ JbTK N J LH J g PHT!Y K PH PJbK 4T NK I H H
JpN | H H J I K K HT K JQRK HR K J gJ X HRI HTH N HTbC P H K h q
U Otg
K
K JbR K X KN H Jb H} K LH} JbJ K H RJXgJbgjK K H JQK @ > ` > E @ FKba VU > @ Jb c; J ed
Jb PH K f J P K NK E @ FKba U > @ Jb jR
sheet steel
cast steel
Flux density
(B)
cast iron
gJ J RK bbHTL H UPfEj j X U @ ai=aigfU > E D @ ih gj > E D @ K C K JQ K K H JQK Jb H

1 H N ZH J f K i H KX H\ K PH PJbK bB RK Jp RK !HTHR K Z HRHPHRHR bH HRQ
J rJbNR H K JpgK L g ONHRQ Jb H J gJ H H J n rK RaEa:gfVU kT H H H J J !PpH
K Ng J HT, K HR JQ P HXb W ! K H K j K H Jp`K Jp LH T K H HT! K H}H K J ! K Jb HT
J sK g J J NK { P H IH H K L H h HO RPK LCH Jp P_ Hq K LH R n ;H J NK K H K K
Field intensity (H)
65 "
uUlW'Ik.U$%& v#" xw F
'
)$k.4* 2 w '
y3$%,m$u[.U& z w F'
W$W.4* 2 w
H P K H Jb K H JQK HNIH ^K j K H KKJ KX pHn J gJb NK K H JQK aP K Jp H Jb HTpH [ J

K N J J NK n P H K | J e K HTL H K |L H P Hk W HRMpH K qbHTP m HRb m H K PH PJbK
JbWR H K Jbg L H N H J o [ L NJ Jb H JQ PH LTH H\!HTH JbgLKqTK H J JpgJ gJpN
[ gIJpt HT!LH W W K gOK J LJ K H LH J J Hj Jp ; HHTpH K HRPT
H N W
Jb ; H}HRbH K HO P F K NPK H Xg Hq H NK Z H,g P N H H K
K NO
K H JbN K K H P K H Jb H H} K LH n X H 4 Jp H\ N K gP H T
H ngJb P N NKhK !t J _F K H Jb,N H L P H J j Hs H LH

K H Jb t ba @ E @ FK K H H OK nH !H HT J eLH K K K.X HRIHTH CJp K q JbLK PHR
LK\ONKg H Jb Jp H J H+ iH H PJp H qK b K PL XNJ bHi J Cm pt H m PHRH Jbg.n ^
NK PH HT J J P ONKg H| gPgJpN bH gPgJbgfPJb c[ nJ K ; H K7 p ,NK H} K PH
H_PHRH PJbg HRHT KK g J J NK K C g \Z H P LH} H XggJ p ; Jpm KnmfJb HjLH ONKgJQRK M Jb
VK H
t!HT X HR IHTH H!HTH PJpN HTHR K _ H HTHRQY H RK K K HR JQ PHR !H HT J
J M!HTH |JbLK H K HR JQ K PH PJbK NK iPH gPF K F K HR J H K PH KqK Ng J HTBNHTb| O H NK X HRH
[HRH m HRH JptJ m|Jb k
H H J gJ ONK H q J H\ O H J H H !H Jb h KJ
HRL H
d HR HF Hq K LH PK ZK KJp N
WH tH Jbg H K HTP Jp bJ TK PH X hn J Jb H K H K Jp H
nNK J J HR cJp !kH p K gg! K,JbN H K bJ g NHRQZ P Hr RgP H g N H J QY g HRbH K ;
HR 1TsHZ b!HTHf H N gH J JbN R H K HC K Ps H Jb |K R Jpg s H K
K H J K J N H
Flux density
(B)
Field intensity (H)
H tTPIH biPZ H RgP H Jbg g g H J M HCHRbH K H K ,HRHB hK hK gH

C H N gbH KtJbg Hn ! RgP HF J b H OK t s
v#" " Zu
$& w $ ')(+*,-*.0/1'

y32'0.4&0'0.4* z
v5k
Flux density
(B)
Field intensity (H)
w HC H HRH JptJ Z Hj K PH PJbK xHj J b NK H K K H JbqN C J K gN J HTr O H

N H g g H J g HTpH K HR H J K JbgK K hH K H F K HR K gJ \h Jp T
yHB J bp! K gg!W HL K LH K L g K HR JQ NHTb P H Jb H fOzf|{b}ea @ Jp H J Pf N
K LgbH s
Flux density
(B)
Field intensity (H)
H N H J NK H K O HT K Jb qHN~ gJbK pH F NK J K n J K bY J Jp H K H

iNHTb Jb H J g eH HRg Jb H H K Jb H e g J HM Jb H J d RH N |! H Rg H Jbg
N g H J KnKJbK WHRH 1 NON HT KJb s
v7
uUlW'
u .U$%& #v " xw 'F[)$k.4* 2 w ')y3$%,m$u[.U&
z w F
' [W$W.4* 2 w
Flux density
(B)
Field intensity (H)
N H KnKJb H}P_ H NK gOK HRH JptJ M HC K PH PJbK J k J b Q K K HR JQFN J ,

IH \K gg J HsW H J H HTF gJ \ J LH J N JpK Jb H J ghn J HCP NK }Y Hj K \ J LHH
!NhH gP H ^ g N H J IH H; K gN
hH ^JbrK J Jb H} Jb H J ,K KJp zH} QZ!HTH
H N WgH J H KOfJ P^ J H K_Jb H gH ; Jb P H H OK WK KJb-s
Flux density
(B)
Field intensity (H)
H mnm ; NK HT Rg HF OK HT X H!HCPHRN hK J TK bpH H t {ba @ E @ {b}{ > E D @ K H P ;

K H Jb K H JQK N IK|Jb H !HRIxNHRQ Jb PH J CH t HRLHTke; K rk gJ IgnH [~ gJ PH K= H
H H J H K_ PH HT J OK H K L XgJ bH|!HTH PJpg H NKJ _HT PJX HH K J H h H PK
HT Jb Jbg_KLm Jp m PHRH PJbg PHR K HFHT JQ Jbg_KLm bt H m !HT s
v#" " Zu
$& w $ ')(+*,-*.0/1')y32'0.4&0'0.4* z
vz
An ideal steering system

angle of front wheels
(right)
rotation of
(CW) steering wheel
(CCW)
(left)
A "loose" steering system
angle of front wheels
(right)
rotation of
(CW) steering wheel
(CCW)
(left)
amount of "looseness"
in the steering mechanism
~ K Jb H RK !HY K L XgJ bH!HRH Jbg PHRjT !H HT J RK%X H K X bHR HHT Jp gJbg
K !HTj N H\ H J !H K C g Pe K H Jb hHRQ h f Jb H K L g P N H T !H HT J
K gJb H NJ HT Jp K L[ HZ H K _ hK _ H K L g _ N H J QHRH
H Rg H VUSr D! g
J K K H J! H X H H tJ J K ! K ptn!H`PHRH PJbg PHR J
gNK R HR K X bH JbsKjOK H RK p H H| H RJ H HRH K KX bH|!HTH PJpgf H! H J Kf H HTP J bN NKtJbg
W H P LHF PJ K HR !J TK J ,JbsK HRbH K H TKGX H K K !HqYH H P J Y H Rg H !H
LH H P!J H H J J K pH hK JbgD
XNKq _K j G H K H K J gJb H PH HT J N H Jp HT K
g HT! J K PHF H K C g gJ [ K PHTH H
u .U$%& #v " xw 'F[)$k.4* 2 w ')y3$%,m$u[.U& z w 'F[W$W.4* 2 w

H J LHTTg K H Jb\ PH HT J J K HT JbPK X pH gJpN thOWJ H RK !Hn H K HR JQ K H PJQK Q
K H HT K K LH K f|P PJpgJb K J L PH J T K J K tJ HR K HT HTH
K Ng JQRK J T J J HT JpOKX pHFP X H K X pH}f K HR J! H K H q Jb | J HX H PJ H ^ K HT
W NK
K PH PJbK HPH JbtJ m HRLHR X H PmJ PW K ! K H J
HT! K H H h Jb H K gN JQRK J
K H JbW PH HT J J Jp NpH PJbggJp ; H#~ H N
HRbH K H JQfm J H m OK J ! K pH PNK Jbg
g HT\ p K H JbNK \ JpPJpNsX NggJbg n!H Jb H\ N g Hf J gbH_ K H PJ PH Jbg
HFH H P LH Jb H P Jbg H PH HT J H PJ H K H nhK H H} H g i H m J H m
Jp NK PH HT! Jbg !_H g t H !H H J gP H\eH PJ H J 0~ gJ HFHt HTCH s
v6
uUlW'
Hysteresis curve for ferrite

Flux density
(B)
Field intensity (H)
fWrW
H\hH LH K XgJ J _ K K H JQK OhKg HT+ J H K C g i K HR JQN f P HTf g NWJ
HCH J C HR K J gJ r O Hq N eNHTb Jp PH J CP h sH J [J OK HT Jp`K
RK pbHTf H UPfEbj-j X U @ a_}
T=a}gfU > E D @
J ^hn JX pHFP K Ng
W!j NO K H Jb hHRQW O H\ K H P K HR JQ K H JQK NK _L H
N TKf
X H RPK LCH Jb J T gJ J J WJ n K K HR JQc{=aEPa_}gfVU
T H H E @ a @ zU a_} D }ea K H P K H JQ
X ! Kh H Jb H H H0 J rJ P H; K H J!TK J Jb H
g J PHF Jp H J KL J J A
t WK t {ba @ E @ {b}{ Tg T
0FWq
MH^BMC?A@FECAHBiR&RAQ,BMC
H !Hx F g PJ Jbg J H ZHRbH K H J K H, H K Z L HL OK JbTK OY}

^HTpH PJQJ J K JQONK HR cNKOK K C K H q H H`s H OK JQRK X6@ U @ E=a}gfU
HRbH PJbRJ s HRbH K H JbJp N J cNKPK K q J H HC NK Kq K H0I Q X H H H OK PHT K P
K bH g P Jp H J NK Jb H[ K MH HT| K H hH JQ K K HR JQ NHRQ N C ONKg JpNJb H J
gJ pH
> a_}gfVUz{
v#" t
$%,m$u[.U& z w 'F[W$W.4*RuV*yfu[.4* z

v7v
H K K ,P H K H K K H Jb NHRQ ONKgJbgZJb PH J J FP,L H K H K H } K HR
H n K Jb HF ^ J {U Jb H^HRLHR X H Ns H} K H Jb hHRQ ! Jph H K H\ gH H K !H JbJp H J
@ E @ UaS} > p E W H Jp H! hK \ HL Jp HT\ N m KR n m H N P b HTbH p K H
J p X H Jb N HT s
Electromagnetic induction
current changes direction
with change in magnet motion
+
V
voltage changes polarity

with change in magnet motion
N
S
magnet moved
back and forth
cNKPK K K KX pHfr K HT K JQRK p! HT K Hj H PK Hf ONKg H_^ H K H Jb NHRQ h Z J
Jb N HT p K Ho Hf H !H K bH ; TK HCbHH qm H m q K H gJ H H FP }zU {qaVUpaU @ fV{
K Ht p K H K K H J Jb Jp J LH OK H NKZK PH K N! K X bH p K H bs
e = N d
dt
Where,
induced voltage in volts

Ne == (Instantaneous)
Number of turns in wire coil (straight wire = 1)
= Magnetic flux in Webers
t = Time in seconds
H m m H j K H^! K K RK K J HR HTH Jbg\OK H;e; OhKg HI N C H J LH mm

! K g H n X H i gP TN PK NR Jp HL Jb H J % K Jbg NK HL Jb H J LHT Jb H
NK H\ KC J a K J HRbH K H Jb H _J H h
gJ H LH sJ Jb W XttJ PK JbTK !H Jb H h J HRbH JQRK H H PK T
gJQOq !HLH ONKgJbTK tIH PL H K K HR JQ hHRQ| K J QY Jp HYP H H PK H K H t^H H
NJ J X LLH K HF !_ OK JQRK !H gJ PJpNRJ NpH
p H H RK pn hK M H K HR JQ NHRQ| N HT X K\gP H ; RKP Jbg Jb H+ K K
K H hH JQ K
W NK L
Jb H K , NK F H N Jb H J ,Y hK } K H Jb NHTb VKPJ Ho J H K L g F gP H
N g}J T H TK HRHY NK K Jp H J RK K X bH Jp NJbgK^ K H
fU X }eag{0fM
U @ U X a J Lg!F HI K

ONKg H Jb_gP H g g CJ T gJ MHH J RK pbHT { @ }US > a_}gfVUPMKFONKgJbg K H JQ NHTbC N H
X ONKg H JbgP H \ g g `K Jb H Jb NRJpNZ p K H K b g HjpH g Y NK | K LH Jp H H
K H Jb NHTb N J H gNKN H X X H Jbg HL Jb H Jb j H| NK H} K_ J K Yd OK N JpN NK
J K g K K H JQK { gJp hH LH KXgJ J N gJ ^H H !HTe; Jb N HT K H] J b X H|L H Jb PH H
H tJb H N HfPL K H K K K Hi gJ Ha H J RK pbHT KV} UaSV > af=E K A J b X H| J R HT Jb
H K H gH KJ Jb H Ht ONK gH
v
uUlW'
fWrW
p H g K HR JQ NhK cHRQ Jb H ONKg H JbgK CCJp gPH C J f hH p KH H JbJb R N K HT K HR H Jb gHnC J p Jb H N OH K KCH p OKN KH gK bHf g HH
K HR JQ N HRQ N K H t X H gP U Jb H J J bHT H t HTfC H ONKN H JpWN a
cNKOK K Y I HN~ NK J Jp N H p K H s H [ Y^[dVt
J F H gP H
ONKgN HT +H ;nR K O NJpKNN Jb gJb H HJ pKH HH PJQ J H NNHR QH KN |Jb H N h HTH JQ p KK H PK p gH[x JbJ PH p H tg
Jb NRJpN p K H
KR Jbg P cNKPK K P I K6 H tJb H XggJ H J TK b
jPL K H K K K He gJ ^HaH J
RK bbHT K} USV > afE
0FW
BM@LMxRAQ,Bi@}[H
iI J b4 Jb H K H XN g Jp P b H | J J J H KO H L HF K HR JQ NHRQW H

Jp + J H\ H K| p K H0 J p X H H H OK PHT Jb HF!H J K Kq H NJ J RK bbHT CaN
} US > aVU > @ H W K H J L HHT H J Jp N H KC K H JbK H
gH tJb HCH J TK b
Z H Jb H t N H| HCHaH NK Jb N Kh H X HHRH _ L H
J Q J RK bbHT KaE U{ fEb @ E
v#" nxw i.m'),Z*yu[.p')quU$
vn]
HYgH tJb HI FJb H KX HM OK \J K)nJb Ft OK ! LH N J N H PJb Jb H J QT
J K NK p! Jp H H K K H RJ J ! K K ggJ hK Jp N KN H Xg Hq N HT
J p ! OK Jbg NK { HYHTPH N HM K OK ! LH {J T J m J pn gj H HM[ Jp H J Q TK%X HY J Jpg gJ H
H K O H ?X b #s H Xg H X H7 bH N WJ OK NhH Jb HTH ; Jp K PHTX Jp Hc Hk !
J NJ bH} HCH J +g Jp HL J GXg H; b HT Jp K J p ! K g Jp HC J ggpHqM H} X H7
bH g +H Jp HIH g Pg N H J PH JpNK b K H X .g H ggJ TUZ !e PK ! CH
J H Jb Jb H J QH HT J! H\ gJ R
ggJ P K H XggJ W
H TK H\ K HR JQRK p! 6; Jb N HT K H ! NK ghH [ H H| K HR JQ NHRQ N J B> VU X }U X Jb

! H g j HR K Jb HPF H) Jp Hn NK Jp N KN H X H HRH J Q TK
NK gH J _K pH PNK Jbg
OhKg Jpg, G q p K H K c J Jb H [ !H K Zw G q p K H HW ! K Ng JQRK J q
NK Jb N Kh H Jb,Kw GPHR J ) H H|LHFLH K J KVKJ K X bH\f J O hH ZK rP
H J t H K JbgjK|{b}U X w G K H n H Jp N H p K HhH K=t JpNLK ^H H j Q!H
H !HR hH x PK ! CH J L H KXgJ J
PK p K H K Rg H _bH HRQ
H OK J q Jb K _ J h gP R { HH H J
HT
KT Jbg P K J LgbH OK J hnHRH Jb HT X C
J K PK LH _J fH H J
HT X K G K H H K L g f G p K H Jb N HT Jb H
H OK J F Jb Jp H
g H HT J J p X HjH#~ NK MP H Jp K HC p J g J HT X r
N Jb H J bTYGI t H HR! H gP H g g H] Jp Jpg H\ J L K HT_L H
Hj g J PH OK J s J H p K H J JbN H K !HZ Jb J iZ J
Jb J \ J bMbb.
H Rg H ) J b X HqgH H K !H X
HL K CHq J gJ K J M Hq OK LH J KNK p
C NK ^LH OhKgJQRK H K X HRp H K H t ÔNKJp ! q HR OK J n s
v7
uUlW'
Torque-reducing geartrain
Large gear
(many teeth)
Small gear
(few
teeth)
+
low torque, high speed
high torque, low speed
"Step-down" transformer
high voltage
AC voltage
source
low voltage
many
turns
few turns
Load
high current
low current
PK LH HT Jp HTP_ P L H p K H\ NKZJ K= HT Jb,KR n H Jb J J TK bpH K

m ! HT; m OK LH = gJ bH^ H^gHT Jp HTqq\ Hg J H J RK pbHT KFm PHR; mJpj HH H N HP
H\ OK ! K J K H NK ^ K= HTg K H H RgP H g g H KOW H!H Jb H J g g !H
bb ^ HFH K Nhn J H\ J
fWrW
hK Jp N KN H J )
H H| Hq K H JQ h HRQ H H OK PHT X f

K J e% Jb H Jp N H p K H Jb
v#" nxw i.m'),Z*yu[.p')quU$
v 5
KK <!K H J 4 Jb H

a_EU{fEb @ EJ K gH tJb H h H,I L H J b Jb b HC | J J H KO H
J HFH HTP g hn!H\ R H K JbgLKL J J e hK Jb N KN H X HHRH H J QR
OK ! LH L ! I J > U X }U X K HTT W!H K p K HTT t R^ HN K X H
K P J NHT K K GH tJQ H K Kw GH nJQ H
v7
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u .U$%& #v " xw 'F[)$k.4* 2 w ')y3$%,m$u[.U&
z w F
' [W$W.4* 2 w
oy
n ]cAHiUoH)MQRLAQAQoA+ULA[H

T 7 R! r N # c R pRQr[bb{7R 7g _z N #
Q [P )Q p!T @ @ > a_Ef @ a_}{qc zTbg0P L
T
i
6 O , NR X + V jX P_ < !A [pT
zTbg
NR O X R N R ! p! z T
CT
pRQg zRQg
R
R R !N r=Y 0V V0Lb! N

T bN[z| N g T s czT b fE > @ cpR Q % z]zR Q fE > @ b ^L g =
pV WpR QA P Q ! h [ LzR Q+]Q F
m~ z P p BzRQ
7
c !R Q O z g !o 77 ^ p A 7 g P e
7 N N !T
z zR Q b !X q b
1
g[
zB =\ !T h o [T
[z N g P !_
q ! L[z F N
R ! e 7 4 !R QB DX 7Y T b< !% + R ! DX 7Y T X
zV i[b pNR )Q g Y g n= 7g = zR Q
T b ! N 4 n= 7g = pR Q j
]
b

f

O
X
g =UY p %7 !0 zF N V !
qV z h
q Q ! h }
T
|g q = V ! T z z
^ 7 r[ B R zT b O Wb +! N T T IF
Wzp p R
zT br
T # ] T
zR QC X + , h ] p ^ R ! =i NR ! ;
s z L[p z N R ! zR Q b ^
T V n n = R ! 7 N ig N npR Q
bP z> af=Eq{ Y PT C q W | = Q z c -X j z

= N
7%[ = p m zb iz R #V T t ! R zT b}z [z 4 Q
][ N ] T C[p V[ 7g T ; Y
X g h T X W

Q V ! = L cR !T \
p A ] z[ N VZ
N [p b X ! = n !c p %[b p X < T c \ [ ~ q 7 ! N Y O b
C b
Z
T Z7 piz|7XP N r
z Q ! = N
F V 6 Xp N # ! # Q [~ p F ! !
X
p !P
] z
b i XY g T p !T [ z CW
! b M z b XY
v
v7
U l)' u .U$%& *+[.i&W2

A N # N )[p ) q R!cb! bT X gp C= p!R
^
z Q b + 7 N XY iQ T )[ ,
b ez B |
= s
Inductor symbols
generic, or air-core
iron core
(alternative)
iron core
generic
(newer symbol)
|zrT
fN N N Tc N VTV zRQ 7g `z b bzTbZ
N~ M } = N z R = WR! L p 4 z
g P 0 b C B R zTbA[bp X WzB ] _L N
[b p!
I
magnetic
field
L N I \ } = z R! W z zTb
z X z|7k~ p F

P !L z TQ Wg[
!_Q Vk = zNV
\ N Qt NN L= z%= N =ggP z ]p N
O p

X p!_ W i N N r N pPi | N j j WgP 0V[
! M!T m z g h q
T Q ) > @ { jgP T jN i z
N b % NR # T N 0 N + T b !P c> 6 @ X g N n q X +
pP!N gi A7p cp ! p j X > @
m ! r V N # z g P C 7 1 ! X A N N Z Q N
pV OB zR Q N N ! zV z zT bx! z g h T |z
T Y q R z g N ! = T
R R ; N -
R !
N A b Lc# }z }z
R !N N # g P F p B X f
N R pR QX ^ N k ! _zV z k zT bW! T ; N i
q =p< !^ 7Y Y p
7 L k | = X< ] N q|o
h = B Y z \ T
X< iV I g !|V 7 T X T
+ ! V N f h
17p z g A h s1
!

'[W$W.4*m*$,n2')*+[.p')U$
vz
7 N !|A T
) T!W N q|A T!
0 Y b
N ! F ; P pTo[pbm ! =I g op
[p t -Pb! N s

current sustained with
the inductor short-circuited
p!_ N p +7 # B X b
p N R ; ! Zg [Q N! T

[p O N !)[ Yk[ TQq N ) Y N b+ j C gP
|7 X~ q ![p t P { gO =UY N
T N z A N Q [ N N 7 [c p zp } =
R ! ) Y + Q p z] N Q^=Qf X r> =E}e6X
z ]b W h N = N X N z T r p P) zTb [) \ Y = z
q W[p _ z} =M g P s
Energy being absorbed by

the inductor from the rest
of the circuit.
...
increasing current

the circuit
...
increasing current

+

voltage drop
The inductor acts as a LOAD
7 T
[ g F 7 `X N bq R #T L LA p =Q z
Z= T
B p + 7gO C b p N Qq=Q X
}{ > =E=}e=BX kpP Q N i R!N + pP[ zTb
z = z P \0 \ Y p = ] p W[p j } AN
v6
Ul)' u .U$%& *+[.i&W2

Energy being released by
the inductor to the rest
of the circuit.
...
decreasing current

the circuit
voltage drop
...
decreasing current
inductor acts as a SOURCE
j 7gThe
O = R ! nY + Q ^ g #"A z
!T Ag R TA h N L h [bp
! p$" TQ] = R! X " 7 p- p = q 7gP &% N X
N N f! z Z! R ' Tb[bb X R #V X X " zq gO
7 b#"f g
P # 0)(!
NT Z! 7 0 NR # p% zb p L N
! % X X " z
7gO Q z z ! p 0 R UpPY
#g [b!^z

NR * % [ N ! + k " p P g
NT x NR # T
N N + 0B) (!
[b
[p PU p 7 N m0 z MQ \Q g Q T #"} zp p = 4X Nz| N [
z^ = " T OU N N B p i P Y # + # p i
z " p X "C r
qV p N L= = z " z - X "
= = L N ," g P f p
-" = V ! NW[ )Q b
N N $"c! PY\ ! k .' R Q
(? X N
! V " n V T " ! g g P } z
z b / p % =- V Qk[ N I = [ p [p bx Ng ! 0' R Q
( NR [p ! ' T b O p R
X q N T N [ #
nN g = h i X b ! -"j W "
7 = g =i g P ?b b

}eY 2 143 1 5 %) g g Q #" N q N ]b 0 b cc# g ] p -" =4Y p j z
g P X6 ( P#" N x R 8 7 N q [b b X g N ! = p =
N 9 ! N h nb :" XY ! b#"_ T r[p p % rQ ic# g T g z
0 g " XXg N! T
%^V X
R c N
Q ;1 ,<>=5 , p!T p P C s X q 7 7
7_ N~ h " % bB r P p P ? %^z z C = N # p b T P
!T b A@:5 163B<C@ T b#"[ ! p +
+ = zT c )[b bm
C " 7 7C !
C P V z N %i\ O p " CT b$"o g N !
t }eY 2 143 8} D 5E@:5 143 15
F;HWr4 HWJ
G
I
! YN N z = ! z z T L g P X " p p ! p -" "Z
!
N Q [p N N CgP [ P++} s 7 p )p

+
X X " V! gP + "jbk Y
7 g +4(b
k
Q bb
K2ML +NPORQTS)9SUVU.9Q

v7v
N Q T A[p f N _N pk PkWf gO sR #V p B
+
T
# T T o "V Y p ! g P k "Zb c ! z gP k4(p
Q ! ] X V " b
YW X p!pp-" T i W gN b ! b
0 }e P 2"c163 = 1 5 *! 0 Q [ NL N .' RQgo p zX WXN~5 @Z Y g$ "|
!>"XN F c R! , TX P T f #" [t@:5 1403\<)X @ {b" s
1 ,<>=5 R!
!
p + ! V
n ] ^-T_oA+Àa*b LT_S[Ec0cNTb

! h
W nz|7Wq X ! Q! h N z +7 # cbnW 'N V 7
V R V k X R N p n g h N b ^ s
"Ohms Law" for an inductor
dt
ev = f L di
d
Where,
e v = Instantaneous voltage across the inductor
diL = Inductance in Henrys
dt = Instantaneous rate of current change

(amps per second)
g Q I = Q\>h . p i p #! RV i X !
Q N q q 7p i@ 3\5j<k1 5 X !Xg Q N
N * q V g z z [mlVt An 2o 3 = 3 5 <= o p zV[Q W T!
_
'hLY k ! z| q7 \!! % )[pZ p [ !
p+Q 4 ( g T P ! q q ) D V p 5 1X V! T
Q X r pr g P V 7_8 7 p A m lVt Q B6 ( g T V N O = =
Y
7 X ^ g T h N n A V
7 X ^ g T C N
$ s p N N X p|6 Q T ? | X
=
t
% b J "
u s = b
T b ! N A h [ b B[z +o[b p) Q V zr
pb z) q ^ 7 T R M Q = N b g R $" R V T C v
h st$"p P
N z z T 7 !
zp +c+ C Z g L L N p|6 j [ T b ! N
O p )[ L+ 7 QA| "fc= N g P W[ p g T )
! X ! T Q wp
9ySzVN9{/O ML-| +NPORQ

Voltmeter
(zero-center)
+
-
! z Y z b N= B s ! Y p g[ Qq! " b !T 7

cR [bp b! q gN p fgP V pR g
g
R c N [bp Q V} O V! Q z c ! V =IgP z
[ 8lt bW >h ;~ zBX | gP WQ! X ! n Bwh V RbQ zVk[ }
z z jmlVt L X ~ ! [ q g R B N N[g
"
7 [p WgP z z z [bp X cW!N "A X' RQ T X "
z N # +p Z z R (lVt } +C X [pb X z
q z r PY F! = b{ \ h t
Inductor

current
IL
Time
Potentiometer wiper not moving
Inductor
voltage
EL
Time
] p [ ! $" =zz t O Tb! N

[bp $" N t Qtp+4P = NR # zgP t z O p cR V
Q X ] N N V)L p
!
9SUVU.9Q
K2ML-| NPORQTS |
x

slowly in the "up" direction
Steady
voltage
+
-
+
A
Increasing

current
% P z} p [ Q X N zVq?@ 3\5 ^gP L NR #

7 jk N bN " zmlVt !][bb X n ' (T| \ Q ' (
!!T X "`zX N B N N r G g "rQ ' (T M pP ' ( q =
g "
7 x NR #k ,N O[ R V' RQ
pVL
Q\
$sN[b NR # z z Q U h Nc ( ] p q sX N
p4 W 4( g TP X "To zR z "Y [ N wh V k[lt k Q T 87 N
q % R { b 4 T = p % | gP m p I 7 \ b p
lX = p ! p- " zU ! N Pe WY p C gP !L
p
N + N TL
Y - " p n 16@:5 o 5[ , N 0 [bp X ! T N oi"X 6 n 2o 3e z
r i g "j s g 0 V[ pP p % zb z c 6(z X pP
g N ! " R s E 5 o )\ [ `q V T pVL N 6Y L [bp
! i"t X Y Tf g N p
#< 7 [ V
7WQ = N
! Q j z N
[b p X o
q zk r[ nR! i W z _ p p!\ Q = n N T q z
r[z kT
[ W6( p
9ySzVN9{/O) ML-| +NPORQ
x
Time
Current

change
Inductor

current
IL
Time
Potentiometer wiper moving slowly "up"
Inductor
voltage
EL
z MTime
gP 0 NR # L N IX "r p cR [
=zz # Y NTg O) #Y n 7g P = q X N z T PB h N
bx[pW } = Y -" Y ] N N k gP Zp

Inductor

current
IL
Time
Potentiometer wiper moving "up" at

different rates
Inductor
voltage
EL
= +j Nq Time

56@Zn D| 3n D 5 NN k4( X pT X z| k= h N
! Y j +) Q_"CzYzW N TX p ) PizW N QI\ !|! z
N ,z N >p zkQ xN7p gP N V 7=87 z z L[p
) K2ML-| +NPORQTS | 9SUVU.9Q

x
!
[N z} = [ A p cR z zq z z6
[b p T pL pP] 7 u7 Qq N NR # zz Q][pb T p] x O p N } R # z
5 6 3n D 5 'pg 8lt 1 A N N
i" 7Y " z N [pb g h A
q zp _ } z p

in the "down" direction
+
-
+
A
Decreasing

current
0 N q z h [pb g N Z g g % bg#" gP
7 VpLbq R #T % | R X X " ,~ | X N V p c[pb X 7p , z
z gP +pV 5 14@:5 )o n jN p Y p-"[pb X ! r "
sN g ))O ! Q p L N [pb X c z ) o <=@:1 5
[p C V ! b [ N Tc q [ c[ iT
\ +6( p } Y
7
b N T q V [ R! ] zzX Q$" N ]b
N T B ] p n[pb X g N T X "f L N # pP R!N ! r "f "
s7 Z g q
%0 = A= 7g = p X R B c N bC P#" gY M V =
N z | p $",#Y N X + zc6Y O = 516@:5 o n jgP n
n 16@:5 o n qgP kbzE2<) @Zn83Y = c N q Wz L V =Yg z
! p h N N z ] q k p O [bb X F}= 4(= !
` 8lt =7- [pb g N z=A= N = N p f PB
N [ L 8lt =/[ = ) 7p p Y p-"
!Ig ^
N T 0 b
N b O W z z B7 " b$" 7 "z o q 0[bp X Nu7

p [ C O p

Neon lamp
6V
Switch
! Q O ,= Q g Z R }W Q = N #% [p Q

gP + O p p + Q z
!T X "X p X V " +z }[ rQ T
z N [bp Xg
2" Y } p L `gP ~ L p pX n[pbM
# "c} pY= g p ! us XY )} Oi ~ Q) X X !#s7
zb X Xj N X !p pP g N T X "} X ! " = 1 p b#"
T X "_ ] N [ }[ rQ p
no light
+
6V
-
+ j [p VQ N # | g $" N ] 4(t R$"o Tb! N c

z O Tb! N = = n X + O QF g h C=
T b! N z O O p gP N
k ! $" VzV b#"
z_ 8ltF [pb X ", ! 6 X #rN Q p gP
| ~ "f!p!!q!c [bp4 N 7 "X p L P N #p ! T
[p ! zq! ] p p ! n 6 rY }b NL sg
[ p g h Tc Q b$ "B z z C ! nM = - x #" Xg
c
g b gP ^ "tI j~ 2p
, S NPOQS99{ N L-| L-| ; N2S | 9{

x
Light!
6V
-
) (! 6Y zC N b X ~ ?! Y P X !1gW!N r g " =

N h
[ A]+`Xa*b[r)+UA NT_oA+4LA
) g"X [ = N ! N c W g h N NT
Lb X h N X "VCY N R j' TbV ([pbT 7V
! g = R V' RQ O g 7 ] h i[ p Zp

F XHkj6.I % b + X N z
>h #V HVFY
X 4F; H g P F=; [X & W9 F
p O X N N q N N N = [
p T pPi
i N N
4 Y 3n<
g P = [ kN Iz I b P[p b V W NV = N = R
' T b O gc# g
T r = 7 N > b
7 = g =M p g P
less inductance
more inductance
kj4F;HVI % b i X N wh N b- NAg ic# g T s

[b
7 f p V P 7 = T pPi r #V N q N !TP bx N O
! TPi N h
4 Y 3n< N \ p\ # g T P!TP 7Y z V o= ' RQo (

7 = g =' Tb O g 7 gP
less inductance
more inductance

!T PU N h
kj4/H i EI % b U X >h p _ i
z
z} z b_ ! #V ] N N
4 Y 3n< % [ ] V' Tbr ( Cs7 pP0 Y z
V r pV[ ( " ! = 7g ' Tb P = 7 gP b
}}
less inductance
more inductance
X N z >h z #V z L N X b

p-" =
kjFH [EHVF;4.I % p )
z ][ z pmb) A g z N B h N |!TPz c# X b!-" =
z F!TP] N N
4 Y 3n< % rV !i[ #V R X N X p!-" T pP 1 #V R
( " ! = N ' Tb P = 7 gP b
' Tbr
less inductance
more inductance
air core
(permeability = 1)
soft iron core

(permeability = 600)
%^
f
g (!V = N q N " b = [ kX N X[pQ p
L=
N2A
Where,
f
L = Inductance of coil in Henrys

N = Number of turns in wire coil (straight wire = 1)
= Permeability of core material (absolute, not relative)
A = Area of coil in square meters

l = Average length of coil in meters
! ! X g 6 zVqQ "
TbN u@<n8 3B5 'pg T $" N b
Q FpV c# X b!-" p Tn ' RQ -"| !T N X
# ]u l W
N 7T #P WV !b bWlX #" c# X b!-"Vm >h V b g ! X ! z
N h m [bpkQ X g q X !Z c, o Lz N j 7 z p p T
& ! L " T b nV ! xb ^ 'h zb)[pbtQ p|F k4P P
z] N q N p 9 ! N T I "j
~ \zTk6Y O X "fT W
) , SLNPOQS99{WN L-| L-| ;iN2S | 9{

}
N ci"jpV0pP+ ( p-" N g T g V !7RQ W z] N [ VTi
c ! N [p r z l .g
! N
b i T } zV\ " = T -" X +
LVU[bp O4 N q N [bp
T Y #" " X
L h ) b#"r X " g 6Q i"_ "f X
= [ } g W cV ] " ! !c x .X " " BV !
Q FzV VX
X p b& % 6 (= ! b Q p
Q g p }!!Q z, z q P b%VqP Y PB O}!

g z X L = q7 W N 0 Tr # #" s
%' ( 7 | B N Q z 6(n 7 $h c= q7 N X bp
W g b 0X C V Xp ! )TpU gP = RV!T#"
z sr[ p

BbW N = #V N h B b Q T ! V P! P
[ pxQ[ g r 7g [z =
X [ #V Qp -" p
}
z
h b X c ",b ng O p XY C
R$"4(=
b [ r W Nk " Q "f N # # z wp
W N Q O p pX 1 X R!T >" W V z
) , Q{0O L {0QS | zSOSUU{/U L-| +NPORQ

} x
7 % XY \ | # X " Y O k.g Q! b q g p q4 zT
N ] p!T Q HX Lz [ pQ] 7g g ` 6 7 z 1 6

$ s T Q \ p N X s Tc g i g I T %Tp 4 z
b [ 7 W ^ 0 p- h ^ ,X ][ A s X N p
%? =
N HX Q O Xp n # N Yp
X s [_z X + }u}7ng ,Xp \ N Y X R HX g
W O p XY +)MN ] N [ n " bx h N B| 1X
p T 0 "j>" kX ] g _ P pT NTg
[-
LT_Aa\Ec>c4cT_oA+9`Xa*b
;.a 4b
>X$2 24u , Z w$
z C uP#2 2Z C W 0 = zk$2!$ CP$2 24u
$2 24 C Nit - C2[" z2 $ P z $ [$ p* A ' z
7LN , = # 2Z7
u [ 9 0= P 7 > 6: C$2 24\u
76 =2: 6 & zC z
N* ! $ 2 2 4u , 4 w 7 $ ! z $ = , > # u2 N# X =

zC [$ , > qbu > z u C p . 7 w 9 %= pC [# ,: 6 [$# X
u 2
7n[ N $ 2 2
4u #, 4 N $ u N u u - pC A 0= B# 2
C t# 2 2 Zu
C z &
V # u . = =* zC k# 2 : 6 NC iu N $ 2 2 4 C
+
}u
- total voltage drop +
voltage
drop
f
- L1
voltage
drop
f
- L2
C C i$ 2in 2current
2N9increase
4 C ! $2 Z zCC" =. X$2!$ Ci# 2Z7
x$2 24 C N ! E C ! $
Vu C\$2 Z u [ k
u $ j
0 - C >p
Series Inductances
f
L c= L + L + . .. L c u#!6 C C$2 24 u i

: zCu" = C$
>
N 0 * p / ' !0# , = # 2Z C 0 * z)= =
z [
76 =*2: 6 . zC z # $ , 6
7 N ! U [ m Z = z C C ,: 6 # C2 6: #
! 4 [ z B$ C C ,: 6 [#$ $?! 7 > 4
z ! Y z = z)$2 24u > >#" ! u u NC )[$#
! 7 i ! t#2 2Zu [u !> * pC ]# ,: 6 . zC u"
= B >#" X 2 C C , > !6 C$
> X, C z N
z c z n$ , > Nu ! # 2Z C
total
+ > $2 Z , Z w #
$2 24 u $2 24 C 9%
#
X
V
w 4 C #2 2Z u

u# 6 $2 24 #$ X
u# 6 # 2Z u $# X >h u
C
u# 6 " u u C"
w 6 :
X X E
u# 6
& $2 24 u V >
:
uP
IL1
total
increase in current
+
L1
-
IL2
+
L2
voltage
drop
2 N z u u # 2Z C
: zuZC" =P z#
u%$2 24u -# 2Z C N z
u ! u C # ? u#!6 C C[$2 24 C k c u C # C$
>
q u 6p
Parallel Inductances
f
Ltotal =
1
1
1
1
+
+...
L1 L2
Ln
GF;HR4HRJI
r

! 2 24 C
$ A# u#!6
! 2 24 C , #
) z/OSLN L 9SU | Q L V{/OS.N L | Q

}
[ a\]+\[Ec1`TbU4_.a\k\4`Tb
! 2
ZN !#s7cu#\>
Z: C p 6 z|7X!
[ 2q(X 4 w R us =
6 !! X # ! "XC2 , . [
) 3B5 1@Z@:5 3 $ k# 2Zu q:2Z > = $
w[ C2rC"[ k[#$ X [!
wX$r
2
: 6 q7\ : "# " X " . q u Lu 2o X # ! " LzN # " 2 -W " q 6
z]C (
2
: 6 C $ +> z AC A# 2 Zu #
n D| #5 3R16n8@:1 n83 n $ c$ 2 2 4u [ cz V q u u 2 q: =$ " 7

C $$"NC 2 B$ 2 Z lX Xz # C $
-)Y X !A
6 N L C R2 $
Zq $ 2 2 4u #V ! 2 2 4u [ # 4[ 2 C $#" , 6
X2q u C m W0
. q u
C z $ r= [ m # ,
C u > X "$ ! " , 6
N , X
i= U= - " u $ 4 [ Uz, > #"B# 2 2 Z
7 z 4 - > ,!# s7
u [z o 6 !> #"rN " C Z2
][ ! X
q: "X6 Y ZN $ 2 Z E 8 7
' Rk
' # , c ! q =$ A ! , 2 X
z 4 - > " , 6
' C 6 $ $ c,
X !
#[ " u #$" P zC u u Tqu $
bP 2 163B<C@ o n 5 G! 2 2 4 ; > 2
X C 2
> h !C !6 = += > " \ C $$" : $ E
> C # A>
Z: $"
7 " C $ [# $ 4 > X $"! u [C 9 X sw $ C $ s
u 9 ,
! z> j
-u k k= [= 6 "# A u #P c]u 2Xp 0 m w

L z [ )u # 2 2 Zu 0 s u V [# $U q !# s76 $" 6 u #
% C X !B6 (
; V
# C ! R w h # 5k= 0= V C
$ 2 2
4 C -u ]6 ! Z u -6 z " p $ 2 2 4u u =& z 2 Z $ [ ~ j q u
u , 4 u X $ C 6 $" zu u L > h !C !6 C C 21 , X X #"
u #! Pz
b 3B56@4 56@:5 1 5 A! 2 Z "C) P 4 # X " Y > L Xp C[ N
' > $ N [ u 4 ( 6 2 ' C - C (X 6 " 2 $ 2 2
4u # !u #$" : / z
C z # 2 Zu N X " z ZXY 9 ! n ' 6 i k$ 2 2 4u
X
!# ,s [ XN C , % [ z W[$ # X W C Y# 2 2 Z C , 6 #
+6 $i k > 8 7 # 2 Z C [z $ "V> # 2 iC w Z6 Y ZNZ u C #
[ " P > 2 ; u [ # 2 2 Zu X !# . s 6pP u
$ 6 #" =$ N Z ![>
Z P' > $ # $"c[ # Y > s| 0u 2 u
u " C $#" 6 nC "
C 4 P Z [ C . p 6
}

J
0+a[Ec9a\LTb46)c9b
c6
& z 4( u z Y = u C2# 2Zu & ,> pC $ n C$

w
3@ 2o n5 3\ [>[ >#
[ Z qu#j ,!$s qN [ Y 2C$ - C 7
u 72 #"
!>C u C2$2 24u [ N 4] V
V 6" X2uX C2 >
#
6 z "
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EA]0b`Xa
a\LTbU4)ca*.b9r`Tb
i ] = ! z ! 7

! % !N % ! 7 z
z z = = N = i
z N ! 7% n [ 7 P
z X[ t z [ z X
0= N # y z # z| p t
= p [ - ! r [ = |[ !
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! N Y
z z # 4 7 [ |[ W N
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C 6 4: 0' >$ C 6" 62

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> u#$" C

}
9yRSzVN9{/O ]O S
}
y
| U ON L- {
| QNS | N*Q
R
Switch
10 k
15 V
100 F
+> z [ R'2 - > B 4. g[ ++ oi W $#"

p > A~ >& 2 '2q^X p| X 7 r u:q7\ NV 7 X !c * z
u [$$ >h C X q "n 6# $ B[ u;X Nz|
C 6 7\ N92: 6 $> X " PP 6 +#L X +> z
X q "C 2 u#
> X " q u = } s 0%RP z n z,
z X q "
, : 6 , P~ zW u ]z # wr N
z ,
> [$ $ X ]6 ( Z #" ~ zU . n s +2 # NuxC >p
:
16
14
12
Capacitor voltage
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
2 3 4 5

8 9
Time (seconds)

"!$#"% '&)(**%,+-.0/1(,2)()3!4*5+.6/71++1%,81*
49;:%)3,5,8<):1=>0?51@,*(,A%BC?51@,*1(A%

D
E4FHG
DIG
JE4FDDK7L

DNMOF
E4FHG PFNMRQDSHG TQDQNMOUK71LV

E
E4FHG PQNMXWUSHG TFF"EMOUK71LV

S
E4FHG YE4SNMRQZD[GVTSD\NMODK71LV

10
K2 9SzS
L NPON9O.S | Q L { | NO.{0QzV | Q{
\
E4FHG YE]W^MRSF\[GVTZW^MR_UK71LV

W
E4FHG YE]W^MRZSF[GVTSZNMXW1ZK71LV

F
E4FHG YE]W^MRUQQ[GVJE4DNM;EEJ71LV

_
E4FHG YE]W^MRQ_\[GVT\NMRZ"EÙK71LV

E`D
E4FHG YE]W^MRQQQ[GVTDNMRD_UK71LV

}
u , C z , > z, ?~ X

[z B N Cr 7 u# o Y)3\<)3n1 * z N >"'a u r , N ' zupu q #
u2 [ /
a N 6( Z #" # / - #z N\ C$ , Z C ,Y N
+ C " z [ u [$$76 u#$" N G C z , 6
[$ #-N> C $$"> h C ~ z
$ T
&!:^b u zC $" ], + u p :E " C a # Z.
rC G " =R , : 6 # u u u J , > c C: w$
7 4 & qu #2 # k q P N 2 , 6 q4p
i V
3,(,2()31!4*5,+c34d)(+A"!`81A
?eEfEKDI<g3hE4F
+eEfEKSiE4Dj
3)EkSlDiE4DD7m!3n1D
MX*+1(,8.MRFoE4DH7"!3
Mp2g@5*I*+(,8I?q9rStsrDg=u?q94E"srSg=
MR%,81<
@%A1%,8<wv
x vT?q9ySg= /1(,2)(31!4*5+[?51@,*(,A%
z vT?q94E{s|Sg=u/1(,2)(31!4*5+l3471++%81*
*"!}#~%
?q9ySg=
9 x z = DNMRDDD z DD
FNMRDDD z DD
EMRDDD z D"E
EMRFDD, z D"E
flllflffcflflfcfflflllfflfcflffc
DNMRDDD z DD FNMOQZ_ DF x
M
M
z
FNMRDDD D~EFNMOUU"E] z DDM
M x
M
z M
EMRDDD z DD QNMpWZW z DDM
Mz
Mx
M
EMRFDD z DD EM}E4__ z D"EiM
M
M
M
z
x
SNMRDDD z DD EMOSQZ z D"EiM
M
M
M
z
x
SNMRFDD z DD EMO\ZZ z D"EiM z
M
M
x M
\NMRDDD z DD EMpWS_ z D"EiM z
M
M
x M
\NMRFDD z DD EMpWFF z D"EiM z
M
M
x M
W^MRDDD z DD EMpWZ\ z D"EiM z
M
M
x M
W^MRFDD z DD EMpWUW z D"E z
M
M
x
FNMRDDD z DD EMpWQD z D"E z
M
M
x
FNMRFDD z DD EMpWQW z D"E z
M
M
x
9yRSzVN9{/O ]O S
y
| U ON L- {
| QNS | N*Q
_NMRDDD z DD EMpWQ_ z D"E z

M
M
x
_NMRFDD z DD EMpWQU z D"E z
M
M
x
ZNMRDDD z DD EMpWQQ z D"E z
M
M
x
ZNMRFDD z DD EMpWQQ z D"E z
M
M
x
UNMRDDD z DD EMOFDD z D"E z
M
M
x
UNMRFDD z DD EMOFDD z D"E z
M
M
x
QNMRDDD z DD EMOFDD z D"E z
M
M
x
QNMRFDD z DD EMOFDD z D"E z
M
M
x
EMRDDD z D~E EMOFDD z D"E z
M
M
x
% " u 0! z|7 2 > Mp2)@5* u2#
q # q #u =V z c$!!
Mp21+~!`81* C2 L > 2 u7_ CP'z, B :6 N6 2 #
6( p Z B,&!:Î
b uku $ 2 Vr+" p [ !c n 7 : C\C( 7 $
C
o l , > q ] C: w ~ C[ W u
8 R! u
z L$ 4 N k=& uq "h s$" V'2qN 6 $ r Z !c
, 6 C pC 7 ";h s$" '2 -. 6!76 [ V . !c [ a 2 $
# z

8 )=9 : C ! [$
n k , )(!
GF;HR4HRJI
u Z [z !$ s " 7B 6$Naz q ! [> wZ[ ,6 pC r$

!!>r p 6"r# C$$" N 4 a" , $ z , > [ i 0 !
%Z $$"E z > u # C$$"L Z u: , 6 [ A / Y [>
w [ 26 ! = R %[8 z # #$" ; z !76 =
Z u 7 > [ 7 [ T , > bb
! ? q q7\ u j z $
N. m u $ MZ $ 7,
[$
, > L nm ) (! ~ z a u Z a,! zu $ qX $"C
'2qN ,
# E z ' zu x|u . + C ! +
0
êT_^Àa9atTb6a*.b9?`Tb
! 21 Z|)4,V|) ( u4,~|#|Ey)urZ|>|q|6^*;,)u;ru ; + >|ù.])}#|Pq|ur 6r "

54$5163@Zn1 ') ,r } 6a" |) r,, a 4 ; )r> $1 21 4|Pq|ur 6r " ';,563n1
,| 1
}
a" | r |,r ,#r`} ;g ErXq|| 6r " ;;gu}#|:r>Pr
') $
-y q
, y ^4r
9| > ; u| R-r ur >| " 2 Zru*|>9r y
} qr & :r *| 2| , q 2 ] ww; R ,r $] 2 Zr u ,~| .y ) ,> r ] , 2 u4

4| u
,r >; $| $" | ,~| #| /; ,)u; r u ; ~y gR y ) ,> , y ,[o
% ,$$" $y )u| 21
m 4r $/)' $ })4 .;~ >| V r r ,r ` # r #$" u4 g 7B; # ):r uy )
|TR } ,w r u
[| >R| r ;~ 6r | $ $ r ,) ( r ,,4r
#
] ; N,>/r | 21
4| u 0 :r P| | >/| A| ( $ ^ 0
a" r } $ #] | )
Zr u | > , y ,)u >6| ù| r
|> , y >6| ù| >R} ur >| g 2 $" } Er 2
Zr u$ $| ; |
;~ >| u
~6| >Zy 1
$ -y " C
( ; #
#
a ;)4w:| r #$" u k| u:q7\} $ #]
C
q
L-|T^ N PO
N9O.S | Q L { | NO.{Qz | Q{
R
Switch
1
15 V
1H
+ |V
R# y'*'2 q0 | u|, y,4r| 1 Zruq $ )| #" jr a Cq|> "
, y u4| JEr ,#^6r6 ,~ 7\}$ #y 2M w; "M |?~;>|6r ], $#"
u4| Tr #^6r;|q:7B;# #y}t y,u6|:Pr 21 Z| 4r6 a" ; 2 C|
y, yq$ a ; |g 4re4,, |P :r r,r |^ 21 4|u` 2 )a :yu4|
|g) w r,, m | r a ):|6 " |A|;)) }8] + ) rR|#y0&'q R ur[ | N$
r # $ h |R | a ):|> " r a" r|6r>|wR-y ;
~;> |gw | # t 6|ù |> ,6 | 2
)$ a ])4 q N, r> ;$ | $" ~ | r. |g) w, |V
R> |> &|w R -ru :7B]) }# | 9;# `)6 r r
qrC :| C ( ]) }# | ^ r,,) ~;> |g4 |; | û s | j
|` > >p
16
14
12
Inductor voltage
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
2 3 4 5

8 9
Time (seconds)

"!$#"% '&)(**%,+-.`8<7"34*5+ 6/71++1%,81*
49;:%)3,5,8<):1=>0?51@,*(,A%BC?51@,*1(A%

D
E4FHG
E`FIG

D

DNMOF
E4FHG PQNMRDQUHG PFNMOQDSLV

E
E4FHG PFNMRF"EÙHG PQNMpWUSLV

S
E4FHG PSNMRD\DHG YE4SqMRQZLV
10
yRSzVN9{/O
O
S |
U ON LO {
| QNS | N*Q

\
E4FHG PDNMRZW1ZHG YE]WwMRSFLV

W
E4FHG PDNMRSZFHG YE]WwMRZ\LV

F
E4FHG PDNM;E4D~EG YE]WwMRQDLV

_
E4FHG 6\ZNM;E4U~E#)GYE]WwMRQ_LV

E`D
E4FHG PDNMR_U~E#)GYE]WwMRQQLV

-tu # |
|)
}$ `) |)^ 21 Z| , r,, 2|uyr[}, 2 | :r ),|uy
|
q,> 9| o Y)3\<)3n1 wu w $ , yu 4| ; rg Rw ;u | ,^; | " |)C/r 21 4|u
, y $ ; $#" |ù y
} , 2 r)) |X
| $ ; $#" h | ( ,
2 ]
% ^.
; RP r1& !|^M
b ;# N $" R , r,u y rE
y)C :9| q " |u | > ] " " 21 4|u
, y0 2a) 1 K 21 4| :r |Tu y ; u 21 4| :r u q|
|> , r | 4r &r
|w R q|u ` | k
r
r> |$ q| k
R , P| ] |[
r y4 p
!`8<,7"3*5+l34d)(+A~!`81A
?eEfEKDI<g3hE4F
+eEfEKSiE
@~EkSlDiEH!3n1D
MX*+1(,8.MRFoE4DH7"!3
Mp2g@5*I*+(,8I?q9rStsrDg=u?q94E"srSg=
MR%,81<
@%A1%,8<wv
x vT?q9ySg= `8<7~3*5+?151@,*(A1%
z vT?q94E{s|Sg=H`8<7~3*5+c3`71++%,8*
*"!}#~%
?q9ySg=
9 x z = DNMRDDD z DD
FNMRDDD z DD
EMRDDD z D"E
EMRFDD, z D"E
DNMRDDD z DD EMOFDD z D"E z
M
M
x
FNMRDDD D~EQNM}EE4Q z DDM
M z
M
x M
EMRDDD z DD FNMOFS_ z DDM
Mx
Mz
M
EMRFDD z DD \NMO\W\ z DDM
M
M
M
z
x
SNMRDDD z DD SNMODS_ z DDM
M
M
M
z
x
SNMRFDD z DD EMOSS_ z DDM x
M
M
z M
\NMRDDD z DD ZNMpWSQ D"EiM x
M
M
z M
\NMRFDD z DD W^MpWQF D"EiM x
M
M
z M
W^MRDDD z DD SNMOZSW D"EiM x
M
M
z M
W^MRFDD z DD EMO_WU D"E x
M
M
z
FNMRDDD z DD QNMOQUZ DS x
M
M
z
FNMRFDD z DD _NMODWS DS x
M
M
z
hwPUNS{S |
O.O.{ | N
SU
US.N L
| Q
_NMRDDD z DD \NMO__S DS x

M
M
z
_NMRFDD z DD SNMOS"E4F DS x
M
M
z
ZNMRDDD z DD EMO\W\ DS x
M
M
z
ZNMRFDD z DD UNM}E4S\ D\ x
M
M
z
UNMRDDD z DD W^MOQSS D\ x
M
M
z
UNMRFDD z DD SNMOQZU D\ x
M
M
z
QNMRDDD z DD EMOUDF D\ x
M
M
z
QNMRFDD z DD EMODQS D\ x
M
M
z
EMRDDD z D~E_NMOFQ"E] DW x
M
M
z
u | } |), y, w4r]Rw |kr }8| uy6 ";h $ s$" C '2q]2| r,g>| '
u| ,> :r Ryg >,> "h $ s$" )'2q|) ;, P| ,> a) #$
), |uy ( |,*:] `w r,,ry>
GF;HR4HRJI
%I ,$$" y)Cr, 1 Zru m :r 0|,r 0#yw r #$" u4u^ ,~ ;# r
|J#| | $ u; #|r| 22 ) ;C| , y,j%8|>uygCr,
,#$" r | [' ; 9 r ]1#u4uk|u:.}$ # :r r , r,, r,g}
,>mr Cr V| ,$
! Vr>|$q|q7p 21 4|uty)Cr, R}$ #], 21 Z|/ :r t
, r ,,w,>mr ( r[~;6r) a Cru| a, >y) , -*y $" )'2 -`,2|uy
| ]#P' w w> 2 ^6ur ,ww
0-
Àc$AT_Ta*a*BEc}c}t4`Tb
>| |N^ " |R] , )rN " rN w r]Z|, r;# #6r /'2 -q|]r
| " |qruqr 2 ' wtuN))r;,> h r " |])}#|tuq 21 4|q,~|>/y)
e r))w$]g)|],> h |# " rr]Z|,; g q* " [|) ; qr ]u0;gu}#|])r$
h r " $ jD <)3p] 5; u 21 Z|]r h |# " 1;@Z@:5;23 + r| y }$ #$X |
,~ }, |)E
|ù 4|,
} ~ $ Cqr .r y |)C h |# " C|A| ; #
u a } | |V R# y
:y | r R
r)) ^ &r a | u&r-yC:| t.' 4
u E| h |# " )C |;6 r)) h |# " #wa 8r6 ' rT , P| ,X] a
6 |6
a " #" ~] T
;,)u ; r
;# V| ,?
|
]) }# | u g 7\}$ ` 2
21 4|,[
}$ u 0r
r 21 Z| ^ w
R)u :q7\}$ ` a > ] |R |)C ^ ^)) |w R
; g
a ;)4 |) "P
|ù y , # y)C r, 8 |> ' # | , |
( Xq|]$ [r
; , C |
|) 3n8j51 < o 3p2 3 ,0 r
}$ # >p[|)0 , | 0# r s >
, y6u k :r 4 > A|
y) ,T,, r ( ) r $" x g> ; m r r;$ j-yC :| 4 > A|?
|]#
' 4 >
r R [R# C |
! ;
|6 rw
;# ` r
|
; qr $ h |
|A
|u r
| a " r
r> |$ qr } , ,
|C y ]) }# r } C y ] u T
|6 rw ;# è V|)
|u r 21 4r } " 6a " r
rC y |w R -y ; , ]9 ! ;# |)6 P;u |, |) r [
} -y
( ,
r> R , # ,/ o 5 1<~ o^ " a # ~] Ta " |X
Vr; s 4 qr6 C r Z p
yRSzVN9{/O
O
S |
U ON LO {
| QNS | N*Q
For resistor-capacitor circuits:
= RC
For resistor-inductor circuits:

f
= L
R
[r$| 2 $ * }$ # w y, r,, :r r>|g |r Ar R ;^
| 0a }|1u " rC r$ ,^] Rg| > a ;, rAy) $" y) ,| 8|>/rV:y |
|4: 6 V| ,j
!pw u q| Tr,e r02|uyrrk' >,^ r 2
:r u ( ~ | |> ]
%u[qr)r Ja ;u r,e A
| j
; qr V|' , ,/| '[y s wu " 0|wR >
|ry) ,6 a x g> ; m r r;$ qru qr > X|i
|]# , | ) rÈ
' >]J)u;,> "
| } -y ]/
|w R w , ), | ( ) | #" A
x g> ; ; |6 r?
r;$ '; , [)
|2 |w } R~6 } y, h rE
R u p
) r ) r$ ] , 4 r6
1
et/ x 100%
4qr6 5 qr 2 b , 6 ; qr ]ey$,,r ( )r $" 1 = X!B >|, mr
; , .r>y h w;{8r6 )r )r$] $#" $" ~; j|) " |u|,,ruy,&|);# # w;
%8r6 r E; qr wû:|6,r ,
r~6 } y,9y) mr qruqr V|' 4
Percentage of change = 1 -
6p
1
e1 x 100% = 63.212%
%8r6[O^| ; qr û:|J| ,r g>; r ,,Py) m|
$ >p
1-
-yC:|
4 Ar'
e2 x 100% = 86.466%
%8r6r | E
} -y ^wqrT,r |~6 } r >p
1-
e10 x 100% = 99.995%

|| Rr))):|>0R }R|)r R ;)r , r,,mr r a ):|6 " r Cr,>
|)
|) )ruN rmyu4| y s >tÂ # 6w4 u/| mrZ|
y s w N u y 2 |u r qq rmrZr ^,ry 1u }u}g>; ]
+ T] s u r 2
6 | u , 'V| Tk| 6|> )r , rT 2
a " , | #" k|)$ h |# "0a" |) 6r } a 6Ow] |)['
:r > :y | ;# ;
qru qr j
;# # > >p
1-
hwPUNS{S |
O.O.{ | N
SU
US.N L
| Q
Universal Time Constant Formula
Change = (Final-Start)
1-
et/
Where,
Final = Value of calculated variable after infinite time

(its ultimate value)
Start = Initial value of calculated variable

e = Eulers number ( 2.7182818)
t = Time in seconds
= Time constant for circuit in seconds
e6]
~;A|) r,,XrR |j|6rwRr>|-ru|B])}#|uR}$ | C Vr
|)Ey)r6`
Switch
a ], ,
R
10 k
15 V
C
100 F
u||)C^^, |Vy| E| ~], y a w; R|)C^0| r ;,)u;ru *r 2 |

} qr ` r Xr , ûr #|^ $ u& | `)|).-yC:| 22 >& r
C r0u4 #? 6r m| r;])}#|u` , r,,|; 2 C| , y, | $r>Z 6|
A| wR-y ;$ }0 " |;,)u;y ;$ }} $6|,Cy y$1 ;ErEr k} -y
u } $ # Pr ,r Z9r>|$qr } 2 ])}#r },^ a y Rw} 2{
= RC
= (10 k)(100 F)
= 1 second
y)Cr, -y)r }, r}| ^; ||)Ct4 g r,,

p2 r. ;,)u;ru9-yC: RrCr #X
utuqruqr 2 4 ,,} |, $1a |) a )qr6 , y, - , r}t , 6 |
u 2 u .])}#|^ r,, |)$;# # ,V|)$
N ui O egt
Change = (15 V - 0 V)
g~8|6X1 jRw}
)4 4r]R 6a"
et/
1
1-
2 ,w)
Change = (15 V - 0 V)

1-
1-
et/1
0 r|2| ,rk | | ye" V;,)u;ru r,, #

1
e7.25/1
Change = (15 V - 0 V)(0.99929)
Change = 14.989 V
}'^qrC:| C;,)u;ru, y,P} ]|)$ 6|ù|, ) 6 ] [|g)^
)4 ) ,, 8 |> V uA|> } 2 ]
;
r , $ û ru 4r6 :r |g)A;# #]rg }0^0 |)C
$ y)u | ]) }# |u r # u 4
R)u:R\}$ `|jqrC:| | #ta A| 1
6, m r r a ) :|> a }6 |' , ,~|r r |
, ~ | ,a
|)E
}$ C P| a ; ,
Starting current =
15 V
10 k
Starting current = 1.5 mA
| |)C0r 2 | w #~a V~;>|g| }.r[;gu}#|q # ; # a ])4,uN

,~ B ;# #] ` kr))], $; ' >4:r ${ c |)X}$ #] r))^ a Cr
|)
-yC :| 22 :r q w;^.; R , 6 | u , R| 6|6 P| | q8|6
uA|> } 2 ,9| y | rE| }$ #

Change = (0 mA - 1.5 mA) 1 -
e7.25/1
Change = (0 mA - 1.5 mA)(0.99929)
Change = - 1.4989 mA
u |V
|g) |) r a y u.y) , ;)|, C~|r P| # r)) :r )
,y|y ;y y) r6 r) 6|ù | rT|)u|,,9r , ;wA-yC:| C :r
|)$ > 4r] R 7 , ] |)Cw)4V}) }} }u - }u 8r6R1 A|>; 2 ;
?
} , )4, | 6 |6 r?
;# # :r TC| 1 MRw} 2 a )a :yu4| M|)
;,)u ; ru ` r q g 7 ,T, ym | r a ) :|> , r,, - , y| a r, |6, r,, r,
hw eg [wc^
u 6| :|) }6 |wR-ru`| J r

:r V|,r ,rk|wRq|u 2 | ' k
|6rwV;# $
#| 4 b $bq#|)6 1^ [| ,$ a r |Er R^ 6
I=
E
R
I=
15 V - 14.989 V
10 k
I = 1.065 A
, ,6 r r [} -y qu 2 |ûrtw # u^ ]~ 2 ZrR}$ #]4` ^

#| ; }$ # |) a ], , '|Ey),|>
R
Switch
1
15 V
H#|
|>} 2{
=
=
21 4r }'
1H
2
|6rw[|wR-y ; 6
[| } -y $` r
L
R
1H
1
= 1 second
^>] |.r$ 21 4|,}$ #] ^ |)C 21 Z|^gR[y) , :r ]^, #
|4 6 /r [
} -y N , uP-yC:| 2 2 4 >w :r ]p^Rqruq^r|)V| y
|),~ g R# | rA | $a ] r;~;>|g|;~]6r0 Vqruqr ; r 8|6
|)R# y)u a ; r }8X R ;r ,| | # |4: ' [|# 2 ,]
|
r
R ; r Ta |V
|ur }$ Pr>|$qr } b} 2^ |)[]u|,r$
}$ # ]
pe^ > |$ | | 4 |> r :r N) |> } 2 ],^^ , ) |) , ,>r |
u P y
} qr u 2
N ui O egt
Change = (15 A - 0 A)
1-
e3.5/1
Change = (15 A - 0 A)(0.9698)
Change = 14.547 A
, |)'u4|)C Xqruqr T | u[~]6r)r `4,w );# #X :r g C
2C X|> ; 2 ; r ,
4 |> , r,, 21 4|,E;# # a w-6} | Ta' - r k}$ # r
|) ] , ) r , y r,2 wu4r&r>|-y ;>*r 2 )C] ;80r r,u4r9r 21 Z|]
H# | , [
|w R q|u ;1
;# # )4 '4 }|y)|)6] "
ER = (14.547 A)(1 )
E = 14.547 V
Ra :yuZr mr a C qr6 , y, , ;| ] 4>}

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EL = Ebattery - ER
EL = 15 V - 14.547 V
EL = 0.453 V
R R

,>r w qr ,
Universal Time Constant Formula
1-
et/
Where,
Final = Value of calculated variable after infinite time

(its ultimate value)
Start = Initial value of calculated variable

e = Eulers number ( 2.7182818)
t = Time in seconds
= Time constant for circuit in seconds
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energy
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energy
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energy
heat
Dissipated
energy
heat
I
Time
Time
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Switch
R
N
15 V
R
1
M
1H
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u }O P|;9. $A-r;#r $ ~u:r LK 21 4|,;;# #]u[r;qrC:| 2
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I=
E
R
I=
15 V
3
I=5A
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| tH# |
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R# yT
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I=
E
R
I=
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2
I = 7.5 A
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r> ,
Change = (7.5 A - 5 A)
1-
et/0.5
Calculating current
. . . or . . .
Change = (0 V - 5 V)
1-
et/0.5
Calculating voltage

"!$#"% '&)(**%,+-.`8<7"34*5+ 6/71++1%,81*
49;:%)3,5,8<):1=>0?51@,*(,A%BC?51@,*1(A%

D
E4FHG
FHG

FIL

DNM}E
E4FHG CW^MRDQ,WfG PFNMpWF\LV

DNMOSF E4FHG P\NMRD\\HG PFNMOQUWILV

DNMOF
E4FHG YEMRU\QHG P_NMOFUDLV

E
E4FHG PDNMR_ZZHG PZNM}E4_SLV

S
E4FHG PDNMRDQSHG PZNMpWFWILV

\
E4FHG PDNMRD"E`SHG PZNMpWQWILV

05Z
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R
Switch
N
2 k
20 V
R
R2
500
100 F
3 k
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R# y |
Switch
(closed)
R1
2 k
20 V
R2
Thevenin = 1.8182 V
voltage
500
R3
3 k
R1
R2
R3
7.273
1.818
10.909
3.636m
3.636m
3.636m
3.636m
2k
500
3k
5.5k
Total
N
20
a
Volts
Amps
Ohms
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Switch
(closed)
R1
2 k
R2
500
Thevenin
resistance = 454.545
R3
3 k
RThevenin = R2 // (R1 -- R3)
RThevenin = 500 // (2 k + 3 k)
RThevenin = 454.545
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Switch
RThevenin
454.545
EThevenin
1.8182 V
100 F
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= RC
= (454.545 )(100 F)
= 45.4545 milliseconds
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Change = (Final - Start)
Change = (1.8182 V - 0 V)
et/
1-
1-
e60m/45.4545m
Change = (1.8182 V)(0.73286)

Change = 1.3325 V
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(Ebook) Engineering - Lessons in Electronic Circuits I - DC PDF

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