Electronique - Lessons in Electronic Circuits II - AC

!#"%$&&'
)+*,,!-/.0,213.5467*98;:=<?>78A@B>7<C8ED0>F:,HG#IJ-K6LD0MN*A1C1PORQS@
TVUXWHY[Z?U]\_^=à!b=c;degf!h
i;Y[a=jhkc]l/f=mghmnY[Z9o!epdrqhsa=bEf;drht_uva=w[a=qhx=oEyz[z!{
|
~ } ((3/3
|K3+|V|rVv#V } |F|0H| } | } v| } _
# } ||rHF } 33|r|F||C[rrk| } |_=| } H3
/[| } E | } | } /C| } rF73|| } 0|0F/ }
vr } |PF73F|3|0|F|FX|X_r_v|
|9rn;VX H H |V+v||FFHE
H C ! ! ? ! 3 |0 } | } C| }
/F|
/K7_ACVs
|E|| F|FX|( | s|F|v|FF }

||
3 } PE||C F|F|X3FVr#(F|V|FFF| }
r/srF#3 } r r7V#/|F|
| } F|C
|||C!EF|=F!K!| } |#!V| F73
F||C |v| (93 } rvr7v_F#3_|
|/#F30|sF#| } 39##F|/ H_%
H } 3#r|#|H } r3nF } H|F|
||
'50sK
/#
X|FFF| } F /// /////// /////
( 9k7F#/// ////// /////// /////
F |r //// /////// /////
3| } | } | } } |9///// /////// /////
///// ////// /////// /////
F| } |=|// ////// /////// /////
$
"
'

(

V
0
(F } F|_//// ////// /////// /////
(
( ; } F k7# ///// /////// /////
( 3| } || / ////// /////// /////
F| ////// /////// /////
( 9
( 70 } ||] ////// /////// /////
( F } FF| //// /////// /////
( 703|| } ///// /////// /////
( 3/| } | } |F //// /////// /////
$
(
(
(

sVv_
vA /
#_V
P7 VK 0
} F|F } | } |FB// ////// /////// /////

| } F } | } |F2// ////// /////// /////
(

3|F|p| } } | } |F //// /////// /////
[|p| } F } | } | //// /////// /////

} H|/// ////// /////// /////

v |0 %[ } ////// /////// /////
""!

sVv_
vA /
#_V
VEsV7Kv
|F } | } |Fv// ////// /////// /////

} r } | } | } |// ////// /////// /////
(

3|F| } } |F } | } |//// /////// /////
[| } r } | } | } |Fv//// /////// /////

r } ||F /// ////// /////// /////

'(!
&#

)
$

|||

3(
#

$

&
*,+.-0/213-4/65

sVv_
vA /
#_V
P8 ;
9(

3|/r% // ////// /////// ///// &
?/E // ////// /////// ///// &
(

3|nr[K% ////// /////// ///// #(

3#F ///// ////// /////// /////2

/!#_V
'&(
} F| } r
/ ////// /////// /////2&
( 3| F } | } |L9 } / /////// /////2:
3|V|9F } / ////// /////// /////2
| } |Fr } ////// /////// /////2;
} |F|p } | } |#/// /////// /////2
'
<
v

>F= v
@?A v
_ s 0B 9
'$ 7
3F } F|_//// ////// /////// /////2(&
3(
k|5// ////// /////// /////2(
3
Hkr // ////// /////// /////2;&
3
r } FS|///// /////// /////2C&
| } |C% } //// ////// /////// /////2&
3
[K
0
'D''
X|V5/// ////// /////// /////2;
(
CpF/// ////// /////// /////2; (

|n9rF/// ////// /////// /////2; &
n9rFA/// ////// /////// /////2; &#

pF /// ////// /////// /////2E (

+/// ////// /////// /////2E )

3#F ///// ////// /////// /////2;
!
Kv_9#B
0
'D9 7
#5F| } } K0| } |v// /////// /////2;
#(
FprvpFFFS// /////// /////2;#
#
% } F| } ?||R// ////// /////// /////2; #&
r|////// ////// /////// /////2; #&
#
#
X|| } F| ////// /////// /////B(
# F;FF|
// ////// /////// /////B(
#
3 } |?F0| } |9// /////// /////B(&
} | } } |F| ////// /////// /////B((
#
'& 0/0
# #0 07V
$$ 7
3|7p# ///// /////// /////B((&
(PFnr 9 ///// /////// /////B($
r FF| /// ////// /////// /////B($:
3 | ////// /////// /////B)( r
PFnr H
G } F|// /////// /////B)( D
FnrFFF } | } | //// /////// /////B(
*,+.-0/21I-0/65
''vKJ
[#VVs
$ 7 !
9|0F||/rF } | } | } |/ /////// /////B(#
(P } F| // /////// /////B($&
} |r9 } ////// /////// /////B($&
} | } 9 } } FF } F|N//// /////// /////B&(
'$sL
K
7_ V7s0 07V
$(< 7
( rv ///// /////// /////B(&
( (PF } 0v/// /////// /////B($
( 9FR// ////// /////// /////B($&
( 9|F///// /////// /////B$( #
( | } | } | // ////// /////// /////B$( #(
( |F|vr } //// /////// /////B$( #:
'D# 0SK#M
& 7
; 2////// ////// /////// /////
; (P//;
// ////// /////// /////
&
; } 3// ////// /////// /////
:
'
'3" #Kv74 vVsN

&(!
C r+ } F| F|r3 //// /////// /////&#
C r ( F|F////// ////// /////// /////
C r (J3/r3 ////// /////// /////

C r ( (BF }
// ////// /////// /////

C r ( // ////// /////// /////

C r ( 3r } F } |
O| } F||r /// /////

'D
7 0
0 !V7
_V
P E
_
+ V+//// ////// /////// /////

(]%7r|F|//// ////// /////// /////

(%| } 33| ////// /////// /////
;
Q 3||F||2///// /////// ///// ;
R %3| } F| /// ////// /////// ///// E
Q F| } F|/// ////// /////// ///// E
R }} } //// ////// /////// ///// E
S3 9 /// ////// /////// ///// E
#T %| } |!|||S ////// /////// /////
VXWZY\[^]`_
mKn;m
dfe
pHqrtsuvqxwyr8z|{~}Hqr2sC}HH{6{6z|}rXt
FH= } F| } |r|||r|0y|D L[| } |

} F| } ||v|+ } F| } |CrrF|vK|F } FF|
|HF3|_9 } F| } |#3FF |+7|F||_||F7?
3|rv } F3sF| } |3#FF|| } 0F
73/CHFF/ |||CE 3|r } F| } ||K F|
} } F| } | =FF } Fn } r| } FF?FFF3 } 9
r|+|PF|F|r||rP|0VF|%|s#+0| } |
F|K } FF| } ||F } |+ } FC| | } F| } |_|K3
r| F L
DIRECT CURRENT
(DC)
ALTERNATING CURRENT
(AC)
XE ||FF3Vr|90| } 33s F }

|} } ||F0/k3#|/|||/| } 3[H3 }
|939F| } | [p/| FVr/|+
} EK } | } rE | } F|; } F| } ||%F||F
F|PFF r| #|F } F|P } F|#|FF9 FF|
K } FFsFV0v } KF|F |F||r79
| ||F|/s| } F| } Fr9|F||#FF
FK } |_ [s9K F| } V|_|
| } |/07|F7| F||r?|E } 3F3Vr |
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
} FFF
p%# } |/| } F } FvsFFK| } Fs%FF|Fs| } |H|F
F|! F |?r/ } 0 } |F } |9|FF?|
}} F } /|k( k % } F#7F| } | } |C |H|Fr| } rF|sF| } |
; FV3$L"))L
Alternator operation
Step #1
Step #2
S
N
N
+
no current!
Load
Load
Step #3
Step #4
N
S
no current!
Load
+
I
I
Load
| } /F|s!/F } FF/|F } |9F/|r!

FF|#3 } FsKCF|F|KFF|| } KF|
} FK| } | |F } | } |#FsF K|F?F#
|9|C!F||r|F } FV| } K|F } |/F|
|0|
X| FV9F PFFF| } | } F#7| } |r } F|C9|
} F } F| |/V|vF| } FsX|P F? } |%|F#|
F|FsF#7#|s F F } F| } } } F|#F

# FVF||| } |[3|F| } Fr } } F| } F|rFF|
=|| } F0F| } F } | } |0F/F|FF73 } | } |K
/73 } | } | } rr|[
|/R5|/213|-|/8-K*813-4/x*&
(DC) Generator operation

Step #1
N S
Step #2
S N
N S
S N
-
+
I
Load
Load
Step #3
N S
Step #4
S N
N S
S N
-
+
I
Load
Load
KF/|F } K#;F/F|!FrF
|FsFs| } | F|7#FK FF } y;

vF|79F } Fk(/F|CF |79 } |9#3|
|FF| } } |F#F! |Bs|/|9||s
v90|F?|
F# ||+#3|3|v } F| } } F } /|+v3| } |%
3|r 3|vLLC } ||#F| F|/|r?
pvFsFF|0Fs# } | } F|
r#s/7|#krFCFs } | }
F#Fn } |F } F } F/ F r3
|Frr } FF9#9F[||K/#7F| } 3
F
/FH |FF#F|0|#C } v| } F| }
X| F=F|FF[F=F/ } F| } } F } %|| } |;|
Fs } H|F/Fv||F#|F }
|F| } 9F FH|F|L 9|#9rFF|V| }
X } 3F| } FFs|F0|rF } |#K|F FFF|
#7Fsv|FsF/ F|#v/ } } #3|
F| } } |9F#F } Fv/FF| } |(F| ; VFF7
3 3r FE #F|90 F%v
F_|V||| } | K|FFF||| } #3 }
rE| 3L3FFFr9rFK|Ers|sF|%[FF;
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
FC |!|%C% } E } F| .VDn)(Cn

9/;F } |;[| } # % } | #| } } F3| } EF
|vFp9k#_F | } | } |r+v|# } |E| 9|
} F/ F |v/ } |n;X0r0 } C3|3| } |3H7$ CL
Transformer
AC
voltage
source
Induced AC
voltage
F|| } } ;FFF||F||##0F 0
} |v } |n/ FK| } _|_ } rF } |
|FF } E 9F F|# } |?VF||v3#F|V! } F
} |HF |#F } | p/F } } ||vr9F| C } FsF
} F } |;|9r|F |#F } | } F||3FF|vF|0F
} F|F|r|H#F } K } r| } r|#FrF
FFF } F } |[
Speed multiplication geartrain
Large gear
(many teeth)
Small gear
(few teeth)
high torque
low speed
low torque
high speed
"Step-down" transformer
high voltage
AC voltage
source
many
turns
low voltage
few turns
Load
high current
low current
p;V||0F|s|FFsFF|# } |!FFrF_ } F } |g
F /F K } [F#|9F/C
|/R5|/213|-|/8-K*813-4/x*&
Speed reduction geartrain

Large gear
(many teeth)
Small gear
(few teeth)
low torque
high speed
high torque
low speed
"Step-up" transformer
high voltage
AC voltage
source
low voltage
few turns
many turns
Load
high current
low current
_F v||F F0|]_| F
# } P3 |PF r9#|F|F|CXXPFF|F| } F| } r9

#| } ||9 } |Fs|FF3p0r3p } F
#|7F/|#|F/F||#9/FF7C +FsF } _+
} F } #v|rFr|F }
high voltage
Power Plant
Step-up
. . . to other customers
low voltage
Step-down
Home or
Business
low voltage
FF } #/pF } F| } 9|F|F| } F| } n%X|

||PP } |FFF]XCH|0 } pF||| } rF }
3#93| } 7pF ||V |L9
7FFFFF 9F_| V } F
9| } F } 0F|
: : 0| } E |F } } F } +F }
#7F| } %FFFF| |9F||F } } FH } FE|F }
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
} F#kr|FF #FF|#F || +rs } F

} |#7| } /|K#||#|||3# F } #|nF
# nF 7H |F | %[FF F
F 3#FF|| r } 0|F| } |0|09

v7
J
9 |F } F |FH } FF#|F| } F9F|
| } | } |9|
FrV FFF| FF |+v } F } F|
|F } |CF } F||
} F } | } CFF3)pCL($p$y?KE| } F } |F_
} F } | } F
r0 | } |F|0| } |F }
7) #C9||!Vrp| } F| } |v } 3 2 } |?F
%HCF3%rFF;| } } ||%7; } FF9| } E } F
/9F F|#F } |[F/9F } F } |n
F|#F } FrHK|#F#F
3 } #Fx
3 } } F| F|#F } F F|##FFH } FF
mKn
Pq,0z|$K{~u
X } F3F//| } r|s|3H#|

| } #EX09|F k FF } v3|F;F|
F|#F F9|| } Hr3BLK3)7
Graph of AC voltage over time
(the sine wave)
+
Time
+s } F } | } %rC } #r|F

F| sr/ } |#|00F } %|
vH|p;9KFsvF/F|7F| } } | | sF|F
=V
&39srv/ } FFC
x*0|81II+.5
D
2yD
D&:D:
:::::::::::3::
:SD&
EL:::::::::::3::
:L:::::::::::3::
L:::::::::::3::(
:L:::::::::::3::
:L:::::::::::3::
:L:::::::::::::
:TD"ER:&
E:v::::::::::3::
E:v::::::::::3::
E:v::::::::::3::(
E:v::::::::::3::
E:v::::::::::3::
E:v::::::::::3::
:SD&
E:v::::::::::A&3::
"Ev::::::::::A&3::
::v::::::::::A&3::(
&v::::::::::A&3::
::v::::::::::A&3::
::v::::::::::A::
:T&"ER:&
::v::::::::::A&3::
::v::::::::::A&3::
"Ev::::::::::A&3::(
::v::::::::::A&3::
&v::::::::::A&3::
::v::::::::::3::
:SD&
V3 } F } | } FFFHF |nk | VvV33| }

|F9F|C;FF } s3F F| } |3 |vCFF|#79|
F|3F%| } #7F| } V| } r|Fr| } % } | rk"
k%% } F#7F| } } |LrHF |/#rF }
} |[V#7 FKKkkFSF } |/| } F
#| } } rv+F|#KFH|v } F|CEFvF
F } 3 } |9H } |
p9sFB } |F#F } +3 } || / 3|
_s|VkV_0r/r|/_F9kVr|r|9k
#F7 } #
C9?Fk=|E|9|s3s|K |F } H79
|| } } F793 } F|#|FFFC
#FF| FC|H=FFV|=F|F| } |/ } |C
rvK|F|v!| n/F|F
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
one wave cycle
90
180
270
360
(0)
90
180
270
360
(0)
Alternator shaft
position (degrees)
3| } F/| ?|!|F } 0#FsF/FF !|K9r|||

FK|r|#F#H } } } vKs||HF|r }
%F } |r;CK } ?!Xs7FF%/|%|% } CL;HC/k
r|V9kH|0FE|
)3$ECF| F|v }} |9

v/F || } C
Fr/FK } ||sF|F F } F/k
r
CL; |#r%r } 3nF|C/| | } vy 7( CF
|KF } |Kv F3| |
7;| } |KEsk } } s } r+
| F| } | | 9v #|! } 9K|_3 } }
} ? /F/_ } F| } |K+FF } _|F/ }
3 } r9|rFv;

F|3vF } ##F| } ?F } |F } /;|F#k|;Vk
r|0 } r|F } s|?K|
/k } } } r?
Frequency in Hertz =
1
Period in seconds
|F } ))E|!3K|K/|kK } |HFE!|

F| } C } CKFF||79F|30F } |F7C
|k3| FK } FFkF _ } | } rV } C 0F|#Vr|
EkFF| F!| E } | } V } F } |F } F|s F| |
} L } F|F } s|
;F/r } FH/3v#r3| } ?F| } k|F|vF|
} F } =Fk7F| } 9|
( | } ||FFF|
} |## } | FFkF?| } |3E%E/3
| } Cr|C } /F| } F|9kC|H93s!/rF|
!FkH|/C=9|FC r } |vF } Fvr| } F3|
07 } HF| } } F
_V| } !#? } | |
y3#Cp| } } +VF } 3
rF3 } |%| } /3|F|9F F FF| ]F } 7E|
| } +/ } + F } 3_B
F#/|F } |/9sFV3r#93|F| |
|3|F|sHV } 0F |F } L9/|FK| }
F } |9 } 0| } ?
x*0|81II+.5
Note
Musical designation
Frequency (in hertz)
A1
A sharp (or B flat)

B
261.63
277.18
293.66
311.13
329.63
349.23
F# or Gb
369.99
392.00
G
#
G or A
415.30
440.00
A
A sharp (or B flat)
D or E
G sharp (or A flat)
246.94
E
F sharp (or G flat)
233.08
C# or Db
D
D sharp (or E flat)
A or B
B1
C (middle)
C sharp (or D flat)
220.00
A or B
466.16
493.88
1
523.25
FF|!| } !_VFF|sFFV |F|_F

F+3 F } |H(V7!#KF } + |r+|F
7F =|((/;H3| FF } /V7 } K| } %#
k } } } C(/F|#F/FKrF F ( |
/73 F & V|7v?F r|F90|0FF
r|C90V } |/FV } F_# } _K||
|%|||K||;V| } KF } | ?kFH%#V| } } F| }
/|r| } ; C)79|F|K73| F / } Fk r
|
|?@
&V
3F739 } FkH((
k|?r|
3|!
|3rsrF| } | } |
C# D#
Db Eb
F# G# A#
Gb Ab Bb
C# D#
Db Eb
F# G# A#
Gb Ab Bb
C# D#
Db Eb
F# G# A#
Gb Ab Bb
C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B
one octave
C } K; } Fk;|?FVD|E;79| } %/|3F?C

*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
||/V| } =| } 37pFkp7npgFp3k ?sF ||

|# |#| } rErsHF|K| 3#| } } ; } Fk
F
X| } F } | } rF%#3V| } rKFF } H|
k!||VF03| FFF|_ks| 3| } HF kF# F
} } |F| } F| }} | } |F Fvvs_2FvkF#K |
} 0|F|
Square wave
Triangle wave
one wave cycle
one wave cycle

Sawtooth wave
9k7#H30F3|EkF|_7|F } " |

} sskr|0|| } 9=Es| } | } |F r
V#| F |F|Fk3F# } F;k7#FHFp|F
||F|%|_9k/3V9k7#H } F
} F| } |V!HF| } 3 | } |9k7F# } |/|3/|!rr| }
|FFL

0|rr3v9k/rF| } / } sr } |Kk
|;H
L: &) F|| %9r|KrsH L: &) |KEHk7
FK } FH| } } |Fs|F| } |_ } | } |r9VkF/;FK }
9k } |F|7s=

v7
J
F } 300 } F } | } ?r9/| } ?r/!|/k
CHEskK| } 7FVF|%|FF|!V|Hr||FF

r|
CL;/;Vk |K|/|F9 } / } }
7" |9F3 } 7 } } 9Vk } ||0F|
HFs|
kLCK|
r|#[F# } k } } /r } ?
F } k r|| }
D^1352|13^1I-0/65
mKn
zq
u2H{6z|
+.Rx*
,-C/1
z|}r8uLK
q
0}s r2z
3 H9K3F FKFFF|F|r } F|_| } |H

#]F } r/|#F|7=|%[FHk3FF } ||
|9 } v|9 kF } sHFFF|s3||
|/FKk7F|KFF|F r| 7r_3 F|/ } }
|HF|r F } V| } F } 0|
[ y3[| } |F|r
|F|||/F 2
9r9 } vFF |9KF07FFH ;
F||VX|F ?F|F|FV } FFVFkV|F
FV7FF|sJ } FK } F VkK|30rE } | } |
#|F=#|F s|| } F } |
99kF7FFF#|F |)( nF![ F|/|!F9|;r/|
9k7 FC;||39F KC ?k/! k7
Peak
Time
k|PFF|v79]|F_3|v|v3
y ; kF
Peak-to-Peak
Time
|#9#7FF|9kF | } +s||

} F||%[F%3?9kE3Kk3|V%|E3|
F!F H=|KF|/9k 3|sKF

/C % } FF9 9r9F|v9K|K| %
(
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
10 V
10 V
(peak)
Time
more heat energy

dissipated
(same load resistance)

10 V
(peak)
less heat energy

dissipated
Kk;7FF|#F|VE|%[Fkr|#F/|kH||F
#F#F| } k/# 9=Fr|||r|F0k7H FF
_|%FF#+||F0F%|3 KF $kC;E|KF0k
|| } P3 P } F } | } 9#F kF|_C % } #
||%9kF#7FFEFK| kF||
0V |_FF#%F|>
p 7$ : gD 2E) !r#| } =kK
9k7F 3 F
3H|||Fvv39F|V|EFkv|k
FECFk } 9|Fs|C3FCFn9FVF } E9? E|
Fk % } |3r;|rFF } F;|Fk E } 3nF|C!
} F|v;| } FF s|F } } F } 0r|F } rF|v
k]3r
D^1352|13^1I-0/65
+.Rx*
,-C/1
Bandsaw
Jigsaw
blade
motion
wood being
cut
wood being
cut
blade
motion
(analogous to DC)
(analogous to AC)
FEF|v0 } F|V } |F|F| FK } F | v|

F|9E||9kXr[|97FF;r#|Fk
rFk%|v } r?||%F/9k FrE } FF
|F } r/|r |kFsKr? } FC|F
/r } } |=X|FF/ } gFs|0=39H|Fk9k
%rrF33r|/V } | } |Fk;=|Fk |%9|F
|F_s|nkF|C|F|F_F|7pk|sFK|Fk r
0|F
y 09vr/|/|| } |/Fk#F |k
|vVFk
7=| } FF | %[FkEF|9|v| %[F9#

F|# } } E93?#F%F|% } | } #
} 0|9| } vFF/r?
| } FF|FkFk |7p3p|=||P|| } 3F | } C

} 7! } } |FF| } 3/FF3r3+KFF
=|Fk9F k9F|9|v| } | } } |;|F|
} F|+_| rFkB|k vr+FV|Fk
/r } p3n
/| sFFK933 } F|# %[ } F|=F#L_||FK?|
vs| | s3 F } FF;#|
H } F9+F } #0VF+||r|+FF+
?|F }
C
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
5 A RMS
2
10 V
RMS
50 W
power
dissipated
5 A RMS
Equal power dissipated through
equal resistance loads
5A
2
10 V
5A
50 W
power
dissipated
} | } |%9kFFE?VF| } (#"E|F||F

9|F F ! V9F7r9Fs s }
} K| } FFr/|| |_F#%r9 |F0Fvs9Fv
F?99 } F| # } Fr } | } ?99FV|F
!|#%
$ r| _ Fr!
$$ C_y s& 7 $| } |!
#F#F| } C;|3|F |kk/2|FF |F|
7F } |FC|r||9|%|FCkF]Ck|
FrFvk0F3|KF!kFF#|0r9LLE7F|
|# E$ E(
')J E$ +| [ Ks||/
F
_|FF9|9F rkVFVFF r|| F|F|3
F|F|9| %[F|k730||0FE } F| } =
F } ||rr#9gFprF#k# 9FV;|F }
PF||_0F| vH|F } |F } } } F| } 9KF } #F
? } FFKFK|/Fs_ } #FsF| } | } } F+|F } FF
|F|sEV|?| } _|/s } | r9||r| } 3 } FHFF
F|F } /|F%93||9F3| } ||p | } F|
FF=FFE|F } 9F| } | } } FVF9|;|
} v3F|7!|=F|F } | !|
KgFprFr;F/| } | } k| } } } F
} FFK9k7F | | # }} } _F#V } F| }
knr|F } |]FB0FH 7F0
0
g C|V } F37|9FK!Fk9r } |F
|]_XF vrvFFF|| } _S
)C Cvk
/+0 } F } ||P } #H_F#+| } #9kF
vFF|| 79Pks H_|C% } F| } 7F } | } |
_FKHHFK[3K|F# } FFkK|||r
7F9||FK_9k7F=/ } # } FFF3 } F
_ 7F9|Fv|#F|F|H|r9FssVF|FFr|
FC9|s %[ } H=FHF| } /H|FF#s|KFH_
H|v#| } } } F|%F3FHkC3| } |v } |#|s
D^1352|13^1I-0/65
+.Rx*
,-C/1
E
!K7|F|0![
9k7F#| } 3F| } 3 } |F } } } | } r [
[ _vF
RMS = 0.707 (Peak)
AVG = 0.637 (Peak)

P-P = 2 (Peak)
RMS = Peak
AVG = Peak
P-P = 2 (Peak)
RMS = 0.577 (Peak)

AVG = 0.5 (Peak)
P-P = 2 (Peak)
/|| K } | } F/r++kFF

FvDHkr_kFE|FkrFK
F3#FKF||
RMS = ???
AVG = ???
P-P = 2 (Peak)
|C|FH|r } } F/|7FCFF
F% } F } |F/ || } F_[|3r }} FE
F||9kCprF9k7JF9 } F;r| K|%3|
/H|Hk|r| } F|s|37|rEFHH_H[9k7F
K= r } F||7F|rF|[F>
$kC CHk
Fsk7CKFv[ } |F| |/F|+3 | v
7F||kK0 F| 9vkV#3_rF_ K7$
*) n D
)3$k +v3| } Fs|nkr|/ } | } F| } ;FC|
|FkrK# } |F|C 3F9k/|=kK| %
F|vr|kF0_v07F } |F|7p9kH
} F|C|| } FH_vF|#p|r|[9k
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.

v7
J
x)( n= 9k7F|!|F;|=;| } V !F| #|

F } 0F2!r[nn[3k_0F|
, y9|9|F|=r kF !FFFIFH#F|
r||| r|C #39> C|F/!k
, y-p-y|v|KF| 9k7 K_F
r|| #| F|3VFC%HF3|v
. kCCv|F_|#F_#| }
9k7F
mKn0/

KH|F|0HF||s
_ Fr%
$H) ;_y &7$7#|kV7FF|
} F|FF } |r#| [VF
;K9F3 } % |F|| }
kHs9 r9 Vs;F |
! } F

1Bs;32wz
#|
r|#F
H_#|9/
HsF|%|
| k
s{6s rv,qxwwCqr2sC0}Hu
F } FKE73 } rF[|=FF } | } |F } }

|r } _7 } | } Vv } 7FFV| } F | } | } |F |F
| } F } r } } |F } H|F| } | } |F|33|+F|0FX
} v| } 3FK k0F= 0||F } F
R1
100
10 V
R2
R3
400
500
7DT5:Î1Tx**8
*C/*2|*/8C+.-5
4
4
)
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
Rtotal = 1 k
Etotal
Itotal =
Itotal =
10 V
1 k
Rtotal
Itotal = 10 mA
ER1 = ItotalR1
ER1 = 1 V
ER2 = ItotalR2
ER3 = ItotalR3
ER2 = 5 V
ER3 = 4 V
3 |F|F } #F|H?F|F } ||||CP_k| } $%]

F|F } 3EH|r| } ;EErk|$3)E%F|
//kF7FFHF#||F } Fr|| } F|+F
k } ##F| } rF!X|FF|| } | } |FF } 7||% F
?/F } | } } } #/ } F;3%;#9|/|Fs|
F|F|
} v9v#F#| } 9F|r|| F%9 } P#vvH||
7F0| | } | } |!|
R1
E
10m
100
R2
R3
Total
10
Volts
10m
10m
10m
Amps
500
400
1k
Ohms
# } kF#r/|0FCF F } FFH
7FF|sHFFF# [nn[kFELp? } 9|%|#|

kF# } FFF=rK!r } } } =|V#!rK|
pF/ } HFH|9|| H_#FF } } } FFsFF } 9|
_s|F9g;|E%F
} } |H
k| } %. 9k
7 } =F!FF|F?3FE } F!| } | } |F=/FF
_/FCrKknn?V9F? } F| } kr F
F/F?|| } F| } |s|F|? } F| } EK|0|_[

v7
J
F;rVk=? | } %. 6; F%kH %kH!|
;
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
F9 9k|F } } | } |F99#kKFF! ||

|0F } 7s%F|E|
F 730F|| } | } |||V||3? } | } |
mKn:9
2pHq
u8z
|;F=F/7 } | } /FF9; F! } FFEF

9F|v } # ;F9kFEFH9 } |C
rF|H3H#|F#H# } HF/|F|0|/|F
|07!|
A B
A B
A B
A B
A B
A B
99k/ r /FFs|Fs } KF
FP| } F F } | } 9F#%|| } )73 ynPE|9k

9 } _ |Vk 3 } } |sFF|7F| } |V } | F|
F
vFCv } | } #|0r|/0|9k@|#@F
FF|HF|F||FH3
#/F$ FH; F|&(
F3#r } VKF||
F
KF! } s|9 } /
| ?|!kF #7FF=v/9k||
;A
<0
;A
=90
>270
180
Adegrees
@(0)
?360
=90
@(0)
?360
>270
180
<0
=90
180
>270
?360
@(0)
=90
180
>270
?360
@(0)
Adegrees
BDCFEHG!CFIKJML(NOEPLRQSEEPTUL!CFEG0EVLRQWQXZY[E\J]W[^!_HGIG#X`NOW[abL dc Ee`^+EPEGf&L+CFE `gh QXZY[E(NiEPITFejX-C EX c W-JL!C E
h`kDh QDXZYÈ[l g G!X`_VmFnoITFepW`J c IoqiE^!ETrLmFC X[G0E*G0C IKJMLGIsGeÌYÈPTtIoTL+CFE(J]W`nnoWQITFepe[^+X`mFC GL+WdNiE\L!L!EÎnona G0L!^XL+E
L!C IGuPW`T uPEPmbLv
Kw#x
I|yFz
{|
Phase shift = 90 degrees
A is ahead of B
(A "leads" B)

B is ahead of A
(B "leads" A)
A B
A and B waveforms are
mirror-images of each other

in perfect step with each other
k EuX-a G!EDL!CFEQXZY[E\J]W[^!_HG~ITHL!CFEX-NiWYÈEPbX`_VmFnoEGX-^+EX-LL!CFEG!X`_VEJ]^!E aFEPT uP`f[L!CFE(QInnONiEW[abLSW`J&G0L!Em

N HL!C E#G!X`_*EX`TFeàFnsX-^X`_VWàFTrLXLEPY[EP^+pmiWÌT[LITL!I_*E[l FW[^DL!CFIsG^+EX[G0W[TfQSEuPX`TE\bmF^+EG+GSm C X`G!EG0CFIoJMLJ]W[^
LRQWW`^_VW`^+E(QDXZYÈPJ]W`^+_HGW-JL+CFEHG!X`_VE#J]^+E aFEPTOu\jX`GXu\W`TOGRLX-TrL a X`T[L+IKLRJ]W[^L+CFE*EPTrL!I^!E*QDXZYÈ`fX-T c TFW`L
a G0LX-TEPbmF^!EG!G!IW`TW-J%G0CFIoJMLNiE\LRQEPETX-TpLRQWHm X-^!L!Isu\a nX`^mOW[IoTrL+GX-nW`TFe*L+CFE#QDXZYÈGl BDC X-LIsGPfFIoLIsGG+XJ]EL+W
G+XZG!W`_VE\L+CFITFepnIo[E`f h Y`W[nKLX-e[E g IsG c Ee`^+EPEGWàbLW-JmFCOX`G!E#QIKL+CjY`W[nKLX-e[E k l hp CFIuC EPYÈ^QDXZYÈPJ]W`^+_
IsGX-CFEX c IoTIoL+GEY`W`nabL+IoW[TdIsGG!XÌ c L!WHNiE oy -M X-T c L!CFEW[TFENOECFIT c IGG+X-I c L!WHNiE C-M: l
COX`G!EG0C IKJMLfrnIÈY[W`noL+XèÈ`frIsGSX`noQDXZbGX#_VEX[G0a ^!E_*ETrLS^+EPnsXL!IYÈNOEPLRQSEEPTpLRQWL+CFIoT e[Gl~BDC EP^+E G ^+EX`non(T W
G!a uCL!CFITFeX[GXHQDXZYÈPJ]W`^+_QIKL+CtX-T ` P) D mFC X`G!E_VEX[G0aF^+EP_VET[LNiEuX-a G!EL+CFEP^+E GTFWHTFWQTaFT IoY[EP^G!X`n
^+E\J]EP^+EPTOu\EHJ]W[^(mFCOX`G!E`lB mFIsuPX`nonITL+CFEdX`T X-nbG0IsG#W`J g u\Iû\aFIoL+Gf~L!CFEdY`W[nKLX-eÈQXZY[E\J]W`^+_W`JL!C EmiWQSE^
G!aFmFmFnIGa G!E c X[GX^!EPJ]EP^+EPT uPEJ]W`^mFC X[G0E[f L+C XLY`W[nKLX-e[E GRLXL+E c X[G h rY`W[nKLGX-L c EPe`^+EPEGPl hHg TW`L!CFE^
g Y`W[nKLX-eÈVW[^ u\aF^+^+EPTrL ITL!C X-L(u\I^+uPaFIoL QIonn COXZYÈHIoL+G#m C X`G!EG!CFIKJML(E\bmF^+EG+G0E c ITL!E^!_HG ^!EnX-L!IYÈVL!WjL!C X-L
G!WàFû\EY`W[nKLX-eÈ[l
BDCFIsGIsGQC XL_VX`ÈG g u\Iû\aFIoLuX-nsu\aFnsXL+IoW[T G_VW`^+E uPW`_VmFnIuXL!E c L!COX-Tt l CFEPTUX-mFmFnIoT eCF_ G
XZQX`T c I^+uC CFW-q G(XZQGPf a X-TrL+IKL+IoEG W`J g Y`W[nKLX-eÈdX-T c u\aF^+^!ETrL _ a G0LV^!E Eu\L(mFC X[G0EG0C IKJMLHX`G(QSEnon
X`GX-_VmFnIKL+a c E[ljX-L!CFE_HXL!IsuPX`nW[mOE^+X-L!IW`T GW-J X cFc IoL!IW`TfG0a NbL!^Xù\L!IW`Tfi_ aFnoL!ImFnIuXL+IoW[Tf&X-T cjc IoYIsG0IW`Tj_(a G0L
W`miEP^XL+EW`TVL+CFEG!E a X`T[L+IKL+IoEGW`JmFC X`G!EG!CFIoJMLX`G QSEnoniX`GSX-_VmFnIKL+a c E`l% W`^!L!aFT X-L!Eno[f`L+CFEP^+EIsG X_HXL+CFEP_HX-L!IsuPX-n
G!G0L!E_W-J a X-TrL+IKL+IoEGuPX-nnE Q
c +$ "o+tr DVC y I c EX`nontG!aFIKL+E c J]W`^L+CFIsGL+X[G0jW`J^+EPm ^!EG0ET[L+IoT eX`_*m noIoL!a c E
X-T c mFCOX`G!E`l
k EuX-a G!EL+CFEG0a N Eu\LW-JuPW`_VmFnE\TaF_(NOE^+GIsGG0WVEG!G!EPTrL!IsX-niL+W(L+CFEaFT c EP^GRLX-T c ITFe*W-J g uPIoû\aFIoL+GfL!C E
x2|~z3Py:Px#x2z.
TFEPrLuCOX-mbL+EP^QInon&NiE c EPY[W-L+E c L!WVL!COXLG!aFN Eu\LX-nW`TFE[l

d\
y IGQC EP^+ELRQWVW`^D_VW`^+EQXZY[E\J]W`^+_HGSX`^!EW[abLW-J%GRL+EPmQIKL+CEXùCW-L+CFEP^l
, )\K
BDCFEX-_VW[aFTrL#W-JmFC X[G0EpG!CFIoJML(NiE\LRQEPETLRQSWQDXZYÈG#uPX`TUNiEEPbmF^!EG!G!E c ITL!E^!_HG#W`J c EPe[^!EEGfX[G c E\
TFE c NjL+CFE c Ee`^+EPEVaFTFIoL+G W`TUL!CFEHC W`^+I W`TrL+X`n~X-bIGW`JSL+CFEHQDXZYÈ\J]W[^!_e[^+X`mFCUa G0E c IoTmFnW-L!L!ITFeL!C E
L!^+Ioe[W`TFW[_*EPL!^+IuG!IoTFEJ]aFTOu:L!IW`Tl
g &M: QDXZYÈ\J]W[^!_IsG c E TFE c X[GW`TFEVQDXZYÈ\J]W[^!_L+C XL#IsG#X-C EX c W-JX-TFW`L!CFEÎoTIoL+GEY`W`nabL+IoW[Tl g
C-M:
QDXZYÈPJ]W`^+_IsGW[TFEL!C X-LIGDNiEPCFIT c X`TFW-L+CFEP^l%%FX-_VmFnE`v
A leads B; B lags A

A
X-nsu\aFnsXL+IoW[T GJ]W`^ g uPIoû\a IKL#X-TOX-nG!IsG_(a G0LL+X-[E(ITrL!Wu\W[T G!I c E^+X-L!IW`TNOW`L!CX-_VmFnIKL+a c EHX-T c m C X`G!E

G0CFIoJMLW-JY`W[nKLX-e[E X-T c u\aF^+^!ETrLQDXZYÈ\J]W[^!_HGDL+WdNiEVu\W`_VmFnE\L+EPnXùPuPaF^XL!E[lBDCFIsG^!E aFIo^+EGL!CFE*a G!E W`J X
_VX-L!CFE_HXL!IsuPX`nG0bG0L!E_uPX`nonE cio+bH\ l

PPP %jP
TFEW-JL!CFE_VW`^+EdJX`G+u\IT XL+IoTFeX-m mFnoIsuPX-L!IW`T G*W`JEPnEu\L!^+IuPIKLRIsGVITL+CFEeÈTFEP^XL+IoW[TW-JIoTYIG!INFnoE^+Iom mFnoEG*W-J

PE T EP^+eùPX-nnE c![ -Z\ lBDCFE(noI_VIKL+E c G+u\W[mOE(W-J~L!C IGnEG+G0W[TW`TjX-noL!E^!TOXL!ITFeuPaF^+^!ET[L c WEGTFW-LmOE^!_VIoL
J]aFnnE\bmFnW`^XL+IoW[TW`JL+CFE#u\W[T u\EmbLfFG!W`_VEW-JL!CFENOX`G!IumF^+IoTOu\ImFnoEGDQIonnNiE#u\WY[EP^+E c l
IoL!CEP^G0L!E c GHX[uPu\I c ET[LX-n c IG+u\WY[EP^+W-JEPnEu\L!^+W`_HX-e[TFE\L+IG!_fSIoLQDX`GH^+EX`noIPE c L+C XLEnoEu:L+^!Isu\IoLRX`T c
_HX-e[TFE\L+IG!_QSE^!E^!EnX-L!E c L!W*EX[uCW`L!CFE^l CFETX`TEPnEu\L!^+Iuu\a ^!^+EPTrLSQDX`Gm X[G!G!E c L!CF^+WàFe[CdX*u\W[T c a u\L!W`^fX
_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu EPn c QX[G%eÈTFEP^XL+E c mOE^!miEPT c IuPaFnsX-^L+WL!C EXbIsG%W-J WQl%Io[EPQIsG0E[fÌoJ&X u\W`T c a u:L+W`^QDX`G E\bmiW[G!E c
L!WXuC X`TFeÈdIoT_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu abmiEP^+miEPT c Isu\a nX`^VL!WUL!CFEjuPW`T c a u:L+W`^f XUY`W`noL+XèÈdQX[G(m ^!W c a uPE c X-nW`TFeL!C E
nEPTFe`L!CtW`J%L!C X-LuPW`T c a u:L+W`^lWJX-^f&G!uPIoET[L+IG0L+GTFEPQL+C XLEPnEu\L!^+IuPIKLRX`T c _HX-e[TFE\L+IG!_X-nQXZbGG!EPE_VE c L+W
XqEu\LSEXùCVW-L+CFEP^XLS^+Ie`CrLSX-T e`nEGlWQSEYÈP^f`X_HX W`^ c IsG+u\WYÈ^!(nXZ*CFI cFc ET a G0LSNiEPTFEXL!CpL!CFIsGSG!EPE_VIoTFe[no
G!Io_VmFnEju\W[T u\EmbLpW-J^!EnX-L!E c miEP^+mOET c Isu\aFnsX-^+IoLR`fDX-T c IoL+GHaFTY[EPInoITFeQX[GVW`TFEW`JL+CFEmFIY`W`L+X-n_VW[_*ETrL+GHIT
_VW c EP^+TG+u\IEPTOu\E`l
BDCFIsGHNF^+EX`[L+CF^+WàFe[CITmFCG!IsuPGHIsGpC X`^ c L!WWYÈP^G0L+XL+E`lBDCFEt_VX`T^!EG0miW`T G!INFnoEJ]W[^HL!C IGdu\W`TOu\EPmFL!a X`n
^+EPY`W[noaFL!IW`TQDX`GSL+CFE bu\W`L0L+IG!Cdm CrbG!IuPIG0L[X`_VEG noE^!djXbQEPnn~ {[F{ {|r f`QC W h aFTFI E c h L+CFE#G0L!a c W-J
EPnEu\L!^+IuPIKLRpX`T c _HXè`TFEPL!IsG0_ITpJ]W[aF^D^!EnX-L!IYÈPn*L!I c pE aOXL!IW`TOGPlTdEG!G!EPTOu\E`fQC X-LC E c IsG+u\WYÈ^!E c QDX`G L!C X-L
EPnEu\L!^+Iu(X-T c _VXè`TFEPL!Isu Po QSE^!E#ITrL!^+IoTOG0IsuPX`non^!EnX-L!E c L+WW[TFE(X`TFW-L+CFEP^fOQIoL!CW`^QIKL+CFWàbLL!CFE*mF^+EG!EPT uPE
W-J%XVu\W[T c a u\L!IYÈm XL+CJ]W`ÊPnEu\L!^+W`T GSL+WV WQlrL+X-L!E c _VW`^+EJ]W`^+_HX-nno[fFjXbQEPnn G c IG+u\WY[EP^+HQX[GSL!CFIsGPv
ZFir-P~Z`VtS[Z `bdFirp~ fFX-T c
ZFiFirp~`HtS[Z `bpr`P~ l
g nnW`J~L!CFIsGuX-TL+X`È#m nX[u\EITjW`miEPTjG!m XùPE`f L!CFE X`nKL+EP^+T XL+IoT eHEPnEu:L+^!Isu#X`T c _HX-e`T E\L!Isu En c GG!aFmFmiW`^!L!ITFe
EX[uCHW-L+CFEP^X`G%L+CFEP*L+^+XZY[EPnbL+CF^!W[aFe`CpG!m X[u\EX-L L!C EG!mOEE c W`JnIe`CrLl%BDCFIsG c rTOX-_VIuGRL+^!a u\L!aF^+EW`JEPnEu:L+^!IsuX`T c
_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu En c GmF^!W[m X-erXL+IoTFe L!CF^+Wà e`CG0m X[u\EIsGDNOEPL0L!E^TFWQTX`GX-T Po\!-V -\# -Z l
*x
zSyt
P
F{

BDCFE^!EX-^+Ed_HX`TrrIT c GVW`JT X-L!aF^X-n^X c IX-L!IYÈEPTFE^!e[u\W`_VmiW[G!E c W-JEnoEu:L+^!W[_VXè`TFEPL!IsuQDXZYÈGPlY[EPT

nIoe[C[LIGEnoEu:L!^+W`_HXè`TFEPL!IsuIoTT XL+aF^+E`l#WdX`^!E ^+XZbGX-T c h e[X`_*_HX h ^+XZ^X c IsXL+IoW[TlBDC E(W[TFno c IoqEP^+EPT uPE
NiE\LRQEPEPTdL!C EG!EIT c GW-JEPnEu\L!^+W`_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu^+X c IsXL!IW`TIGL+CFEJ]^!E a EPT uPpW-JL+CFEPI^W[G+u\InnX-L!IW`TX-noL!E^!T X-L!IW`TdW-J
L!C EEPnEu:L+^!IsuX-T c _HX-e[TFE\L+Iu EPn c GN X[uX-T c J]W[^0L+CdITmOW[nX`^!IoLR l k pa G!ITFepXVG0W[aF^+uPEW-J g Y[W`noL+X-e[EX`T c X
G!mOEu\IsX-n c EPYIsu\EVuPX`nonE c X-T - \Oi f&QSEVuPX`Tu\^+EX-L!E*EPnEu\L!^+W`_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu QXZY[EG W-JDX_(a uCtnWQSE^J]^+E aFET u\
L!COX-TL!C X-LW-JnoIe`CrL QIoL!CEX`G!E`l
g THX`T[L+EPTFTOXIsG%TFW`L!CFITFe_VW`^+ESL+C X-THX c EYrIsu\EDNFa IonoL%L!WmF^+W c a uPEDX c IsG!mOE^+G!IoT eEnoEu:L+^!IsuW`^%_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu En c l
BDQW(J]a T c X-_VET[LX-nLRmiEGW`J~X`T[L+EPTFTOX-EX-^+EL+CFE X`T c L+CFE o+ v
Basic antenna designs

DIPOLE
LOOP
CFInoEL+CFE c IomiW`nEnWrW[bG(nIÈTFW-L+CFIoT eU_VW[^!EdL!C X`TX`TW[mOETuPIoû\a IKLfSX-T c L+CFEnoWW[mXG0C W`^!LVuPIoû\aFIoLf

L!C EG!E(mFIEuPEGW-JQI^+E*X`^!E(E\qEu:L+IoY[E(^X c IX-L!W`^GW`JEPnEu\L!^+W`_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu EPn c GQCFEPTUu\W[TFTFEu\L!E c L!W g G!WàFû\EG
W-J&L+CFEmF^!W[mOE^J]^+E aFET u\[l~BDC ELRQW#W`miEPTpQI^+EGSW-J&L!C E c ImOW[noEXù\LSX`GX G!W`^!L W`JuPX-mOXù\IoL!W[^]LRQSW uPW`T c a u:L+W`^G
G!EPm X`^+X-L!E c NrX c IoEnoEu:L+^!Isu fQIKL+CL+CFEEPnEu:L+^!Isu EPn c W`miEPTL!W c IsG0miEP^G!X`nSIT G0L!EX c W`JNOEIoT eUuPW`T uPEPTrL!^XL+E c
NiE\LRQEPEPTjLRQSWu\nW[G!EPn[G!m XùPE c mFnsXL+EGlBDCFE*u\nW[G!E c QI^+E m X-L!CjW`JL!CFE(noWW[mtX-TrL!ETFT XdXù:LGnIÈ(X`TjIT c a u\L!W`^
QIoL!CXnsX-^+eÈXÌo^Vu\W[^!E[fX-e[XÌoTm ^!WYI c IoT eX-_VmFnEW`mFmiW`^!L!aFT IKLRUJ]W`^(L!C E En c L!W c IsG0miEP^G0EXZQXZJ]^+W`_L!C E
X-TrL+EPTFT X*IT G0L!EX c W`JNiEPITFepuPW`T uPEPTrL!^XL+E c X`T c u\W[T[LX-ITFE c X`GDITX(T W`^+_VX`n&IoT c a u:L+W`^l
g GL+CFEVmOWQEP^+E cjc IomiW`nEV^+X c IX-L!EGIoL+GuC X`TFeÌTFedEPnEu:L+^!Isu EPn c ITrL!WG0mOXù\E[fXduCOX-TFe[IoTFed_HX-e`T E\L!Isu EPn c
IsG#mF^+W c a u\E c XL#^+Ioe[C[L X`TFe`nEGfL+Ca G G!a G0L+X-ITFITFeL!C EpEPnEu\L!^+Iu En c J]a ^0L+CFEP^(IoTrL!WjG!m X[u\E`f~X-T c G!WW`TX[GL!C E
QDXZYÈm ^!W[m X-erXL!EGSX-LDL!CFEG!mOEE c W-JnIe`CrLl g GL+CFEmiWQSE^!E c noWW[mX`T[L+EPTFTOX ^X c IsXL+EGIoL+GuC X`TFeÌTFe*_VXè`TFEPL!Isu
En c ITrL!WtG!m XùPE`f~XjuC X`TFeÌTFeEPnEu\L!^+Iu EPn c IG mF^+W c a u\E c XL ^+Ioe[CrL X-TFe[noEGPfQIKL+CL!CFEG!X`_VEHEPT c ^+EG!aFnKL(W-J
XpuPW`TrL!ITaFWà GEPnEu\L!^+W`_HX-e[TFE\L+IuQDXZYÈ#G!EPTrLXZQDXZpJ]^+W`_L+CFE(X`T[L+EPTFTOXFl IKL+CFEP^X-TrL!ETFT XpX[uCFIoEYÈGDL!CFEVG+X-_VE
N X[G0IsuL+X`G!vL!CFE#uPW`TrL!^+W`nnoE c m ^!W c a u\L!IW`TW-J~X-TEPnEu\L!^+W`_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu EPn c l
CFET*X-L0L+X[uCFE c L!WXG0W[aF^+uPE W`JOCFIe`CbJ]^+E aFEPTOu\ g miWQSE^f-X`T*X`TrL!EPT T XX[u:LGX[G~X ! :(MMc EPYIsu\E`f
\u W[TYÈP^!L!ITFe g Y`W[nKLX-eÈX`T c u\aF^+^+EPTrLIoTrL+W#EPnEu\L!^+W`_HX-e[TFE\L+IuQDXZYÈDEPTFE^!e[`l g TrL!ETFT X[G X-nsG!WCOXZYÈDL!C EX-NFInIKLR
L!WITrL!EPû\EmbL#EPnEu\L!^+W`_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu(QDXZYÈGX-T c uPW`TYÈ^0LL!C EPIÊPTFE^!e[jIoTrL+W g Y`W[nKLX-eÈVX-T c uPaF^!^+EPTrLl*TUL+CFIG
_VW c E`f X`TX`TrL!EPT T XVXù:LGX`GX !\MM c EPYIsu\E[v
x~z
!yPx #xz
"
AC voltage
produced
Radio receivers
AC current
produced
electromagnetic radiation
electromagnetic radiation
Radio transmitters
FC InoE#L!CFE^!E#IsG $# _VW`^+EL!C X-LuPX`TNOE(G!XÌ c X`NOW[abLX-TrL+EPTFT XHL!EuC TFW`nWè[`fbL+CFIGNF^+IoEPJ~ITrL!^+W c a u:L+IoW[TIG

EPT WàFe[CHL!W(eÌYÈ[WàHL+CFEe[EPTFE^+X`nFI c EX W-JQC X-L G e[WÌTFe#W[TtX`T c miEP^+C X-m GSEPT WàFe[CpIoTFJ]W`^+_VX-L!IW`THL+W mF^+WY`W[È
X(J]EPQ E\bmiEP^+Io_VEPTrLG l
d\&%
[X`_*EG jX-bQSEnon c IsG!uPWYÈP^+E c L+C XLDuC X-T eÌTFe EnoEu:L!^+Isu En c GSmF^+W c a u\EmiEP^+mOET c Isu\aFnsX-^_HX-e`T E\L!Isu EPn c GPf
X-T c YIG+X YÈ^+G+XFfrEPY[EPTIoTEP_VmbLRdG0m X[u\E[l
g LRQIoTHG!E\LW-JEPnEu\L!^+IuDX`T c _VXè`TFEPL!Isu EPn c Gf`W[G+u\InnX-L!ITFeXL^+Ioe[C[LX`TFe`nEGL+WEXùC*W-L+CFEP^X`T c L!^XZYÈnoITFe
XLDL!CFE#G!miEPE c W`JnIoe[C[Lf u\W[T G0L!IoL!abL+EGX-T Po\!-V -\# -Z l
g T P i IsGDX c EPYIuPE_HX c EW-JQI^+E`f c EG0Ie`TFE c L+W*^X c IX-L!EX(uC X`TFeÌTFe*EPnEu\L!^+Iu EPn c W`ûC X-T eÌTFe
_VXè`TFEPL!Isu EPn c QCFETmiWQEP^+E c NdXVCFIe`CbJ]^+E aFEPTOu\ g G!WàFû\E[fFW`ÎTrL!E^+uPEPmbLX`TEnoEu:L+^!W[_VXè`TFEPL!Isu
EPn c X`T c u\W[TrY[EP^!LIoLL!WHX`T g Y`W[nKLX-eÈW`ûPaF^+^!ET[Ll
BDCFE - F-o X-TrL!ETFT Xu\W`TOG0IsGRLGpW`JLRQSWmFIoEu\EGW`J#QIo^+ETFW-LdL!WàOuCFIoT e fmF^!I_HX-^+IoneÈTFEP^XL+IoTFeX`T
EPnEu:L+^!Isu EPn c QCFEPTEPT EP^+eÌPE c fFX-T c G!Eu\W[T c X`^!InoVmF^+W c a uPIoTFeHXV_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu En c ITG0m X[u\E[l
BDCFE o+ X`TrL!EPT T XHu\W[T G0IsG0L+GW`J~XVnWW`mW-J~QI^!E[fFmF^+Io_HX-^+InodeÈPT EP^XL!ITFeHXV_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu En c QC EPTEPT EP^!
eÌPE c fFX-T c G0Eu\W[T c X-^+InoHmF^+W c a uPIoTFeHX`TdEnoEu:L!^+Isu EPn c IoTG0mOXù\E[l
'
(*),+.-0/21
V
<
>
~%p0C!A~P(
@ BA
EDFHGIGJKGJMLON0JPGRQOSITOUWVXGYLOZKG[JPU\Q]L_^`FaSbGcVXGbLd!GIGIFeLd!N0SbULOUWGQfgSbNhKi\JMjHTONlkU\JPGc^`Fm^`FHQOdnGToSbNFHQ]U\Q]LOUWFKpqN`D ^
QOUFKpiGrFhKstVXGIT UWFusBUWiWGQfPvUWiWNsYGbL_GIT$QIfNT QONsYGrN`LOZHGIT hKFKUL N`DiUWFKG^TsBGR^QOhKT_GIsYGIFLw%
NldnGkGITRfUxD d!GIT_GL_N
JPGRQOSITOUWVaGZKNldyLONtLOT$^zkGIiKD{TONs,NFKGSIUxL|LONB^`FKNLOZKGTfr}
d!NhKi\JYZH^zkGLONtjHTONlkU\JPGsYNT_GUWFPD{NT_sc^lLOUWNFYL_ZH^`Fo~hHQL
LOZHGoJPUWQ]L_^FHSbGgVXGbLd!GIGFuLOZKNQ]GrLd!N[SbULOUWGQFn
d!NhHiWJu^ì\Q]NYZH^zkGrLONcjKT_NlkUWJPGUWFPD{NT_sc^lL_UNFu^VaNhPL LOZKG ` MO \ l
LONBL_T_^zkGIifK^Qd!GIiWiw
ZKGcvUWFHJmN`DUFKD{NT_sY^`LOUWNFeLOZa^lLtGIjHTOGRQOQOGQg^QOUFHpiWG[JPUsYGFHQ]UWNFfQOhHS$Z^QgiWUWFKG^TtJPU\QL$^`FHSIGfUWQoS^ìWiGRJm^
hH^FLOUL|[UFqsc^lL_ZKGIsc^`LOU\SIQw KSI^ì\^`T FhKsVaGT_Q ^TOGLOZHGgvUWFHJuN`DFhKstVXGIT$Q|Nh kGrhHQ]GRJuUFusYNQ]L^ìWiN`D
|NhKT sc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^ì^`jKjKiWU\SI^lL_UNFHQ QONYD^`TRw!ZKGgkNiL_^pGjKT_NJKhHSbGRJV|q^YVH^lLOLOGTO|fKD{NTGbK^`sYjKiWGfKU\Q^cQ_SIîW^T
hH^`FL_UxL|w PNcUWQ!L_ZKGgTOGRQ]U\Q]L_^`FaSbGN`D^jHUGRSbGgN`Dd UT_G {NZKscQ fPNTL_ZKGoSbhKT_T_GIFLLOZKT_NhKpZUL ^sYjHQ w
Po-
Nld!GIkGITRfId ZKGFtd!GVXGIpUFgL_Nr^FH^ìW| IGîxL_GIT_FH^lL_UFHpSbhKT_T_GIFLSbUWT$SbhKUL_QfldnGHFHJoLOZH^`L hH^`FL_UxL_UGRQNDHkNixL$^`pGf

bS hHTOT_GIFLf^`FHJeGIkGIFeTOGRQ]U\Q]L_^`FaSbG SIîiWGJ K l $ UWF
^`T_GYFKN`LLOZHGYD^`sYUiWU\^`TgNFHGbJPUsYGFHQ]UWNFa^ì hH^`FK
LOULOUWGQd!G TOGchHQOGJeL_NsYG^Q]hHTOUWFKpUWF,SIUT$SbhKUL_Qw0^`LOZKGTfLOZKGRQ]G hH^`FLOULOUWGQfVaGRSI^`haQ]GcL_ZKGI| TOGJP|FH^`sYU\S
îxL_GIT_FH^lL_UFHpoUFuJPUWTOGRSLOUWNF[^FHJ[^sBjHiULOhHJKG fPjXNQ_QOGQ_QN`L_ZKGIT!JPUWsBGFHQOUNFHQL_ZH^lLsthaQL!VaGL_^`vGIF[UWFLONB^SISINhKFLRw
KT_G hKGFHSb|e^`FHJejKZa^QOG[Q]ZKUDLt^`T_GYLd!NuNDnL_ZKGQOGJPUWsYGIFHQOUWNFHQL_ZH^lLtSINsYGcUWFL_NjKi\^z|wkGIFmd ULOZmT_GIi\^lLOUWkGi|
QOUsYjKiWGoSIUT$SbhKUL_QfPd ZKGTOGd!G TOGrNFKiW|JPGR^ìWUFHpBd ULOZ^YQOUFKpiGrD{T_G hKGFHSb|fPdnGgQ]LOUWiiZa^zkGLOZKGoJPUWsYGIFHQOUWNFuN`D
jKZH^Q]GgQOZKUDL LON[SbNFLOGIFaJd ULOZqUWFq^JKJPULOUWNFuLONBL_ZKGo^`sYjKiWUxL_hHJPGw
M [ i
FNT$JPGToLONMQ]hHSSbGRQOQ]D{hKiWi|m^`FHî| G,SbUWT_SIhKUL_Qfd!G[FKGGJmL_N0d!NT_vMd ULOZsc^`LOZKGsY^`LOU\SIîNVK~GSL$Qt^FHJ

LOGRS$ZKFKU hKGQYSI^jH^`VHiGN`DT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL_UFKp0LOZKGRQ]GusthKiLOUJPUsYGFHQ]UWNFa^ì ha^`FLOULOUWGQw GTOGUWQBd ZKGTOGudnGFKGIGRJL_N
^`Va^`FHJPNFQOS^ì\^`TgFhKstVXGIT$QgD{NTtQONsYGbL_ZKUFHp0VaGIL]L_GITQOhKULOGRJ $
er Y$ w hHQ]LtiUWvGYL_ZKGGIK^`sYjKiWGcN`D
pUWkUFHpMJPUWTOGRSL_UNFHQoD{T_Ns&NFKGSIUxL|eLONm^`FHN`LOZHGITRf ha^`FLOULOUWGQUFy^QOUFHpiWGbD{TOG hHGIFHSI|eSIUT$SbhKULZa^zkGVXN`L_Z
^`sYjKiWULOhHJPG ^FH^ìWNp|!JPU\Q]L_^`FaSbG ^`FaJjKZH^Q]GBQ]ZKUDL ^`Fa^ìWNp|JPUWTOGRSLOUWNF wSINsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGITrUWQr^QOUWFKpiWG
sc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^ì hH^FL_UxL|^`VKiWGLONYGbPjKT_GQ_QnLOZKGRQ]GLd!NcJPUWsBGFHQOUNFHQN`D}^`sYjKiWUxL_hHJPGo^FHJjHZH^QOGgQ]ZKUDL^`LNFHSbGw
- !
b P
~
+P
nNsYjKiWGbcFhKsVaGT_Q!^`T_GGR^QOUGTL_NpT_^Q]jcd ZKGF[L_ZKGI| OT GrTOGjKT_GQOGIFLOGRJYpT$^`jKZKU\SIîiW|w ED JKT_^zd^tiUWFKGd UxL_Z

^ SIGITOL_^ÙWFiWGIFKpLOZ {sc^pFKULOhHJKG ^FHJ^`FHpiWG JPUWTOGRSL_UNF f gZH^zkG[^pT$^`jKZHUWSYT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL$^lLOUWNFeN`D^SbNsYjKiWGb
0
FhKstVXGIT d ZHUWS$ZqU\Q SbNsYsYNFHi|[vFKNld FuUWFujHZ|PQOUWSQ ^Q ^ l
n
H 0n0n

length = 7
angle = 0 degrees
length = 10
angle = 180 degrees
length = 5
angle = 90 degrees
length = 4
angle = 270 degrees
(-90 degrees)
length = 9.43
angle = 302.01 degrees
(-57.99 degrees)
length = 5.66
angle = 45 degrees
UWvGJKUWQ]L_^FHSbGRQ^`FHJcJKUT_GSbLOUWNFHQ}NF[^gsc^`jfLOZKGTOGsthHQ]LVXGQ]NsYGSbNsBsYNFD{T$^`sYGNDXT_GbD{GTOGFHSbGD{NTn^FKpiWG
HphKTOGRQL_NZa^zkGn^F|rsYGR^`FKUWFKpHw FoL_ZKUWQS^QOGf`JPUWTOGRSL_i|gT_UpZLU\QSINFHQOU\JPGIT_GJL_NVXG zf^FHJo^FKpiWGQ^`T_GnSINhKFLOGRJ
UWFq^BjXNQOUxL_UkGgJPUT_GSbLOUWNFupNUFKpcSINhKFLOGT]SbiWNPS$vd UWQOG
The vector "compass"
90o
180o
270o
(-90o)
ZKGU\JPGR^gN`DT_GIjKT_GQOGIFLOUWFKpg^gFhKsVaGTUWFcpT$^`jKZKU\SIîPD{NT_s,UWQFKN`L_ZKUFHpoFKGIdgweG^ìWiHiWG^TOFHGJBLOZHUWQUFcpT_^JPG

Q_S$ZKNNid ULOZuLOZKGoFhKstVXGITiWUFKG
...
0
10
eG!GkGFtiWG^`T_FKGRJoZKNld^JKJPULOUWNFB^`FHJBQ]hHVPLOT$^SbLOUWNFtd!NT_vPQV|oQOGIGUFKprZKNldiWGIFHp`LOZaQ sc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGQ
QL$^S$vGJ
KW
g! I
hKjuLONYpUkG^HFa^ì^FHQ]d!GITR
5+3=8
8
5
0
...
7
10
^`LOGTfzd!GiWG^`T_FKGRJrLOZH^`LL_ZKGIT_Gd!GIT_Gd^z|QLONrJPGQOUpFH^lL_GL_ZKGnklîhKGRQ $P$I
L_ZKGd ZKNiGnFhKstVXGIT$Qsc^TOvGJ
NFLOZHGgiUWFKGwZHGQOGgdnGTOGD{T_^SL_UNFH^ìNTJPGSIUsc^ì hH^FLOULOUWGQ
3-1/2 or 3.5
...
0
10
^`LOGT!|GbLd!GiGR^`T_FKGJLOZH^`L LOZKGgFhKsVaGT iUWFKGoSINhKi\JGILOGIFaJL_NBLOZKGgiWGbDLNDGIT_NY^QdnGii

...
...
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
ZKGRQ]GHGIi\JKQNDFhKstVXGIT$Q {d ZKNiGfUFL_GIpGTfT$^lL_UNFH^ìfUT_T$^lLOUWNFa^ìfXT_GîfGIL_Sw iWG^TOFHGJ0UWFepT$^JPGBQOS$ZKNNi

QOZH^`T_Gt^[SINsYsYNFqLOT$^ÙLL_ZKGI| TOG^ìWi `XI l cb $` wrZHGQ]LOT$^ÙWpZLOFKGRQOQN`D}LOZHGtFhKstVXGITriWUFKGUiWiWhHQL_T_^`LOGRQ
LOZHUWQpT$^`jKZHUWS^ìWi|wqNhSI^FsYNlkGchKjNTJKNld FmLOZKGFhHstVXGITBiUWFKGf}VHhPLBîi!`sYN`L_UNFH0^ìWNFHpqLOZH^`LiWUFKGUWQ
T_GQ]LOT_UWSbLOGJLON^QOUWFKpiWG0^lPU\Q {ZKNTOU INFL$^ì wFKGIEJKUsYGIFaQ]UWNFHîfQ_SI^ì\^`TYFhKsVaGT_Qc^TOGjXGITOD{GSbLOiW| ^JKG hH^lL_G
D{NTYSbNhKFLOUWFKp0VXG^JKQIf}T_GIjHTOGRQ]GFL_UFHp0dnGUpZLfNTsBGR^QOhKT_UFKpMVH^`L]L_GIT_|ekNiL_^pGfVKhKLtLOZHGI|mD^ìWiQ]ZKNT]LN`D
VXGIUWFKp[^`VKiWGrLONcT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL Q]NsYGbLOZHUFKpcsYNTOGgSbNsYjKiGIiWUvGL_ZKGoJPU\QL$^`FHSIG l
JPUT_GSbLOUWNFuVaGILdnGGIFuLd!NYSIUxL_UGRQIf
NToLOZKG^sYjKiULOhaJPG l
jKZH^Q]GcND^`Fd!^zkGbD{NT_sqw[NTOGjKTOGRQ]GFLrL_ZKGQOG[vUWFHJKQgND hH^FLOULOUWGQfd!GcFKGIGRJ
sthHixL_UWJPUWsYGIFHQOUWNFHîaT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL$^lLOUWNFaQIw F[N`L_ZKGIT!d!NT$JKQIfd!GFKGGJ[^tFhHstVXGIT!iUWFKGLOZH^`LS^`F[jXNUWFLnUWFJPUXGTOGFL
JPUWTOGRSL_UNFHQIfK^FHJLOZH^`L Q GbK^SbLOiW|[d ZH^`L^kGSbLONTU\QIw
0 M i-
b&%
Po-
FhKsVaGT!U\Q!LOZHGL|jXGrNDsc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^ìNVK~GSL!LOZa^lLjaGNjKiWGr^TOGrhHQOGJ[LONBhHQ]UWFKpBUFGIkGIT_|JH^z|
iUD{G^BNFHGbJPUsYGFHQ]UWNFa^ì hH^`FLOUL|[iWUvGLOGsBjXGIT$^lL_hKT_GfPiWGIFKpLOZfKd!GIUWpZLRfPGbL_Sw
- !
P -
b P
$
ur Y$
JPUT_GSbLOUWNFw
U\Q^BsY^`LOZKGsc^lLOU\SIî hH^`FLOUL|[T_GIjKT_GQOGIFL_UFKpLd!NBJPUWsYGIFHQOUWNFHQNDsc^`pFKULOhHJPGg^FHJ
z E UWQ^pT$^`jHZKUWS^ìT_GIjHTOGRQ]GFL$^lL_UNFeND^0SbNsBjHiGIeFhKsVaGTw ELtiWNNvPQoiWUWvG^F^`T_TONldgfd UxL_Z^

Q L$^`TOLOUWFKpjXNUWFLf^L_UjfûJKGbHFKULOGYiWGIFKpLOZf^`FHJM^qJPGbHFHUxL_G[JPUT_GSbLOUWNFw NsYGILOUWsBGRQrLOZKGYd!NT$J H# I
UWQhHQ]GRJqUFGiGRSL_TOU\SIî^`jKjHiU\SI^`LOUWNFHQ d ZHGIT_GgLOZKGB^`FKpiGgNDLOZKGokGSbLONTTOGjKTOGRQ]GFL_Q jKZa^QOGoQ]ZKUDLVXGbLd!GIGF
d!^zkGbD{NT_scQIw
FZ -
`
V
? ?
n
H 0n0n

!A %#
(`
vl^z|fHQONYZKNldGbK^SbLOiW|SI^Fd!GgT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL ha^`FLOULOUWGQ NDkNiL_^pGNTSIhKTOT_GIFLUWFuLOZKGgD{NTOsN`D}^YkGRSLONT$

ZKGgiWGIFKpLOZuN`DLOZKGgkGSbLONTT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL$QL_ZKGgsc^`pFKUxL_hHJPG NT^`sYjKiWULOhHJPG N`DLOZKGgd^zkGID{NT_sqfiWUvGrLOZKU\QI
Waveform
Amplitude
Vector representation
Length
ZKGpT_G^lL_GITLOZKGc^`sYjKiWULOhHJPGBN`DLOZKGBd!^zkGbD{NTOsqfKL_ZKGYpT_G^`LOGITLOZKGBiWGIFKpLOZNDUxL$QSbNT_T_GQOjaNFHJPUWFKp[kGRSL_NTRw
ZKGu^`FKpiG[ND LOZKGukGRSL_NTRfZHNldnGkGITRfTOGjKTOGRQ]GFL_QL_ZKGjHZH^QOGQOZKUxDLYUWFJPGIpTOGGQtVaGILdnGGIFL_ZKGd^zkGID{NT_sUWF
hKGQ]LOUWNF^`FHJ^FKN`L_ZKGITd!^zkGbD{NTOs^SbLOUWFKp^Qu^TOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGmUWFL_UsYGwQOhHîiW|fd ZHGIFL_ZKGejKZH^QOG0NDt^
d^zkGbD{NTOsUF^gSIUT$SbhHUxLU\QGIPjKTOGRQOQOGJfULnU\QT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGJL_NgLOZKGjaNld!GITnQ]hKjHjKi|BkNixL$^`pG d!^zkGbD{NT_s ^`T_VKUxL_T_^TOUWiW|
Q]L_^lL_GJL_NVXGn^`L_ w GsBGstVXGITLOZH^`LjKZH^Q]GUWQ^ìWd!^z|PQ^ O z sYG^QOhKT_GIsYGIFLVXGbLd!GIGFgLd!N d!^zkGbD{NT_scQ
T$^lLOZHGITLOZa^`Fq^`F^`VHQONiWhPL_GjKT_NjXGITOL|w
\ M
K Kr
onn

Waveforms
Phase relations
Vector representations
(of "A" waveform with
reference to "B" waveform)
A B
A B
in perfect step with each other

A
A is ahead of B
90 degrees
(A "leads" B)
B is ahead of A
-90 degrees
(B "leads" A)
180 degrees
A
mirror-images of each other
angle
B
phase shift
ZKGpT_G^lL_GITLOZKGjKZH^QOGQOZKUDLgUFJKGIpT_GIGRQVXGbLd!GIGF0Ld!N[d!^zkGbD{NTOscQfKLOZHGpTOGR^lLOGTL_ZKGB^FKpiWGtJPUGIT_GIFHSIG

VXGbLd!GIGIFqL_ZKGSINT_TOGRQ]jXNFaJPUFHpckGSbLONT_Qw nGUFHp^cT_GIi\^lLOUWkGgsYGR^QOhKTOGsYGIFLfaiUWvGkNiL_^pGfKjKZH^Q]GtQOZKUDL kGSbLONT
^`FHpiWG NFHi|ZH^QsYG^FKUWFKpcUFT_GbD{GTOGFHSbGrL_N[Q]NsBGoQ]L_^FHJK^T_Jd!^zkGbD{NTOsqwrGIFHGIT$^ìWi|cL_ZKU\Q`T_GbD{GTOGFHSbGRtd^zkGI
D{NT_s2U\QL_ZKG!sYÛFBmjXNldnGTQOhKjKjKiW|okNiL_^`pGUWFtL_ZKG!SIUT$SbhHUxLRw EDKL_ZKGIT_G!UWQsYNT_GL_ZH^`FNFKGekNiL_^`pGQONhKT$SbGf
LOZHGIFqNFKGgNDL_ZKNQOGgQ]NhKT$SbGQ!U\Q^`T_VKULOT$^`T_UiW|[S$ZKNQ]GFL_NBVXGgL_ZKGgjKZH^Q]GT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGrD{NTîiNLOZKGT sYG^QOhKT_GIsYGIFL$Q
UWFL_ZKGoSbUWT$SbhKULw
ZKU\QoSbNFHSbGjPLtND ^qT_GbD{GTOGFHSbGcjXNUWFLtU\QgFKN`LhKFKiWUvGcLOZH^`LtN`DL_ZKG`pTONhKFHJKjXNUWFLUF^0SIUT$SbhHUxLgD{NToLOZHG
VXGIFKGIKLNDkNiL_^pGgT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGw!ULOZM^cSIiGR^`T_i|uJPGbaFKGJjXNUWFLUWFLOZKGSbUWT_SIhKUxLrJPGSIiW^TOGRJuLON[VXGt`pTONhKFHJf YUL
VXGSbNsYGQjXNQ_QOUVKiWGLONoL_^ìWv^VaNhPLkNiL_^`pG`NFHrNT^lL_gQOUWFKpiWG jaNUFL$QUWF[ôSbUWT_SIhKULfVXGIUWFKpohHFHJPGIT$Q]LONNPJBLOZH^`L
LOZHNQOGkNixL$^`pGQ ^ìWd!^z|PQgT_GIi\^lL_UkG[VaGILdnGGIF
jXNUWFL_Q ^TOG[T_GbD{GTOGFHSbGRJeLONe`pT_NhHFHJw nNT_TOGRQ]jXNFHJKUFKpi|f
d ULOZ^mSbiWG^TOiW|JPGIHFKGJyjXNUWFLN`DTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGuD{NTcjKZH^Q]GUL[VXGSbNsYGQcjXNQ_Q]UWVKiWGqLONQOjaGR^`vNDrkNiL_^pGQY^FHJ
SbhHTOT_GIFL_QUF[^FY SIUT$SbhKULZH^zkUWFKpoJPGbaFKUxL_GjKZH^Q]G^`FKpiGRQIw}K^`sYjKiWGlLOZHGSbhKT_T_GIFL}LOZKT_NhHpZYTOGRQ]U\Q]LONT UWQ
l w sYUiWiWUW^sBjaQ ^lL! JPGpT_GIGRQIf od ZKU\S$ZusBGR^`FHQnL_ZKGoSbhKT_T_GIFL!d^zkGID{NT_siW^pQ ` VXGIZKUWFHJLOZKGsc^ÙWFqQ]NhKT_SIG
kNixL$^`pGd^zkGID{NT_suw
b&%
n
H 0n0n

ZKGIFuhHQOGJcL_NBJKGQ_SbT_UVXGr^F ha^`FLOUL|fLOZHGriWGIFHp`LOZN`D^tkGSL_NT!TOGjKT_GQOGIFL_QLOZKG^`sYjKiWULOhHJPGNDLOZHG
d!^zkGd ZKUWiGLOZHG^FKpiWGrN`D^kGRSL_NT!TOGjKTOGRQ]GFL_QLOZKGjKZH^Q]G^`FHpiWGNDLOZHGrd^zkGTOGiW^`LOUWkGLONcQ]NsYGNLOZKGT
{T_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbG d^zkGID{NT_suw
d 3\(!A~ jA~\*
? $
GsBGstVXGITYL_ZH^lLckGRSL_NT$Q^TOGusc^lLOZHGIsc^lL_UWS^ì NVK~GSL$Q~hHQLciWUvGqFhHstVXGIT$QNFy^MFhKstVXGITciWUWFKGLOZKG|SI^F
V Gq^JKJPGRJfnQOhKVPL_T_^SLOGRJfshKiLOUWjKiUWGJf!^FHJ JKUkU\JPGJwJHJPUxL_UNFUWQYjXGIT_ZH^`jaQtL_ZKGqG^Q]UWGQ]LckGSbLONTNjaGT_^`LOUWNF
X
LONukUWQOhHîU IGfQ]NudnG iWiVaGpUWFd ULOZMLOZH^`Lw EDnkGRSL_NT$Qd ULOZmSbNsYsYNFe^`FKpiGRQ^TOGY^JHJPGJfL_ZKGIUWTsc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGQ
{iWGIFHp`LOZaQ ^JKJhHj~haQLiWUWvGTOGphKi\^`T Q_SIîW^T hH^FL_UxL_UGRQI
length = 6
angle = 0 degrees
length = 8
total length = 6 + 8 = 14
angle = 0 degrees
angle = 0 degrees
UWsYUi\^`T_i|fUD kNixL$^`pGQONhHT_SIGQ}d ULOZcL_ZKGQ_^`sYGjKZa^QOG^`FKpiG^`T_GSbNFHFKGSbLOGJcLONpGbL_ZKGITUWFQOGIT_UGRQIfLOZKGUT
kNixL$^`pGQ^JKJt~hHQ]L^Q|NhusBUWpZLGIjXGSbLd UxL_ZVH^lLOLOGTOUWGQ
6V
0 deg
+
-
8V
0 deg
+
14 V
6V
0 deg
14 V
8V
iWG^Q]GFKNLOG L_ZKG E
^`FHJ { jXNi\^`T_UL|tsc^`T_vPQFKGbLL_NgLOZKGiGR^JKQ}NDLOZKG Ld!NoQ]NhKT_SIGQwkGFtL_ZKNhKpZ
d!GovFKNld2JKNGRQ]F LrZH^zkGojaNiW^TOUL|PYUFL_ZKGQ_^`sYGtQOGIFaQ]GgL_ZH^lLrJPNGRQIfaLOZKGRQ]Gsc^`T_vQ^`T_GoGQ_Q]GFLOU\^ìL_N
vFKNld UWFKp[ZKNldL_NT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGoL_ZKGBpUWkGIFjHZH^QOG^FKpiWGQN`D}L_ZKGkNiL_^pGQwZKU\Qrd UiWiVaGRSbNsYGBsYNT_Gt^`jKja^`T_GIFL
UWFL_ZKGgFKGILGIK^`sYjKiWGw
EDkGSL_NT$QnJKUT_GSbLOiW|cNjKjXNQOUFHptG^S$Z[N`L_ZKGIT ] NhPL!NDjKZH^Q]G ^TOG^JHJPGJ[LONpGbL_ZKGITRfL_ZKGIUWTsc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGQ
{iWGIFHp`LOZaQ QOhKVPL_T_^SL~hHQ]LiUWvGgjXNQOUxL_UkGg^`FHJFKGIp^lL_UkGQ_SIîW^T ha^`FLOULOUWGQ QOhKVPL_T_^SL d ZKGIF^JKJPGJ
length = 6 angle = 0 degrees

length = 8 angle = 180 degrees
total length = 6 - 8 = -2 at 0 degrees

or 2 at 180 degrees
UWsYUi\^`T_i|fKUDNjKjXNQOUFKp[kNiL_^`pGgQ]NhKT_SIGQ ^TOGoSINFKFKGRSL_GJuUF0QOGIT_UWGQfPLOZKGUTkNixL$^`pGRQ Q]hHVPLOT$^SbL^Q |Nh

sYUpZLGbPjaGRSL d ULOZ0gVH^`L]L_GIT_UGRQ SbNFHFKGSbLOGJUWFq^FNjKjXNQOUFKpBD^Q]ZKUWNF
KPy0n
I
6V
8V
180 deg
+
0 deg
+
-
6V
2V +
180 deg
8V
2V
GbLOGTOsYUWFKUWFKpYd ZKGbL_ZKGIT NT!FHN`LLOZKGRQ]GgkNiL_^pGQONhHT_SIGQ^`T_GNjKjXNQOUFKpBG^S$ZNLOZKGTTOG hHUT_GQ^`FuGbK^sBUWFH^`

LOUWNFN`DKL_ZKGIUWT}jXNi\^`T_UxL|sc^`T_vUFKpQ ` LOZKGUT}jHZH^QOGn^FKpiWGQwN`LOU\SbG!ZKNldL_ZKG!jaNiW^TOUL|gsc^`T_vUWFKpQUWFtL_ZKG!^VaNlkG
JPU\^`pT_^sQ]GGIsLONcUWFHJPU\SI^lL_Go^JKJKUxL_UkGgkNiL_^pGRQ D{T_NsiWGbDLLONcT_UpZLRfKd!GoQ]GGn^`FHJ0NFuLOZHG kNiLQONhKT$SbGf
r^FHJNFmLOZHG
kNixLtQONhHT_SIG wqkGIFeLOZHNhKpZmLOZKGRQ]G[jXNi\^`T_UL|sc^`T_vUFKpQdnNhKi\JmFKNT_sc^ìWi|0UWFHJPU\SI^`LOG^F
l z GbGSbLUFc^ggSIUT$SbhHUxL L_ZKG Ld!NkNiL_^pGRQd!NT_vUFHpL_NpGILOZKGTLONjKT_NPJPhHSbG^rpTOGR^lLOGTLON`L$^ìPkNiL_^`pG f
UWFqLOZKU\QSbUWT_SIhKULLOZKG| T_Go^SbLOhHîiW|jKhaQ]ZKUWFKpcUWFNjKjXNQOULOGoJPUWTOGRSL_UNFHQ VXGSI^hHQOGgNFKGgNDL_ZKNQOGgkNixL$^`pGQZH^Q
^YjKZH^Q]G^`FKpiGN`D^`FHJuL_ZKGoN`L_ZKGIT^cjKZH^Q]Go^FKpiWGgN`D RwZKGoT_GQOhKiLfHNDSbNhHT_QOGfKU\Q^YL_N`L$^ìkNiL_^`pGN`D
kNixL$QIw
`[ M M
eGoSbNhHiWJZH^zkGn~hHQ]L^Q!d!GIiWiQOZKNld FL_ZKGgNjHjaNQ]UWFKpBkNiL_^pGRQ!QOhKVPL_T_^SL_UFKpYUWFQ]GTOUWGQ!iWUvGLOZKU\QI
8V
0 deg
+
-
0 deg
6V
6V
+
2V
180 deg
2V
8V
+
-
NLOGZKNld,LOZKGujaNiW^TOULOUWGQ^`jKjXG^TtL_NVXGNjKjaNQ]GRJmLONMG^S$ZN`LOZHGITBFKNldgf}JPhKGLON0L_ZKGT_GIkGIT$QOîN`Dd UT_G
bS NFKFKGRSLOUWNFaQNFL_ZKG
kNiLoQ]NhKT_SIGw PUFHSIGYVaNLOZmQ]NhKT_SIGQ^`T_GtiWU\QL_GJm^QrZH^zkUWFKpG hH^ìjKZH^Q]GY^`FHpiWGQ f
LOZHGI|BLOT_hKiW|Y^TOGNjKjXNQOGJBL_NtNFHG^`FHN`LOZHGITRf^`FaJYLOZKGNlkGT_îiKGIXGRSL!UWQLOZKGrQO^sYG^QLOZKGD{NT_sYGITnQ_SbGFH^`T_UWNod UxL_Z
^JKJPULOUWkGRtjXNi\^`T_UxL_UGRQ ^`FHJuJPUXGTOUWFKpcjKZa^QOG^FKpiWGQ}^LON`L$^ìkNiL_^`pGNDNFKiW|
kNiL_Qw
n
H 0n0n

6V
0 deg
+
-
8V
0 deg
+
-
+
2V
180 deg
2V
0 deg
Just as there are two ways to

express the phase of the sources,
there are two ways to express
their resultant sum.
ZKGT_GQOhKiL_^FLnkNiL_^pGS^`FcVXGGbPjKT_GQ_QOGJYUWFcLdnNoJKUxGIT_GIFLnd^z|PQI
kNixL$Q^`L d ULOZcL_ZKG { Q]|sVaNi
NF[LOZKGiGIDL!^`FaJYLOZKG
Q]|sVaNiHNF[LOZKGTOUWpZLfNT
kNixL$Q^`L! d UxL_Z[LOZHG
Q]|sVaNiaNFYLOZKGiGIDL^FHJYLOZHG
Q]|stVXNiXNF[LOZKGrTOUWpZLRwT_GIkGT_Q_^ìHN`Dd UWTOGRQD{T_Ns^`Fu kNixL$^`pGQ]NhKT_SIGU\QL_ZKGQO^sBGr^QnjKZH^Q]GIEQOZKUDLOUWFKp
LOZa^lLQONhKT$SbGrV| Rw
8V
180 deg
+
? ]
(%
These voltage sources

are equivalent!
8V
0 deg
+
-
H*\AX
Ni\^`T_UL|[sc^`T_vUWFKpQ d UxL_ZKUWFSbUWT_SIhKULQOS$ZHGIsc^lL_UWSQIfX^`FHJqZKNldL_ZKGQOGtsc^`T_vUFHpQT_GIi\^lLOGoLON[jKZa^QOGt^`FKpiGRQIfaUWQ
^BjaNLOGFL_UWîiW|SINFPD{haQ]UWFKpcQ]hHVP~GSbLwD{GIdUWiiWhHQ]LOT$^lLOUWNFaQnsc^z|[ZHGIiWjL_N[Sbi\^`T_UxD{|[LOZKGgU\QOQOhKGw
GsBGstVXGITYL_ZKUWQYUWsYjaNT]L$^`FLcTOhHiGjKZH^QOGuUWQ[^ O l sYG^Q]hKT_GIsYGFLRfL_ZKG0^`sYNhHFLcNDrQOZKUxDLîd^z|PQ
VXGIUWFKpYTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGJcL_NYNFKGrjH^`TOLOU\SbhHiW^T!d^zkGID{NT_sUWFq^BSIUT$SbhHUxLRwd^zkGID{NT_sV|[UL_QOGIiDT_GîiW|[JPNGQOF L ZH^zkGr^
jKZH^Q]Gw ELU\Q NFKiW|d ZHGIFqdnGoSINsYjH^TOGULd UxL_ZN`LOZHGIT d^zkGbD{NTOscQnLOZa^lLd!GgSI^`FQ_^`sYGo^`F|LOZHUFKpYsYG^FKUWFKp`D{hKi
^`VXNhKL!ÙL_QnjKZH^Q]Gw FHJd ZKGIFdnGTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIG LONY^gd^zkGbD{NTOsqfdnGsthHQ]L!sc^vGQOhKT_Gd!GvFKNld # $#I N`D
LOZa^lLnd^zkGID{NT_s Q}QONhKT$SbGUWQnQ]GTOkUWFKpt^QLOZKGTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGjXNUWFLRw}Ni\^`T_UxL|osc^TOvPQNF[ kNixL$^`pGQONhHT_SIGQ}GIU\Q]L
QOUsYjKiW|cLONBjKT_NlkUWJPG^tD{T_^sBGNDTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGD{NTjKZH^QOG^`FKpiGRQIfT$^lLOZHGIT!LOZH^FL_NB^SL_hH^ìWi|[JKGIFKNLOGjaNiW^TOUL|cN`D^
T_G^ìkNiL_^pGw
ZKU\QU\Q!^`FHîNpNhaQLONLOZKGjaNiW^TOUL|sc^TOvUWFKpgN`DgykNiLOsYGbL_GITL_GQ]L!iWG^JKQnV|cSINiWNTRT_GJ[^FHJ[VKi\^S$vw F
GIiWGSbLOT_NFKU\SIQnd!NT_vXfT_GJcL|jKU\SIîiW|cT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL_Qn`jXNQOUxL_UkG^`FHJVKiW^S$vYL|jKUWS^ìWi|YT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL$QnFKGIp^lLOUWkGw tNGQ
LOZHUWQsYG^FL_ZH^lLL_ZKGYTOGRJ0L_GQ]LiWG^J0NFe^kNixL_sBGILOGTrd UWiWi
` VXGcSbNFHFKGSbLOGJLONLOZHGcjaNQ]ULOUWkGYQ]U\JPGYN`D!^
kNixL$^`pGtQ]NhKT$SbGt^FHJL_ZKGtVKi\^S$vuL_GQ]LriWG^J
` SbNFKFKGRSLOGRJL_N[LOZHGFKGp^`LOUWkGRDnSINhKT$Q]GtFKN`LRrZHNGkGT
hHQOGQLOZKGokNiLOsYGbL_GITU\Q D{T_GIGoLONSINFKFKGRSLUL^SbT_NQ_Q ^ckNixL$^`pGgQONhKT$SbGgZHNldnGkGITL_ZKGI|ujKiWG^Q]Gw!Za^lLL_ZKGoL_GQ]L
iWG^JSbNiWNT$QtJKNU\QtjKT_NlkUWJKG^ c O OI $ D{NTLOZKGusc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^ìQ]UWpFN`D LOZHGuJPU\QOjKiW^z|GJkNiL_^pG
Po- M
Z
+
P i
Z
b
P"
KP
2o
HphKTOGfKQ]NBL_ZH^lL L_ZKGosYGbL_GIT hHQOGIT vFKNldQd ZH^`L^BFKGIp^lLOUWkGNT jaNQ]ULOUWkGUWFHJPU\SI^lL_UNFqTOGR^ìWi|[sYGR^`FHQUWFqTOGiW^`LOUWNF

LONc^SLOha^ìSIUT$SbhKUL jaNiW^TOUL|
Test lead colors provide a frame of reference

for interpreting the sign (+ or -) of the meters
indication.
V
V
A
A
OFF
OFF
COM
6V
COM
6V
UWvGd UWQOGf
^FHJ jXNi\^`T_UxL|sY^TOvUWFKpQ!D{NT^FqkNiL_^`pGgQ]NhKT_SIGo^`T_GgpUWkGFqQOUWsBjHi|LON[jHTONlkU\JPGg^
D{T$^`sYGtNDTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGgD{NTrUFL_GIT_jKTOGILOUWFKpcL_ZH^lLgQ]NhKT$SbG QQ]L_^`LOGRJjKZH^Q]GB^`FKpiGwFHN`LOZHGITrUiWihaQL_T_^`LOUWNFsc^z|qZKGIiWj
UWFehHFHJPGIT$Q]L_^`FaJPUFHpL_ZKU\QIw PhKjKjXNQOGYLOZH^`LgLdnNqhKFKi\^`VXGIiWGJmgkNiL_^pGYQ]NhKT$SbGQ^TOGcSbNFKFKGRSLOGRJMLONpGbL_ZKGITgUWF
QOGIT_UGRQIf^`FaJ0d!Gd^`FLL_NL_TO|qL_NuJKGbLOGTOsYUWFKGYd ZH^lLrLOZHGtL_N`L_îTOGRQ]hKiL_^FLrkNiL_^`pGoU\QV|T_G^JPUFHp[LOZHGBkNiL_^pG
^SITONQOQG^S$Z0NFKG {UWFHJPUWkUWJKhH^ìWi| d UxL_Ze^kNixL_sBGILOGTfXLOZHGIFeGIULOZKGT^JKJPUWFKpNTrQOhKVPL_T_^SL_UFKpusc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^ìWi|
LONBHFaJuLOZKGg^`FaQ]d!GITRw}UWT$QLRfPdnGgd!NhKi\JsBGR^QOhKT_GL_ZKGgkNixL$^`pGrN`DNFHGQONhHT_SIG
n
H 0n0n

The meter tells us +24 volts

V
A
OFF
COM
Source 1
Source 2
Total voltage?
ZKU\Q!HT$QL sYG^Q]hKT_GIsYGFLN`D l ^SITONQOQLOZKGgiWGbDLOZa^`FHJkNixL$^`pGQONhKT$SbGLOGii\QhHQ!LOZa^lLLOZKGgVHiW^S$vciGR^JN`D

LOZHGBsYGILOGITT_GîiW|qUWQrL_NhHS$ZKUWFKpLOZKGYFKGp^lL_UkGQOUWJKGBNDkNixL$^`pGQONhKT$SbG [f^`FHJ0LOZKGYT_GJiGR^J0NDLOZHGBsYGILOGIT
T_G^ìWiW|[UWQ!L_NhHS$ZHUFKpBL_ZKGgjaNQ]ULOUWkGw}ZhaQIfKd!GvFKNldQONhKT$SbG gUWQ ^BVH^`L]L_GIT_|cD^SIUFKpcUWFLOZKU\Q NT_UWGIFL_^`LOUWNF
24 V
Source 1
Source 2
Total voltage?
GR^QOhKTOUWFKpLOZKGgNLOZKGT hKFKvFKNld FukNixL$^`pGQONhKT$SbG

b
P"
KP
2o
The meter tells us -17 volts

V
A
OFF
Source 1
COM
Source 2
Total voltage?
r M
ZKU\QQOGSINFHJqkNiLOsYGbL_GITT_G^JPUFHpHfHZHNldnGkGITRfPU\Q^ l { kNiL_QfHd ZKU\S$ZqLOGii\QhHQLOZa^lLL_ZKGtVKi\^S$v

LOGRQL}iWG^JtU\Q}^SbLOhHîiW|LONhHS$ZKUWFKpL_ZKG jXNQOUxL_UkG!QOUWJKG!NDakNiL_^`pGnQONhKT$SbG
f`d ZHUiWG!LOZKGT_GJtLOGQ]L}iGR^JUWQ}^SL_hH^ìWi|
LONhHS$ZKUWFKpBLOZKGgFHGIp^`LOUWkGwZhHQfPd!GrvFKNldLOZH^`LQ]NhKT$SbG
U\Q ^BVH^lLOLOGTO|D^SbUWFKpYUWFL_ZKG K E JPUT_GSbLOUWNF

24 V
Source 1

+[ M
17 V
Source 2
+
Total voltage = 7 V
FKiW|c^lDLOGT SbNT_T_GIi\^lLOUWFKpokNiLOsYGbL_GITT_G^JKUFKpQd ULOZLOGRQLiGR^JNT_UGFL$^lL_UNFSI^Fd!GJPGILOGIT_sYUFHGL_ZH^lL!LOZHGQOG
Ld!NkNiL_^pG[QONhKT$SbGRQo^`T_GcNjHjaNQ]UWFKpG^S$ZN`L_ZKGITRfT_GQOhKiLOUWFKp0UWF^qLONL_îkNixL$^`pGcN`D
kNixL$Q ` kNixL$Q
kNixL$Q w
ZKGjXNQOUxL_UkG E
^`FHJFKGIp^lL_UkG { jXNi\^`T_UxL|[sc^TOvUWFKpQ!^Q_Q]NPSIUW^`LOGJd UxL_Z^`FqkNixL$^`pGQONhKT$SbGQ]GTOkG
LOZHGQ_^`sYG!jKhKT_jaNQ]G ^QL_ZKGTOGRJt^FHJtVHiW^S$voSbNiWNT$QN`DX^rgmkNixL_sYGbLOGT QLOGRQL}iWG^JHQIw EDHL_ZKGIT_Gnd^QQOhHS$ZY^L_ZKUFHp
^Qû`jKZa^QOGIsYGbL_GIT$cLOZa^lLoSbNhKiWJeJPUWTOGRSL_i|UWFHJPU\SI^`LOGYjKZH^Q]GY^`FKpiG {ULod!NhKi\J0T_G hKUWTOGYûQ]GRSbNFaJkNiL_^pG
QONhKT$SbGrLON[^SL^Q ^YTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGrUWFuLOUWsYG faUxLrSbNhHiWJujKT_NlkUWJPGrLd!NcJPUxGIT_GIFLUWFHJPU\SI^`LOUWNFHQ NDjHZH^QOGo^`FKpiGd ZKUWiWG
sYG^Q]hKT_UWFKptL_ZKGgd^zkGbD{NTOsNDL_ZKGoQO^sYGQONhKT$SbGfJKGIjXGIFHJPUWFKpcNFuZHNldd!GSINFKFHGSL_GJLOZKGL_GQ]LiGR^JKQ
n
H 0n0n

"phasemeter"
- 0 deg +
black
red
red
180 deg
black
+
"phasemeter"
NafPd ZKGIFq|NhuQOGIGg^FukNixL$^`pGJPGRQ]UWpFH^`LOGRJ^Q!QOhHS$Zmw w w
8V
0 deg
+
ww w}UxL sYG^FHQ!LOZa^lL NhKT Z|jXN`LOZHGbLOU\SIî`jKZH^Q]GsYGbLOGT_d!NhKi\J[T_G^JjKZa^QOGQOZKUDL d UxL_ZuUL_Q FKGIp^lL_UkG
{VHiW^S$v LOGRQLiGR^JBL_NhHS$ZKUWFKptLOZKGriGIDL!d UWT_G^`FHJ[UxL$Q!jaNQ]ULOUWkGRp{T_GJ LOGRQLiWG^JcLONhaS$ZKUFHpgLOZKGrT_UpZLnd UT_GfLOZHG

^FHJ Q]|sVaNiWQ sYGTOGi|[jHTONlkU\JPUFHpY^D{T$^`sYGgN`DT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGrD{NT L_ZKGgjKZH^Q]Go^FKpiWGrHphHTOGw%ELdnNhKi\JîWQON
VXGojaGT]D{GRSL_i|Nvl^z|cLONcT_GIjHTOGRQ]GFLL_ZH^lLkGIT_|QO^sYGoQ]NhKT_SIG QjKZH^Q]GiWUvGLOZKU\Q FKN`L_UWSIGLOZKGtQOd UL_S$ZqUFqjXNi\^`T_UxL|
sc^`T_vUFKpQ
8V
180 deg
+
-
V

?
3P *
!A(j$A%\*
EDakGSbLONT$Qd UxL_ZhHFHSbNsBsYNFB^FKpiWGQ^`T_G!^JKJPGRJflLOZHGIUWT}sY^pFKULOhaJPGQ iGFKp`L_ZHQ

LOZa^lLN`DQOS^ì\^`Tsc^`pFKUxL_hHJPGRQI
^JKJthHj hKULOG JPUXGTOGFLOiW|gLOZH^F
Vector addition
length = 10
angle = 53.13
degrees
length = 8
angle = 90 degrees
length = 6
angle = 0 degrees

6 at 0 degrees
8 at 90 degrees
10 at 53.13 degrees
EDLd!NkNiL_^pGQ
gNhPLN`DjKZa^QOG 0^`T_Gt^JKJKGJL_NpGbLOZHGITrV|VXGIUWFKpqSbNFKFKGSbLOGRJUFeQ]GTOUWGQfXLOZKGUT
kNixL$^`pGBsc^pFKULOhHJKGQtJKNFKN`LJKUT_GSbLOiW|e^JKJmNTtQOhKVPL_T_^SLt^Qgd UxL_ZQ_SI^ì\^`TgkNiL_^pGQUWFgw FHQ]LOGR^JfLOZHGQOG

K

a Y
2 a I
kNixL$^`pG hH^FL_UxL_UGRQ^`T_G SbNsBjHiGI hH^`FL_UxL_UGRQIf^FHJ~hHQ]LiUWvG!L_ZKG^`VXNlkG!kGRSL_NT$QIf`d ZHUWS$Zc^JHJhHjBUWFc^rLOT_UpNFKN

sYGbL_TOU\SD^QOZKUWNFfa^ kNixLQONhKT$SbGg^`L^JKJPGJL_N^`F
kNixLrQ]NhKT_SIGg^lL TOGRQ]hHixL$Q UFRYkNixL$Q^lL^cjHZH^QOG
^`FHpiWGrND wW
6V
0 deg
+
-
8V
90 deg
+
10 V
53.13 deg
nNsYjH^TOGRJuLONuSIUT$SbhHUxLg^`FHî|PQOUWQfaLOZKU\QU\QrkGTO|qQL_T_^FKpGtUFHJKGIGJwN`L_GoLOZa^lLUxL QrjXNQ_Q]UWVKiWGoLONNVPL$^ÙWF
kNixL_sYGbLOGTUWFHJPU\SI^`LOUWNFHQN`D ^FHJ
kNiL_QfT_GQOjaGRSLOUWkGi|f^SbT_NQ_QLOZKGLdnN kNiL_^pGQONhKT$SbGRQIf|GbL!NFKiW|BTOGR^J
BkNiL_QnD{NT^L_N`L_îkNixL$^`pG
ZKGTOGUWQ!FKNYQ]hHUxL$^`VKiWGg^FH^ìWNp|BD{NT!d ZH^lL d!G TOGrQ]GGIUWFKpZHGIT_Gd ULOZLdnNYykNixL$^`pGQQOiWUpZL_i|cNhPLN`D
jKZH^Q]GwgkNiL_^pGRQS^`FYNFHi|tJKUT_GSbLOiW|^Ù\JBNTJPUWT_GSL_i|tNjKjXNQOGf`d ULOZcFHN`LOZHUFKpgUWFYVaGILdnGGIFwULOZ[flLd!N
kNixL$^`pGQS^`FoVXG^Ù\JPUFHpNTNjKjXNQOUWFKpNFKGn^FKN`L_ZKGIT E `H E O$ VaGILdnGGIFgD{hKiWiW|^Ù\JPUWFKp^FHJgD{hHiiW|NjKjaNQ]UWFKpaf
UWFHSbiWhHQOUkGwUxL_ZKNhKLnL_ZKGhHQOGNDkGRSLONT SbNsYjKiWGbcFhKsVaGT FKN`L$^lLOUWNF[LONJKGQ_SbT_UVXG hH^FL_UxL_UGRQIfUL!d!NhKi\J
VXG z JKU [SbhHixLL_NYjaGT]D{NTOssc^`LOZKGsY^`LOU\SIîSIîWSIhKiW^`LOUWNFHQnD{NTSIUT$SbhKUL^`FHî|PQOUWQw
FYLOZHGFKGILnQ]GRSL_UNFfd!G iWiaiWG^TOFcZKNldyL_NtT_GIjKT_GQOGIFLkGRSL_NT hH^FL_UxL_UGRQUWFQO|stVXNiWUWS T$^lL_ZKGITLOZH^F[pT$^`jHZP
U\SI^ìD{NTOsqw }GSL_NTg^`FaJ0L_TOU\^`FKpiGYJPU\^`pT_^sYQrQOh [SbGBLONqUWiiWhHQ]LOT$^lLOGBL_ZKGYpGIFHGIT$^ìSbNFaSbGIjKLfVKhKLosBNTOGBjKT_GSIUWQOG
sYGbL_ZKNPJKQNDQO|stVXNiWUWQOsshHQLVXGohHQOGJuUD^`F|QOGIT_UNhHQ SIîWSIhKiW^`LOUWNFHQ ^TOGL_NcVaGtjaGT]D{NTOsYGJNFuL_ZKGQOG hH^`FK
LOULOUWGQw

# `

b&%
V
?
kNiL_^pGRQSI^FNFKiW|gGIULOZKGTJKUT_GSbLOiW|t^Ù\JoNTJKUT_GSbLOiW|gNjKjXNQOGnGR^S$ZN`LOZHGITd ZKGIFYSbNFKFKGRSLOGRJoUWFBQOGIT_UWGQw
kNixL$^`pGQ!sc^z|^Ù\JNT NjKjXNQOG E lH E __ JPGIjXGIFHJKUFKpcNFL_ZKGgjKZH^Q]GgQOZKUDLVaGILdnGGIFuLOZKGsqw
-
(P#
%!A#BC\oArA%\(
F0NT_JPGT LONdnNTOvd UxL_ZLOZHGQOGSbNsYjKiGIuFhKsVaGT_Qd UxL_ZKNhKLrJPT$^zd UFHpckGSbLONT_QfHd!GgHT$QLFKGIGRJ0Q]NsYGovUFHJ0N`D

Q]L_^`FaJK^`T$JYsc^lLOZHGIsc^lL_UWS^ìHFHN`L_^`LOUWNFw}ZKGTOG^`T_G LdnNtVH^QOUWSD{NT_scQN`DSINsYjKiWGbYFhKstVXGIT!FKN`L$^lL_UNF H
^FHJ
O P `
bo w
Ni\^`TD{NT_s UWQrd ZKGTOGB^SINsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGITU\QrJKGIFKNLOGJV|L_ZKG b-{# { NLOZKGTOd U\Q]GvFKNld F^QLOZHG HI
HMn
f :I bE Z- H fHNT c
b 0 ^`FaJL_ZKG l -W N`DUxL$Q kGRSL_NT#{ haQ]hHîiW|JKGIFKNLOGJV|^Fq^FKpiWGgQ]|sVaNi
LOZa^lL iNNvQiWUWvGLOZKU\QI wNYhHQOGL_ZKGgsc^`jq^`FHîNp|fjXNi\^`T FKNL_^`LOUWNF[D{NTLOZKGgkGSbLONT!D{T_NsGIdNT_vnUxL|
LONtK
^`FmUWGIpNdnNhKiWJMVXGQ]NsYGbLOZHUFKpqiWUvG[ ` sYUiWGQfQONhPL_ZdnGRQLRw
GTOG[^TOGLd!NGbK^`sYjKiWGQND!kGSL_NT$Q
^`FaJ[L_ZKGIUWTjXNi\^`T FKNL_^lL_UNFHQ
n
H 0n0n

8.06 -29.74
(8.06
330.26 )
o
8.49 45o
Note: the proper notation for designating a vectors angle

is this symbol:
5.39 158.2
7.81 230.19
(7.81
-129.81 )
L$^`FHJK^T_JNT_UGFL_^lL_UNFcD{NT kGSbLONT^`FHpiWGQ!UFqSIUT$SbhHUxLSIîWSIhKi\^lLOUWNFaQ!JKGbHFKGRQ ^QVXGIUWFKpBLONLOZKGgT_UWpZL

{ZHNT_UoNFL_î fsc^vUWFKp cQ]LOT$^ÙWpZLohKjf BLON0LOZKGiGIDLf^FHJ [ YQ]LOT$^ÙWpZLJPNld FwiWG^Q]GcFKNLOGLOZH^`L
kGRSL_NT$Q^FKpiWGJ0JPNld FHSI^`FMZH^zkGB^`FKpiGRQT_GIjHTOGRQ]GFL_GJUWFejaNiW^TD{NTOs^QjXNQOULOUWkGBFhHstVXGIT$QUWFMGIKSbGQ_QN`D
KfNTrFKGp^lL_UkGtFhKsVaGT_QriWGQ_QL_ZH^`F HwgKNTGIP^sYjKiGf^[kGSL_NT^`FKpiGRJ
QL_T_ÛpZLJPNld F SI^F
^ì\QONgVaGQ_^Ù\JLONoZa^zkG ^`F[^FKpiWG N`D w}ZKG^`VXNlkGkGRSLONTNFBL_ZKGT_UpZL w
` SI^FYîWQONgVXGJPGIFHN`LOGRJ
^Q w
` zw

[ H
r
The vector "compass"
90o
180o
270o
(-90o)
GRSL_^FKphHiW^TD{NTOsqfNFL_ZKGcN`L_ZKGITgZa^`FHJfUWQd ZHGIT_GY^SINsYjKiWGbFhKsVaGTgUWQgJKGIFKNLOGJeV|0UL_QgT_GQOjXGSL_UkG
ZKNTOU INFL$^ìH^FHJckGITOLOU\SI^ìaSbNsYjXNFKGFL_Qw FGQ_Q]GFHSbGfL_ZKG^FKpiWGJYkGSL_NTU\QL_^`vGIFYL_NtVXGLOZHGZ|jaNLOGIFhHQOGND^
T_UpZLLOT_UW^FKpiWGfXJPGQ_SbT_UVXGJqV|LOZKGiGFKp`L_ZHQNDLOZKGB^Jz~]^SbGIFL^FHJqNjHjaNQ]ULOGtQOU\JPGQw^lL_ZKGITLOZH^FJPGRQOSITOUWVKUWFKp
^[kGSbLONT QiWGIFKpLOZe^`FHJ0JKUT_GSbLOUWNFV|JPGFKN`L_UFKpusc^`pFKUxL_hHJPGY^`FHJ^`FKpiGfXULUWQJPGRQOSITOUWVaGRJ0UWF0L_GIT_sYQN`D!`ZKNld
D^`T iWGbDL zT_UpZL_Y^`FHJu`ZHNldD^`ThHj lJPNld Fw
ZKGRQ]G Ld!NtJPUWsYGIFHQOUWNFHîHHphKT_GQ ZKNT_U INFL$^ìa^FHJYkGT]L_UWS^ì ^`T_GQO|stVXNiWU GJcV|BLdnNtFhHsBGTOU\SIîKHphKT_GQw
FBNT$JPGITLONJPU\QL_UFKphKU\Q]ZtLOZKGZKNTOU INFL$^ì^`FHJtkGT]L_UWS^ìJPUsYGFHQ]UWNFaQD{T_Ns2GR^S$ZN`LOZHGITRfzLOZKGkGT]L_UWS^ìUWQjKT_GbHGRJ
!

K

a Y
2 a I
d ULOZ0^YiWNldnGT]SI^Q]GÙ\ {UWFjKhKT_GgsY^`LOZKGsc^lLOU\SIQ NT~] {UWFGIiWGSbLOT_NFKU\SIQ w!ZKGQOGgiWNldnGT]SI^Q]GriGIL]L_GIT$QJPNcFKNL

T_GIjKT_GQOGIFL^cjKZ|PQOUWS^ìkl^`T_U\^`VKiWG QOhHS$Z0^QUFHQ]L_^FL_^`FHGINhaQSbhKT_T_GIFLfX^ì\Q]N[QO|stVXNiWU GJuV|u^ciWNld!GITOES^QOGiWGbLOLOGIT
Ù\ fVKhPLgT$^lLOZHGIT^`T_Gsc^lL_ZKGIsc^`LOU\SI^ì}NjXGIT$^lLONT_Q_YhHQOGJLONqJPU\QL_UFKphKU\Q]ZLOZKGYkGRSL_NT QkGT]L_UWS^ìSbNsYjXNFKGFL
D{T_NsUxL$QZKNTOU INFL_^ìSbNsYjXNFKGFLwQ^SbNsYjKiWGbL_GSbNsYjKiGIgFhHstVXGITRfL_ZKGZHNT_U NFL_î^`FHJkGITOLOU\SIî hH^`FLOULOUWGQ
^`T_Gd TOUL]L_GIFq^Q ^cQOhKsq
form, a vectors length and direction

"Inare"rectangular"
denoted in terms of its horizontal and vertical span,
the first number representing the horixontal ("real") and

the second number (with the "j" prefix) representing the
vertical ("imaginary") dimensions.
4 + j0
4 + j4
"4 right and 4 up"
"4 right and 0 up/down"
-4 + j4
"4 left and 4 up"
-4 + j0
"4 left and 0 up/down"
4 - j4
"4 right and 4 down"
-4 -j4
"4 left and 4 down"
+ "imaginary"
+j
- "real"
+ "real"
-j
- "imaginary"

ZKGZHNT_U NFL_îSbNsYjaNFKGIFLU\QT_GbD{GTOT_GJrL_N^QLOZHG O

SbNsBjXNFHGIFLflQOUFHSIGL_ZH^lLJPUsYGFHQ]UWNFtUWQSbNsYjH^`LOUWVKiWG
d ULOZFHNT_sYîfrQOS^ì\^`T `T_GîW FhKstVXGIT$QwZHGMkGITOLOU\SI^ìSbNsYjaNFKGIFLqUWQTOGID{GIT_TOGRJLON^QLOZHG I
SbNsYjaNFKGIFLfQ]UWFHSIGYLOZH^`LJPUWsBGFHQOUNFeiWUWGQgUWF^JPUxGIT_GIFLtJPUWT_GSL_UNFfLON`L$^ìWi|M^ìWUGFML_NqLOZKGQOS^ìWGBNDnL_ZKG[T_Gî
MH i-
n
H 0n0n

FhKstVXGIT$Qw
ZKGTOGR^ì\^Ù\QN`DL_ZKG pT$^`jKZYSbNTOT_GQOjXNFHJKQL_NgLOZKGD^sYUiWUW^TFhKstVXGITiUWFKG d!GQO^zd G^`T_iWUGTL_ZKGNFKG d UxL_Z
VXN`LOZjXNQOULOUWkGg^`FHJuFKGp^`LOUWkGgkl^ìWhKGQNFqUxLRwnZKGtUsc^pUWFH^`T_|Pt^lPU\Q N`DLOZHGopT$^`jKZqSbNTOT_GQOjXNFHJKQnL_N[^`FKNLOZKGT
FhKstVXGIT iWUWFKGoQ]ULOha^lLOGRJq^lL L_NYLOZKGoTOGR^ì\tNFKGw }GRSL_NT$QVaGUFKpBLd!N`JPUWsBGFHQOUNFH^ìXLOZHUFKpQIfHdnGsthaQLZH^zkG
^LdnNEJKUsYGIFaQ]UWNFHî`sc^`jHBhKjXNFqd ZKU\S$ZuLONYGbPjKT_GQ_Q!LOZHGIsqfPLOZhHQ LOZKGLd!NYFhHstVXGIT iWUFKGRQ jXGIT_jaGFHJPU\SbhKi\^`TL_N
G^S$ZNLOZKGT
#
&5
(4
%3
'2
"imaginary"
number line
$0
...
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
1
"real" number line
-1
%3
&5
...
-2
-3
-4
-5
ULOZHGITtsYGILOZKNPJNDFKN`L$^lLOUWNFUWQkl^ìWUWJmD{NTSINsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGIT$QIwMZKGjKT_UWsY^TO|eT_G^QONFmD{NTtZH^zkUWFKpLd!N
sYGbL_ZKNPJKQND}FKN`L$^lLOUWNFU\QD{NTGR^QOGgN`DiWNFKpZH^`FaJuS^ì\SbhKi\^lL_UNFfXTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TD{NT_siWGIFHJKUFKpUxL$Q]GixD}L_N^JHJPUxL_UNF
^`FaJQOhKVPL_T_^SLOUWNFfK^`FHJujXNi\^`T!D{NT_siWGIFHJKUFKpYUL_QOGIiDL_NcsthKiLOUWjKiWUWS^lL_UNFq^FHJuJPUkU\Q]UWNFw
nNFkGIT$Q]UWNFVXGbLd!GIGFL_ZKGuLdnNmFKNL_^lL_UNFH^ì!D{NTOscQBUFkNiWkGQBQOUsYjKiWGuLOT_UpNFKNsBGILOT_|wNSbNFkGITOLtD{T_Ns
jXNi\^`TLONmTOGRSL$^`FKphKiW^TfHFaJL_ZKGqTOGR^ì SbNsBjXNFHGIFLBV|shKixL_UjHi|UWFKpL_ZKGqjaNiW^TYsY^pFKULOhaJPGV|mL_ZKGSbNQOUWFKG
N`D}L_ZKGY^`FKpiGfX^FHJqLOZHGUWsc^`pUWFH^TO|uSbNsYjXNFKGFLV|qsthKiLOUWjKiW|UWFKpLOZKGjaNiW^Tsc^pFKULOhHJKGtV|uLOZKGBQ]UWFKGtNDLOZHG
^`FHpiWGw ZKU\Qsc^z|VXGthKFaJPGIT$QL_NNJqsYNTOGgT_G^JPUiW|V|qJPT$^zd UFKpYL_ZKG hH^FL_UxL_UGRQ^QQOUWJPGRQND}^[TOUWpZL LOT_U\^`FKpiGf
LOZHGZ|jaNLOGIFhHQOGNDXL_ZKGL_TOU\^`FHpiWG TOGjKTOGRQ]GFLOUWFKpLOZKGkGRSLONTUL_QOGIiD UxL$QiWGIFHp`LOZ^`FHJc^FKpiWG d UxL_Z[T_GQOjaGRSLL_NoLOZHG
ZKNTOU INFL$^ìHSINFHQ]LOULOhKLOUWFKpgLOZHGjXNi\^`TD{NTOs fL_ZKGZKNTOU INFL_^ìK^FHJckGITOLOU\SI^ìaQ]U\JPGQTOGjKT_GQOGIFLOUWFKpLOZHG`T_GîW^FHJ
ÙWsc^`pUFH^TO|PtTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TSINsYjXNFKGFL$QIfPT_GQOjXGSL_UkGIiW|

K

a Y
2 a I
length = 5
+j3
angle =
36.87o
+4
)5 36.87
(polar form)
(5)(cos 36.87o) = 4
(real component)
(imaginary component)
(5)(sin 36.87 ) = 3
(rectangular form)
4 + j3
NSbNFkGITOLaD{T_NsTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TLON jXNi\^`TRfbHFHJrL_ZKGjXNi\^`Tsc^pFKULOhHJKGLOZKT_NhKpZL_ZKGhHQOG}N`DL_ZKG|L_ZH^`pNT_G^`F
ZKGNT_GIs L_ZKGjaNiW^Tsc^pFKULOhHJKG!U\QLOZKGZ|jaNLOGFhaQ]G!N`Da^T_UpZLLOT_U\^`FKpiGf`^`FHJoLOZKGT_G^ìP^FHJoUWsc^`pUWFH^TO|gSbNsB
jXNFKGFL$Q^TOGoLOZKGB^Jz~]^SbGIFL^`FHJqNjKjaNQ]ULOGBQ]U\JPGRQIfXTOGRQ]jXGSbLOUWkGi| f^`FaJqLOZKGB^`FKpiGtV|uL$^`vUFHpcLOZKGY^`T$SL$^`FKpGIFL
N`DLOZHGgUsc^`pUFa^`T_|[SbNsYjXNFKGFL JKUkU\JPGJuV|cLOZHGgTOGR^ìSbNsYjaNFKGIFL
*4 + j3
+c = ,a
(rectangular form)
(pythagorean theorem)
+ b2
polar magnitude =
*4
+ 32
polar magnitude = 5
polar angle = arctan
*34
polar angle = 36.87o
)5 36.87
b&%
(polar form)
o- FKNL_^lL_UNF[JPGIFHN`LOGRQn^tSbNsYjKiWGbYFhKstVXGIT!UWFcLOGTOscQnN`DUxL$QkGSbLONT QiWGIFKpLOZ^FHJc^`FKphKi\^`TnJKUT_GSbLOUWNF

D{- TONs
LOZKGoQ]L_^T]L_UFHpBjXNUWFLwP^sYjKiGH| sYUWiGRQ {eGQ]LV|dNhKLOZdnGRQL w
/. \lb FKNL_^lL_UNFJPGFKN`L_GQ!^SINsYjKiWGbcFhKstVXGIT!UFLOGTOscQnN`DUL_Q!ZKNTOUINFL$^ìX^`FHJckGITOLOU\SIîXJPUWsYGIFP
Q]UWNFHQw}}K^`sYjKiWG}JPT_UWkG rsYUiWGQ eGQ]LfKLOZKGFL_hKT_Fq^FHJuJPTOUWkGY sYUWiGRQNhKLOZw
n
H 0n0n

FeT_GSbL_^FKphKi\^`TgFHN`L_^`LOUWNFfLOZKG[HT_Q]L hH^`FL_UxL|MUWQL_ZKGTOGR^ì\uSINsYjXNFKGFLZKNT_UINFL$^ìJPUWsYGIFHQOUNFmN`D
kGSbLONT ^`FHJLOZKGgQOGSINFHJ ha^`FLOUL|[U\Q!LOZKGgÙWsc^`pUFH^TO|PoSINsYjXNFKGFL#kGITOLOU\SIîXJKUsYGIFaQ]UWNFuN`DkGSbLONT w
ZKGUsc^`pUFa^`T_|YSINsYjXNFKGFL U\QjKT_GSbGRJPGJV|^BiNld!GITOSI^QOGb~bf YQONsYGbL_UsYGQ S^ìWiGRJ[L_ZKGg~!NjXGIT$^lLONTw
nNLOZYjXNi\^`Tn^FHJBTOGRSL$^`FKphKiW^T}D{NT_scQ}N`DFKNL_^`LOUWNFYD{NTnôSbNsBjHiGIFhKstVXGIT!SI^FcVaGT_GIi\^lL_GJYpT_^jKZKU\SI^ìWiW|
UFLOZKGD{NTOsN`D^BT_UpZL!L_TOU\^`FHpiWGfPd ULOZLOZKGgZ|jaNLOGFhaQ]GT_GIjKT_GQOGIFLOUWFKpLOZKGgkGSbLONTUL_QOGIiD jaNiW^T!D{NT_su
Z|jXN`L_GIFhHQOG iGFKp`L_Z sY^pFKULOhaJPGP^`FHpiWG d UxL_Z[TOGRQ]jXGSbLLONZKNT_U INFL$^ìHQOUWJKG ^`FKpiG fLOZKGZKNT_U NFL_î
Q]U\JPG0T_GIjKT_GQOGIFL_UFKpmL_ZKG0T_GSbL_^`FHphKi\^`TTOGR^ì\mSbNsYjXNFKGFLf^`FaJLOZKGkGITOLOU\SIîQOUWJKG0TOGjKT_GQOGIFLOUWFKpmLOZHG
TOGRSL_^FKphHiW^T!Usc^`pUFa^`T_|SbNsBjXNFHGIFLw
10
V
3
?
20
3P C54UA76 A~\
UWFHSbGMSbNsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGIT$Q[^TOGiWGIpUxL_Usc^lL_G0sc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^ìGFLOULOUWGQf~hHQLuiUWvGMQOS^ì\^`TcFhKstVXGIT$QfnL_ZKGI|SI^F
VXGY^JKJPGRJfQ]hHVPLOT$^SbLOGJfsthKiLOUWjKiWUGRJfJPUWkUWJKGJfQ hH^`T_GJfXUWFkGT]L_GJf^FHJQOhHS$Zf~hHQ]LoiWUvGB^F|qNLOZKGTrvUWFHJMN`D
FhKstVXGITRw NsYGQOSIUGFLOUaSSI^ì\SbhHiW^`LONT$Q^TOGjKT_NpT$^`sYsYGJcLONYJPUT_GSbLOiW|cjaGT]D{NTOsL_ZKGQOGrNjXGIT$^lLOUWNFaQNF[Ld!NNT
sYNT_GcSbNsYjKiWGbMFhHstVXGIT$QIfVKhPLgLOZHGQOGcNjXGIT$^lLOUWNFaQgSI^`Fm^ì\QONuVXG[JPNFKGc`V|0ZH^FHJw ZKUWQtQ]GRSLOUWNFed UWiiQOZKNld
|Nh[ZKNldL_ZKGVH^QOU\SNjXGIT$^lL_UNFHQ!^`T_GjXGITOD{NT_sBGRJw EL UWQ #xz# x T_GSINsYsYGIFHJKGJYL_ZH^lL |Nh[G hKUWju|NhHT_QOGIiDd UxL_Z
^tQ_SbUWGIFL_UxaSSIîWSIhKiW^`LONTnSI^jH^`VHiGN`DjXGITOD{NT_sYUFKp^`T_UxL_ZKsYGbLOU\SD{hKFHSL_UNFHQnG^QOUWi|YNFSbNsYjKiWGbcFhKsVaGT_Qw EL!d UWii
sc^`vGo|NhKTQ]LOhHJK|N`DSbUWT$SbhKULshHS$Z0sYNT_GojKiWG^QO^FLLOZH^FUD|Nh T_GgD{NT$SbGRJqLONuJPNîiSIîWSIhKi\^lLOUWNFaQ LOZHG
iWNFKpGITd!^z|w
JHJPUxL_UNF^FHJoQOhKVPLOT$^SbLOUWNFod ULOZYSbNsYjKiGIgFhHstVXGIT$QUWFtT_GSbL_^`FHphKi\^`TD{NT_sU\QG^Q]|wKNT^JKJPULOUWNFf`QOUWsBjHi|
^JHJghKjgL_ZKGT_GîSbNsYjaNFKGIFL_QN`DPL_ZKGnSINsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGIT$QL_NJPGILOGTOsYUWFKG}LOZHGnT_GîSbNsYjaNFKGIFLNDPLOZKGQ]hHsufl^FHJ
^JHJhHjqLOZKGoUWsc^`pUFH^TO|SbNsYjXNFKGFL_Q NDL_ZKGoSbNsYjKiGIuFhKsVaGT_Q LON[JPGILOGIT_sYUFHGgLOZKGgUWsc^`pUFH^TO|SbNsYjXNFKGFL
N`DLOZHGoQ]hKsq
82 + j5
9+ *4 - j3
:6 + j2
- j34
9+175
80 - j15
255 - j49
j10
820 ++ j82
9+-36
-16 + j92
ZKGFuQOhKVPL_T_^SLOUWFKpYSbNsBjHiGI[FhHstVXGIT$QnUWFuTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TD{NTOsqfKQOUsYjKiW|[Q]hHVPLOT$^SbL!L_ZKGTOGR^ìSbNsYjaNFKGIFLN`D
LOZHG[Q]GRSbNFaJeSINsYjKiWGbeFhHstVXGITD{T_NsL_ZKG[T_GîSbNsYjXNFKGFLNDnL_ZKGcHT$Q]LgLON0^`T_T_UkGB^`LgLOZKGcT_GîSbNsYjXNFKGFL
N`D!LOZHG[JPUxGIT_GIFaSbGf^`FaJMQOhKVPL_T_^SLgLOZHGcUsc^`pUFa^`T_|SbNsBjXNFHGIFLgN`D!LOZKGQOGSINFHJeSbNsYjKiGIFhKstVXGIToD{TONsLOZHG
UWsY^pUWFH^`T_|[SbNsYjaNFKGIFL N`DLOZKGaT_Q]LLON[^`T_T_UkGLOZHGgUsc^`pUFa^`T_|[SbNsYjXNFKGFLN`DL_ZKGoJPUXGTOGFHSbG
82 + j5
*
- 4 - j3
-2 + j8
175 - j34
- 80 - j15
95 - j19
-36 + j10
- 20 + j82
-56 - j72
KNTYiNFKpZH^FHJshKixL_UjHiU\SI^`LOUWNF^`FHJyJPUWkU\QOUNFfjXNi\^`TYUWQL_ZKGuD^zkNT_GJFKN`L$^lLOUWNFLONmd!NT_ved ULOZw ZKGF

sthHixL_UjKiW|UFHpuSINsYjKiWGb0FhKstVXGIT$QUFejaNiW^TD{NTOsqfQOUsYjKiW| L_ZKGBjaNiW^Tsc^`pFKULOhHJPGRQrN`DL_ZKGcSbNsYjKiWGb
FhKstVXGIT$QLON JKGbLOGTOsYUWFKG0L_ZKGjXNi\^`Tusc^`pFKUxL_hHJPGMN`DgLOZHGjKT_NPJPhHSLRf^FHJ
L_ZKGm^`FKpiGRQ[N`DgL_ZKGmSbNsYjKiWGb
FhKstVXGIT$Q!LON[JKGbLOGTOsYUWFKGrLOZKGo^FKpiWGN`DLOZKGgjHTONPJPhHSbL
`[
=<
K 0[0

0 I
(35 65o)(10 -12o) = 350 53o

(124 250o)(11 100o) = 1364 -10o
or
1364 350o
(3 30o)(5 -30o) = 15 0o
UkU\Q]UWNFNDjaNiW^T]D{NT_sSbNsYjKiGIFhHstVXGIT$QU\Q^ì\QON[G^Q]|Q]UWsYjKi|qJPUWkUWJPGtLOZKGjaNiW^Tsc^`pFKULOhHJPGtN`D}LOZHG
HT$QLSINsYjKiWGbqFhKstVXGITV|LOZKGojXNi\^`TsY^pFKULOhaJPGgN`DLOZHGtQ]GRSbNFHJqSbNsYjKiWGbuFhKstVXGIT L_N^`T_T_UkG^`L LOZKGtjaNiW^T
sc^`pFKUxL_hHJPGN`DLOZHG hKNLOUWGIFLfa^`FHJuQ]hHVPLOT$^SbL!L_ZKGg^`FKpiGNDLOZHGoQ]GRSbNFaJSINsYjKiWGbFhKsVaGTD{TONsLOZKGo^FKpiWGrN`D
LOZHGHT_Q]LSbNsBjHiGIFhKstVXGITL_Nc^`T_TOUWkG^lLLOZHGo^`FKpiGN`DLOZHG hHN`LOUWGIFLR
35 65o
10 -12o
124 250o
11 100o
30
)53-30
o
o
>
= 3.5 77o
= 11.273 150o
= 0.6 60o
@
NNVPL$^ÙWFgLOZHGT_GSbUWjKT_NPSI^ìfRNTUFkGITOL_ R fl^SbNsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGITRflQ]UWsYjKiW|JKUkU\JPGL_ZKGFhKsVaGT UFjaNiW^T

D{NT_s
UWFL_N0^0Q_SI^ì\^`TgklîhKGcNDgfd ZKUWS$ZU\QgFKNLOZKUWFKp0sYNTOGYL_ZH^`F^SINsYjKiWGbMFhKsVaGTtd ULOZFKNUsc^`pUFa^`T_|
SbNsYjaNFKGIFL ^FKpiWG
A0
1
1 0o
=
= 0.02857 -65o
35 65o
35 65o
1 0o
1
=
= 0.1 12o
o
o
10 -12
10 -12
1
0.0032 10o
1 0o
0.0032 10o
>
= 312.5 -10o
ZKGRQ]Gt^TOGoLOZKGVH^QOUWSoNjXGIT$^lLOUWNFaQ|Nhd UiWiFKGIGRJqLONvFHNldUWF0NT_JPGTL_N[sc^`FKUWjKhKi\^lL_GSbNsYjKiGIFhHstVXGIT$Q
WU F L_ZKG^`FHî|PQOUWQBNDrSbUWT_SIhKUxL$QIwjXGIT$^lLOUWNFaQd ULOZSINsYjKiWGbFhKsVaGT_QY^`T_GqV|FKNmsYG^`FaQiWUWsBULOGRJM~hHQL
LONu^JKJKUxL_UNFfXQOhKVPL_T_^SL_UNFfashKiLOUWjKiU\SI^`LOUWNFfJPUWkUWQOUNFf^`FHJUWFkGT_QOUNFfHZHNldnGkGITRw UWT]L_hH^ìWiW|q^F|u^TOULOZKsYGILOU\S
NjXGIT$^lL_UNFyLOZH^`LSI^`FVXGJPNFKGd ULOZQ_SI^ì\^`TcFhKsVaGT_QSI^`FVXGJPNFKG0d ULOZSbNsYjKiGI FhKsVaGT_QfUFHSIihaJPUFHp
jXNldnGT_QfnT_NN`L$QIf QONiWkUWFKpQOUshKiL_^`FHGINhaQcG hH^`LOUWNFHQd UxL_ZSbNsYjKiWGbSbNG cSIUGFL_Qf^FHJGIkGIFL_TOUWpNFKNsYGbL_TOU\S
D{hKFHSbLOUWNFHQ ^ìLOZKNhKpZLOZHUWQUWFkNiWkGRQ^d ZKNiGFKGdjXGIT$Q]jXGSbLOUWkG!UFBLOT_UWpNFHNsYGbL_TO|gSIîiWGJ # H I$ P `
d ZKU\S$ZUWQ[dnGiiVXGI|NFHJyL_ZKG0Q_SbNjXG0NDL_ZKUWQJPU\QOSIhHQOQOUWNF w!GQOhKTOGqL_ZH^lL[|Nh T_GqD^`sYUiWU\^`T[d ULOZL_ZKG0VH^Q]U\S
^`T_ULOZKsYGbL_UWSuNjaGT_^`LOUWNFHQBN`D^JKJKUxL_UNFf!QOhKVPL_T_^SL_UNFfshKixL_UjHiU\SI^`LOUWNFf!JPUkU\Q]UWNFf!^FHJUWFkGT_QOUNFf^FHJ|Nh iWi
ZH^zkGiWUxLOLOiWGgLOT_NhHVKiGd ULOZSbUWT_SIhKUxL^FH^ìW|PQ]U\QIw
B
+ \ -
iP F
n
H 0n0n

b&%
No^JKJYSbNsYjKiWGbBFhKstVXGIT$Q}UWFBT_GSbL_^FKphKi\^`TD{NTOsqf^JKJLOZHGTOGR^ìKSINsYjaNFKGIFL$Q^`FHJc^JKJLOZKGUsc^`pUFa^`T_|
SbNsYjXNFKGFL_Qw PhKVPLOT$^SbLOUWNFuUWQQ]UWsYUi\^`TRw
NBsthKiLOUWjKiW|SbNsYjKiGI[FhKstVXGIT$Q!UFujaNiW^T!D{NT_sufshKixL_UjHi|cL_ZKGsc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGQ^FHJ^JKJcL_ZKGg^`FKpiGRQIwN
JPUkU\JPGfKJKUkU\JPGLOZKGgsc^pFKULOhHJKGQ ^`FaJuQOhKVPL_T_^SL NFHG^FKpiWGrD{TONsLOZHGgN`LOZHGITRw
VDC
do3P$A#6
\%CA
GIL QtSINFKFKGRSLoL_ZKT_GIGkNiL_^`pGcQ]NhKT_SIGQgUWFQOGIT_UGRQo^`FaJmhHQ]GSbNsYjKiWGbmFhKstVXGIT$QgL_NJPGILOGIT_sYUFHG^JKJKUxL_UkG
kNixL$^`pGQwiWiL_ZKG[T_hKiGRQo^`FaJMi\^zdQgiWG^TOFKGRJeUFeLOZHGQL_hHJP|eN`DgSIUT$SbhHUxL$Qo^`jKjHi|LONSbUWT_SIhKUL_Qo^QgdnGii
ZHs Q ^zdgf UWT$S$ZKZKN` Q ^zdQflFKGbLd!NT_vo^`FHî|PQOUWQsYGbL_ZKNPJKQ fd ULOZLOZKGGIPSIGIjPL_UNFNDajXNldnGTS^ì\SbhKi\^lL_UNFHQw
ZKGoNFKiW| hH^ìWUaSI^`LOUWNFqUWQLOZH^`L^ìWikl^TOU\^`VKiWGQ V
VXGoGbPjKT_GQ_QOGJuUF0SINsYjKiWGbD{NT_sufHL_^vUWFKpcUWFLON^SISbNhKFL
jKZH^Q]G^Q d!GIiWi^Q sc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGf^`FaJ^ìWikNixL$^`pGRQ^`FaJSbhKT_TOGFL_QsthaQLrVaGoNDLOZKGBQO^sBGD{T_G hKGFHSb| {UWFNT$JPGT
LOZa^lL LOZHGIUWT jKZH^QOGgT_GIi\^lLOUWNFaQ]ZKUWjHQ!T_GIsc^ÙWFuSINFHQ]L_^FL w
822 V -64
E1
-
12 V 35o
+
E2
load
15 V 0o
+
E3
-
ZKGjXNi\^`T_UL|tsc^`T_vPQD{NT!^ìWiKLOZHTOGGkNixL$^`pG QONhKT$SbGRQ^`T_G NT_UWGIFLOGRJYUF[QOhHS$Z[^gd^z|oL_ZH^lLnLOZKGUT!QL$^lLOGRJYkNixLO

^`pGQ!Q]ZHNhKi\J^JKJcL_NYsY^vGLOZKGrL_N`L_îkNixL$^`pGr^SITONQOQLOZKGiWN^JTOGRQ]U\Q]LONTRwN`L_UWSIGrLOZH^`L îxL_ZKNhHpZsc^pFKULOhHJKG
^`FaJ0jKZH^Q]GB^`FKpiGUWQrpUkGIFD{NTGR^S$ZkNiL_^pGtQONhKT$SbGfaFHND{T_G hKGFHSb|qkl^ìWhKGBUWQQOjaGRSbUHGJw EDLOZKU\QrUWQLOZHG
SI^Q]GfUxLgU\Q^Q_Q]hKsYGRJLOZa^lLo^ìWiD{TOG hHGIFHSIUGRQr^TOGBG hHîfL_ZhHQsYGIGbL_UFHpNhKT ha^ìWUxaS^lL_UNFHQD{NTg^`jKjHi|UWFKpug
T_hKiGRQ L_N^`FMSbUWT_SIhKUxL îiHphHTOGRQpUWkGFUFMSbNsYjKiWGbqD{NTOsqf^ìWiN`D}L_ZKGYQO^sBGoD{TOG hHGIFHSI| wZKGBQ]GILOhKjN`D
NhHT G hH^lL_UNFL_NBHFHJLONL_^ìkNiL_^pG^`jKjXG^T_Q^Q Q]hHS$Z
EE
EE
total
= E1 + E2 + E3
total =
(22 V -64o) + (12 V 35o) + (15 V 0o)
rT$^`jKZKU\SIîiW|fL_ZKGgkGRSLONT_Q^JKJuhKjqUFLOZKU\Q sc^`FHFKGITR
GF
K Py0r0n!0 2o
r }
22 -64o
15 0o
12 35o
ZKGYQ]hHs N`DL_ZKGQOGkGSbLONT$Qd UWiWi}VaGY^T_GQOhKiL_^FLrkGRSLONTNTOUWpUWFH^`LOUWFKp^lLrLOZHGYQ]L_^T]L_UFHpjXNUWFLrD{NTrL_ZKG

kNixL!kGRSLONT JPN`L^lLnhHjKjaGT]EiWGbDLN`DJPU\^`pT_^s
^`FHJYL_GIT_sYUFH^`LOUWFKp^`LL_ZKGGFHJPUWFKptjXNUWFLD{NTL_ZKGt kNixLnkGSbLONT
^TOT_NldL_Uj^lLL_ZKGgsYUWJKJKiGIT_UpZLNDL_ZKGoJPU\^`pT_^s
Hresultant vector
22 -64o
15 0o
12 35o
FqNT$JPGIT!L_N[JPGbL_GIT_sBUWFKGgd ZH^`L LOZKGgT_GQOhKiL_^FL kGSL_NT Q!sc^`pFKULOhHJPGo^FHJq^`FKpiGg^TOGd ULOZKNhPLTOGRQ]NT]L_UFHptL_N

pT$^`jHZKUWSUWsc^`pGQf`dnGSI^`FcSINFkGT]LGR^S$ZYNFKG NDLOZKGRQ]GjXNi\^`TOD{NT_sSbNsBjHiGIBFhKsVaGT_Q}UWFLONoT_GSbL_^FKphKi\^`TD{NTOs
^`FaJ^JHJwo GIsYGstVXGITRfdnG T_G
l LOZHGQOGtHphKT_GQLONpGbL_ZKGITrVXGSI^hHQOGtL_ZKGjXNi\^`T_UL|usc^TOvPQD{NTrLOZKGLOZHTOGG
kNixL$^`pGrQONhKT$SbGRQ^`T_GrNTOUWGIFL_GJ[UWF^`F^JHJPUxL_UkGsY^FKFKGT
[`
n
H 0n0n

15 V 0o = 15 + j0 V
12 V 35o = 9.8298 + j6.8829 V
822 V -64
15
= 9.6442 - j19.7735 V
+ j0
9.8298 + j6.8829 V
>34.4740 - j12.8906 V
+ 9.6442 - j19.7735 V
I
FjXNi\^`T D{NTOsqfKL_ZKU\QG hH^`LOGRQLON w kNiL_Q

Kw H IwZH^`LLOZHUWQsYG^`FaQ UFT_GîLOGTOscQUWQLOZH^`L
LOZHGkNixL$^`pG sBGR^QOhKT_GJY^SITONQOQL_ZKGQOG L_ZKTOGGkNixL$^`pGQ]NhKT_SIGQ}d UWiWiaVXG w kNiL_Qfi\^`ppUWFKpLOZKG kNiL
jKZH^Q]GTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIG V| Hw K wkNixL_sYGbLOGTnSINFKFKGRSL_GJ[^SbT_NQ_QLOZKGRQ]GjaNUFL$QUWF^gT_GîaSbUWT$SbhKULnd!NhKi\JYNFHi|
UWFHJPU\SI^lL_GYLOZKGjaNiW^TgsY^pFKULOhaJPG[N`D!LOZHG[kNixL$^`pG w
kNiL_Q fFKN`LtLOZKG^FKpiWGwFNQ_SbUWiWiNQOSINjXGBSINhKi\J
VXGBhaQ]GRJ0L_NqJKUWQOjKi\^z|qLdnNukNixL$^`pGd!^zkGbD{NTOscQr^`FHJLOZhHQjKT_NlkUWJKGûjKZH^Q]GYQ]ZHUxDLosYG^Q]hHTOGsBGFLfVKhPLoFHN`Lg^
kNixL_sYGbLOGTwoZHGBQ_^`sYGtjHTOUWFHSbUWjKiWGZHNi\JKQLOT_hKGtD{NTg^`sYsYGbL_GIT$QI L_ZKGI|UWFHJPU\SI^`LOGLOZKGYjXNi\^`Trsc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGBN`D
LOZHGoSbhKT_TOGFLfPFKNL!L_ZKGgjKZH^Q]Gg^FKpiWGw
`
ZKU\Q!UWQGIL_TOGsYGIiW|cUsYjXNTOL_^`FL UWFT_GIi\^lL_UFKpYSIîWSIhKi\^lLOGRJcHphKT_GQ!N`DkNiL_^pGr^`FHJuSbhKT_T_GIFLnL_NT_GîSbUWT_SIhKUxL$QIw
iLOZHNhKpZuT_GSbL_^FKphKi\^`TFKNL_^`LOUWNFqUWQSbNFkGIFKUWGIFLD{NT^JKJPULOUWNF^`FaJuQOhKVPL_T_^SL_UNFfK^`FHJud^QUWFHJPGGJuLOZHGHFH^ì
Q]LOGIjUF0NhKTQ_^`sYjKiWGojKT_NVHiGsZKGTOGfaULU\QFKN`LkGIT_|u^jKjKiWUWS^`VKiWGgL_NjKT$^SbLOU\SI^ìsBGR^QOhKT_GIsYGIFL_Qw GRSL_^FKphHiW^T
HphKTOGRQsthHQ]LVXGtSbNFkGITOLOGRJcL_N[jaNiW^THphHTOGRQ QOjaGRSbUaSIîiW|jXNi\^`T
IH n VXGbD{NTOGL_ZKGI|qSI^FuVXGoT_GIi\^lL_GJ
LONc^SLOha^ìSIUT$SbhKUL sYG^QOhKT_GIsYGIFL$QIw
M +
KJ
eGSI^FhHQOG P O!LON[kGIT_UxD{|LOZHG^SSbhKT$^SI|NDNhKTTOGRQ]hKiL_Qw FL_ZKU\QL_GQ]LrSbUWT$SbhKULfaLOZKGcv T_GQOUWQ]LONT

kl^ìWhKGtU\Q hHUxL_G^`T_VKULOT$^`T_|w EL QLOZHGIT_GQONcLOZH^`L P O!JPNGRQFKNLrJPGRSbi\^`T_Gt^`F0NjaGFPSbUWT_SIhKUxLrGIT_TONT^`FaJ0^`VXNTOL
^`Fa^ìW|QOU\QIwiWQONHfRL_ZKGnS$ZKNUWSIGN`DPD{T_G hKGFHSbUWGQD{NTLOZKG!Q]UWsthHiW^`LOUWNF
U\Q hHUxL_Gn^`T_VKULOT$^`T_|fRVaGRSI^hHQ]GTOGRQ]U\QL_NT$Q
T_GQOjaNFHJhKFHUxD{NTOsYiW|D{NT^ìWirD{TOG hHGIFHSIUGRQNDkNiL_^`pGM^FHJSIhKTOT_GIFLRwZKGIT_GM^TOGeN`L_ZKGITSINsYjaNFKGIFL$Q
{FHN`L_^VKiW|SI^jH^SIUxL_NT$Q^`FHJBUWFHJPhHSbLONT$Q d ZKUWS$ZcJPNFKNLTOGRQ]jXNFaJhHFKUxD{NTOsYiW|oL_NoJPUxGIT_GIFL}D{T_G hKGFHSbUWGQf`VKhPLLOZH^`L
U\Q ^`FKNLOZKGTQ]hKVK~GSLR
GF
K Py0r0n!0 2o
r }
822 V -64
LV
MR
LV
12 V 35o
10 k
LV
15 V 0o
NPO/QKRSUTNWVKXYN[Z[Z!\]T^\_R_`
Qbaca/dcNPOea]fcdhg\i`
QKjcjkalNPOea]jcmnfg\o`
QKmcmpjcNPOYjnjpq[rWshg\o`
tbalmpdua]dWv
w NPt!OY\o`SPTc\i`xNPO/alQrndcDm#rnddQ Dm7d NP{y g z}|N~^ZgX[\o`nnVNU~NSUTY[QtKNXWWS_~P~PXXU`Ô]R[crnd
wXU`Z
w
[tKXW
r w d[dndWd!a
QDmP
Q Dm
m w r[âid!aq[j w dnfndWndâ
7 A

!L HT$QLpiW^FHSbGfPLOZHUWQ U\QSINhKFLOGT]EUWFL_hKULOUWkGw
NldUWQ ULjXNQ_Q]UWVKiWGrLON[NVPL_ÛFq^BLONL_^ìkNiL_^pGN`DX~hHQ]LNlkGT
hKT_GrGIFKNhKpZfPd!GpGIL ^tLONL_îkNiL_^pGrN`D w KkNixL$Q

Hw d UxL_ZqTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGL_NL_ZKGY kNixL QONhKT$SbGf
d ZKNQ]GjKZH^Q]Gg^FKpiWGd!^Q!^TOVHUxL_T_^TOUWi|[Q]L_^`LOGRJu^`L IGIT_NcJPGIpTOGGQQONY^Q!LONYVXGLOZKGoTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGd!^zkGbD{NT_s w
kNixLtQOhKjKjKiWUWGQoSINFKFKGRSL_GJeUFQOGIT_UWGQ$UxL_ZgfLOZKU\Qod!NhHiWJeVXG
kNiL_Qgd ULOZ kNiLfn kNixLRf^FHJ
UWsBjXNQ_QOUVKiWGf^QkNixL$^`pGaphKT_GQd UiWiGUxL_ZKGITrJPUWTOGRSLOiW|^JKJqNTQOhKVPL_T_^SLfJPGjaGFHJPUWFKpNFjaNiW^TOUL|w!hPLrd UxL_Z
fNhKTt`jXNi\^`T_UL| jHZH^QOG[Q]ZHUxDL gSI^Fekl^TO|^F|d ZHGIT_GBUWFmVaGILdnGGIFeD{hKiWix^Ù\JPUWFKp0^`FaJD{hHiiNjKjXNQOUFKpaf^FHJ
LOZHUWQîiWNldQnD{NTQOhHS$ZujH^`T$^JPNzPU\SIîXQOhKsYsYUFKpaw
ZH^`L!UDd!GrLONNvYL_ZKGgQO^sBGSbUWT$SbhKUL^FHJ[T_GIkGIT$Q]GRJcNFHGNDLOZHGQOhKjKjHi| Q!SINFKFHGSL_UNFHQ$ EL_Q SbNFLOT_UVKhKLOUWNF

LONBL_ZKGLONL_^ìkNiL_^pGrdnNhKi\J[L_ZKGIFqVXGLOZKGgNjKjaNQ]ULOGNDd ZH^`L UxLd^QVXGbD{NTOG
7P e
22 V -64o
E1
-
Polarity reversed on
source E2 !
12 V 35o
load
E2
+
+
15 V 0o
E3
-
NLOGZKNldLOZKGc kNiLQ]hKjHjKi| Q jKZH^Q]Gg^FKpiWGUWQ Q]LOUWiiTOGID{GIT_TOGRJcLON[^Q zfKGIkGIFLOZKNhKpZLOZHGgiGR^JKQZH^zkG

VXGIGIFcT_GIkGIT$Q]GRJw GsYGIstVXGITLOZH^`L}LOZKGjKZH^QOG^`FHpiWG!ND^`F|okNixL$^`pGJKTONjBU\QQ]L_^`LOGJBUWFcTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIG!LONoUL_Q}FHN`LOGRJ
jXNi\^`T_UxL|w[kGFL_ZKNhHpZeLOZKG^`FKpiGYU\QoQL_UiWid T_UxLOLOGFm^Q zfL_ZKGckGRSL_NTgd UWiiVXGJPT$^zd Fy oNjKjXNQOUxL_GcN`D
d ZH^`LUxLd^Q!VXGbD{NT_G
22 -64o
12 35o (reversed) = 12 215o

or
-12 35o
15 0o
ZKG T_GQOhKiL_^`FL Q]hKs kGSbLONTQ]ZKNhKi\JYVaGpUWFY^`LLOZHGhKjKjXGITOiWGbDLnjaNUFL

LOGTOsYUWFH^lL_Gg^lL LOZHGgTOUWpZL^`T_TONldL_UjqNDL_ZKGc kNixL kGSL_NTR
NT_UpUFYN`DL_ZKG
kNiLkGRSLONT ^FHJ
KGFy02!P7horP}
22 -64o
resultant vector
12 35o (reversed) = 12 215o

or
-12 35
15 0o
ZKGoSINFKFKGRSL_UNFuT_GIkGIT$QOîNFuLOZKGc kNixLQOhKjKjKiW|uS^`FqVXGgTOGjKTOGRQ]GFLOGJUWFqLdnNcJPUXGTOGFLd!^z|PQ!UWFjaNiW^T

D{NT_sqV|[^F^JKJPULOUWNFND LONBUxL$QkGSbLONT!^FKpiWG sc^`vUFHptUL kNiL_Q
fPNT!^T_GIkGT_Q_^ìaN`DQ]UWpF[NF
LOZHGcsY^pFKULOhaJPG sc^`vUWFKpULg$ kNiL_Q
bwcULOZKGTrd^z|fSbNFkGIT$Q]UWNFL_NqTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TD{NTOs|UWGIi\JKQrLOZHG
Q_^`sYGTOGRQ]hKiL

12 V 35o (reversed) = 12 V 215o = -9.8298 - j6.8829 V

or
-12 V 35o = -9.8298 - j6.8829 V
ZKGT_GQOhKixL_UFHpY^JKJPULOUWNFqN`DkNixL$^`pGRQ!UFqT_GSL$^`FKphKi\^`TnD{NT_sufKLOZKGF
15
9+
9+ j0
-9.8298 - j6.8829 V
9.6442 - j19.7735 V
- j26.6564 V
F0jX14.8143
Ni\^`TD{NT_sufaLOZHUWQrG hH^`LOGRQ LON1Hw `
LOZHGgTOGRQ]hKiL_QNDNhKT SIîWSIhKiW^`LOUWNFHQ
Hw
wFHSIG^p^ÙWFfXdnGtd UiWihHQ]G O!LONkGIT_UxD{|
NPO/QKRSUTNWVKXYN[Z[Z!\]T^\_R_`
Qbaca/dcNPOea]fcdhg\i`
QKjua/jcNPOea]jcmnfg\o` KRWTKXYT[PXtKXWQXWt!gUNS/R[`KR[ZX`n~U|PKXWt!gljpNU`KZua
QKmcmpjcNPOYjnjpq[rWshg\o` TKRhgn\ |P~S[NUTKXT[PXg]PN n \o`VR[O_RU`n`PXPO]T^\_RU`^g
tbalmpdua]dWv
w NPt!OY\o`SPTc\i`xNPO/alQrndcDm#rnddQ Dm7d
wXU`Z
[ tKXW
r w d[dndWd!a
7P e
QDmP
Q Dm
m w d[fndWd!aq[r w dnWsnndâ
b
iWiLOZKGi\^zdQ!^FHJTOhKiWGQ!NDgSIUT$SbhKUL_Q^jKjKiW|cLONcSIUT$SbhHUxL$QIfPd ULOZLOZKGgGIKSbGIjKLOUWNFNDjXNldnGT SI^ì\SbhK

iW^`LOUWNFHQfPQ]NYiWNFKpY^Q îikl^ìWhKGRQ!^TOGGIjHTOGRQOQOGJ^`FHJsc^`FKUWjKhKi\^lL_GJUFqSbNsBjHiGI[D{NT_sqfK^`FHJu^ìWikNixL$^`pGRQ
^`FHJuSbhKT_T_GIFL_Q^`T_Gg^lL L_ZKGoQO^sYGD{T_G hKGFHSb|w
ZKGIFcT_GIkGIT$Q]UWFKprLOZKGrJPUWTOGRSLOUWNFYNDôkGSbLONT G hHUkl^ìWGIFLL_NoT_GIkGT_QOUWFKpL_ZKGjXNi\^`T_UL|tN`D^F[kNiL_^pG
Q]NhKT_SIG UFTOGiW^`LOUWNFYL_NtN`L_ZKGIT!kNixL$^`pGQ]NhKT_SIGQ fUxLSI^F[VaGGbPjKT_GQ_Q]GRJYUFGIULOZKGTnNDLdnNJPUxGIT_GIFLd!^z|PQ
^JKJPUWFKpq LONBLOZHGo^`FKpiGfPNT T_GIkGT_QOUWFKpoL_ZKGoQ]UWpFuN`DLOZHGgsY^pFKULOhaJPGw
GbL_GITsYG^Q]hHTOGsBGFL_Q}UWF[^`F[ SbUWT$SbhKULnSbNTOT_GQOjXNFHJtLONgL_ZKG H@_BH}P
N`DSIîWSIhKiW^`LOGRJklîhKGRQIw
GSbL_^`FHphKi\^`TGbPjKT_GQ_Q]UWNFaQNDaSbNsBjHiGI hH^`FLOULOUWGQUWFB^FBSbUWT_SIhKUxL}ZH^zkGFKNgJPUWT_GSLRf`GIsYjKUWT_UWS^ìG hKUWk
^ìWGIFLf^ìLOZKNhKpZmL_ZKGI|^TOG[SINFkGFKUGFLoD{NTojXGITOD{NT_sYUFHp^JKJKUxL_UNF^`FHJQOhKVPL_T_^SL_UNFf^Q
UWT_S$ZHZKN` Q
}NiL_^`pGr^FHJ0nhKT_TOGFL ^zdQnT_G hKUWT_Gw
5h

i
#Bb7AB#D7
R
biAPUP PB[UPUWD_WUAUiK D K WPKU{AUKD UP

Io UnUP n W PKW K
e=
i=
+
Time
-
ii_PKi UIPUP i
i DK
P@h_io
WP_ U7!BK_I P
]U W WKWU_W UYUB[APo UI KU
lYKPW1K]UBU UP
PB[IKUKWl BUln @U[!U[lIUWKKKUBU[D_IUP1PUUP
WP_ K[@UKoU#BKiWUPUWD_W2 iUDUKi U[UPUPP_In _PA@_Ki_
]UU ii1 U
n @@ !o_KKKA@_Ko_P_ D o! "Ki
PP_[D_KiUP]UPU PB[ iB# WK2PD_[UKBWPWUUUUB[Ko U_ Bi$
%b& Ui !@KUiWPBKI KB[KUPU1Ko U _[U!i 'P
UWD_WU WPAiW2_ _[U!i '^_W( U[1UUiW[UWK
)*
.70/21Kl3/.P .0/"4h657/84 .0/:94<;=.?>@/
+-,
P]WiBAP1 C%{]pKU KK WKPUWD_KiUP@_Ko_7UUUU _P1 PB[

i_ _ BUBK_K!@i2KP_iEDnK iW _ K_2PWI@UKo2U K_
UD_P(
e=
i=
p=
+
Time
GUP_P!@i KiUiPBW_U@UK0KBK Ki[!WW D@WK2K]H[P

UWD_W U!WWUiKK @B 'Io7Ub[U@UK8UnUiB@KiP KB[
KB[@W Di@cKAKo! PUWD_U2 _ KiW_UPD1oPD!WW ]UP U!@i
KB[@W nK D!BIAPKiJ DnPBW_UnK DiK[P_ [U nKD!B
HMLK IBUP B[
_!U _N U@BB P@KAi U U] P@K @B KD- nP2U KIWKB
_ioUP PAW _Pi@ BPBU "K KB2KIBKiW2!WWAUKB[@W iW
{KP_iiKBU
HO QP RSAB#D7
P
WK_7DiP]UK_U#i UD TKBiW#o UD#KAWK[KC
P@_ io
U
PWKUKi DnIWKKK WUUUi KU!UUPUU2KBKB[
H _PP WUP[ UK
IBKB[KUKWPB DnUKPK2WUUUi
PWWWP_WK _ 6V UK #_BKB[
UBBUDK_ X WT!ZY$[ W \ UK 7P oAWUUU#U]{U!PD2!U _W{22_WD_
PB[@Koi[@UK 7LP_ K Ki[ P iWK1UUKPK KPPBi1UWD_U
_PPUW_P PBi
W]

P@_ ^K#BKiW o iWK# nK!U _ bBUi_P UKP1$
PBi
WJ
P@ UP[1PiBoU LPWK!WWl BKiWDPUKU B_i ` B !
D@PB_1o D_PB
àKii_Ki_ BU UKB @WPK
D! BBKUWD_WKWKoU WKPKP
UUP
D@ U PB[DP_PU2KUPUKPP UWPDb
ce = eL dddi
dt
LK KoU f @ WKUBUBK !i_PKKI_UDP_PU_PUWD_KiUP KB[
@UiK _P!BiBUP(0LP2P
UP %iK_P K P_[D_KiUPUWD_W ]H
_^ WKU 7UUTL K@ P_P_K!B7UBP@P BKiW@Bi __[i2IPPP U
D K
1 gK/."4X;h.Cij.k.l;Pam
+Bn
eL
ABPUPIBKB[UPWU_W UK UBKI BK! WK nU KK

WK
e=
i=
Time
-
oiIi
D!B ^KWU_WUPo UB[2_ P
U iW
U _WU2K UK KB[
PWKU7LPB UnKP_[D_KiUPWU_W iBKBKiUiKPUWD_KiUP Ki[ _
!i- Bi1DP_KW !U2iUi7U! Û K KB[2P]U]H _PKIPD_[UKBWPUUUU @
!i- KiiUiPP_[D_KiUP KB[ _-nAP D_KW K2W[_BB!iU!WP
PB[]W [KB WoK BiIK]H pLK oPDAWU_W]UP_ C * ,rq W_PPU
K PB[]U @%{n nPI_K UD_K( WP2WUUU]U2iBIP]U2 UKiW U AWP
PB[]W ^[PUUUUk _iWKs AP Ki[ K_K KB[3 _ _W D!BPP1KUWD_W
tcurrent slope = 0
voltage = 0
tcurrent slope = max. (+)

voltage = max. (+)
e=
i=
Time
-
tcurrent slope =
uvoltage = 0
tcurrent slope = max. (-)

uvoltage = max. (-)
LKKWW BWB1U2[ioKKi
K_K@BWK D K
.70/21Kl3/.P .0/"4h657/84 .0/:94<;=.?>@/
+`
e=
i=
p=
Time
ii_PPUWD_KiUP!@B KPP _KPUWD_KiUPWUUU _P PPU[_PBU

PB[ 'I]H[P!@iKW_ BiAKBKiUiPP_[D_KiUP Ki[l WU_W iB#@KBZv
BWBK P_[D_KiUP PB[_P UUUU2_"D!_ !WW -D!@UK K]HK @B !WU
K2o U!K_KWP!@i _ !WU2KBK2PU[_PBUBKB[UPWUUU
__ D!_PBW_U Di@PAK]H@BWBBD!iBUP KI Ki[_PWU_W ]Wi_* , q U_
KPW [Ki _oPB1UK2!WWPK _KB PBW_UWiKK1K[P_K[Ki[
BBKB iU= [@ D ' nS \
P_ni_
[@ @Bo_$ wi_P_KP
W ioUK!@iC DPU P
D K K I!WW @Bi_P_ - DPU DKKA!@iWxKBD K PB2K !WW
_KB[@W@B i_ KW_!UUKPK_KD@W@Ui# [K2PP UBiUiy xP
UAD@B= DPW AAK2BD PU- DPU DP@UBK P_UABUK 2BnB 0P@K i_
1IKDU B_ BP2P@PoU
D_PBU_1PP UKP_iIKBiKBUUiB# ZK[K KK W
PiUP U{iW WKDKP_iBPBUAKW_bPi@ azUW( UK #W!Bi
PP UDUP KDP]WP o D_PB
1PP Uo UK!WW DP_PU2 PB[D_P_o_1UK!WU _iP_K KB[
UiKBD_{ PPD l DnK! |PKU _]D_KWK PUWD_KiUP_UPPUP Ki U( lLK
UP[U1UBP@P Ki[ Ui D_PB BDKK }!iiW@_]iK
KPWK DBiB Ki[UP UUUU b_P AKP_i iB !@B ii_PI_K }!iiP o
APUK~ }^BB[APU [ <oiU UP h ! Kii WK #xP& UiUP
! KBBP@2D_Ki_ BU[ DW{ 3 kPoUU8 o_$L
D!o |- !oU _ UnB_ U
PP U PPU [ DWBoX DnKBUK_ i3 h i % UB DP & U2K a"0
P P
WAW UUUUKWWW K __ PB[ADPUKU bPB U U
UWD_WU WBs vD_KWKBKB[D [_PiWU_WU@i v DPUKUKBKiWD @P_Pi_
P_oU
D_PBUKW_nPP U# #o
KWWWP_W K K[KB UPP_BP_K
PB[
XL = 2fL
B?J$BZ=
NB#?jsBrZ'
BN#?BH- g
NNrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrNN
8rNN
NrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrN
8rNN
?N
N
N8 rN
1Z gB.6"4X;h.Cihj.@6k.l;TPam
+
BKiW# KP
UBD P #K[PUn KUWD_UkUWDnKiDnPPKP
W
iU UP ] WK!NxPU W_keBKiW 1KIiUI BK K[P_ PIWUUU
UWD no]D[KiUP UPH
eL
10 V
10 mH
60 Hz
(inductive reactance of 10 mH inductor at 60 Hz)

XL = 3.7699
I=
I =
E
X
10 V
3.7699
I = 2.6526 A
@BWB _KiiUiBP_WU_W_ Ki[_KUKPWKB7WK@

iUB7K1UWD_U PUI KPUK_kl* ,q io
I K KB[1iKoi[APi
KPWI_KWoUUWD_U_P Ki[@PB@i_PAWU UK!nK Di! |PPP_
_1PP U UK!WW KB[PUIKPWUKUn[$
Voltage
Current
Opposition =
10 V 90o
2.6526 A 0
Opposition =
Opposition = 3.7699 90o
or
0 + j3.7699
+)
.0"0/721B3/7.#" .0/:"4657/843" .0/:9 64<;=.@?>@/

For an inductor:
90o
90o
0o
Opposition
(XL)
z_Ki_ BU o]P_bKKPWUKU_KUPKP

U {UK!WW2BKB[{ b* ,q ]iUKK
@#_PP W UK!WW PB[{ 7!WW_UPUkK[P_[@LK PPUUKUUKoU
W
UP[U BKiW Do WIo i_ I!UU[I/BD K_PU#io _ WBUK!
D KKBiW
D_PB_PAo _ [BDU T[K@UpD!BP!|BUWBKiB[C# U!UKi[
UP[U Ki[2B2U WK [P D!BDD@KB2P_ i_ _k KW_[i2_o D_PBUP
iU UP
X"<!"
'- ! ! KAWK!WWP_2_P
W}!i UBP@P KB[KA
KPU!v KiWUUUPBiUUBKiW 2_UP k|Pi(looU _ A 2nD!U&BiDn
Ki_KU Bi3-lI UP1oUKo UK@xPW2i D_PBoH
PP U oU _ B_!D BUBK_o PKIK UAP#@ I^ %
PBoUK1[K KiP X _KBUDK PKUKiK v
PP UiU UP s? !2
WK PBPBn PIW UK!WiK
@c_7Bi UP
D B #7 {AT!RS #
KKBnWPi U( I!KUiP_2UP_K!B KiWvUP1_P PKP

Usv}WK
l BKD 0G@K~ K WWKB[#UW KB#iiWk_PI[WiW_K!}î
D

L- UPBD PW_1! K_K2Ws (
10 V
60 Hz
R
5
eL
10 mH
LKo U}!i + _bi D_PBIY KB[BWUKo#UbK[KB [KPPP U

7-}^B ** UiU UP 1h Ki[2@k , 3 oB_Ko U iUP iU
nK D!B + ,rq U + x , H_lKPP U iW
D_PB1 _UUP_nKD!B **
* ,q U , x -** !K BU DKPi ! }î _K U!UKi[8 D! _WK[U
PB[ K[P_ KBUK! P_KA nK Di LK BU DKPiWK!WWa D!I Ui W
1Z1ZmZ/836/7m<3/7mNmCih6"4X;h.Cih.@6_.l;TPam
++
W DKP_UUo _ UPiW
UP k UDi1!KiK 2UK!WW PBBP AKii
UA WKiKBU B WUP[U KB[_BPB2o D_PBUiW
D_PB_UK3LK
i BUi - !n DW X@#_ _ !KiilKKK_WK yxW
iUP _P1iW
UP T 1K-D!@U2!K_KKK _Ub BKoK_
Ztotal = (5 resistance) + (3.7699 inductive reactance)
Ztotal = 5 (R) + 3.7699 (XL)
total
= (5 0o) + (3.7699 900)

or
(5 + j0 ) + (0 + j3.7699 )
= 5 + j3.7699
6.262 37.016o
oK_ B @o UWD_WUP PB[CxPUUU U[A!!i _PKBAI _

iUP 2AK 3%{]_
total
or
Ohms Law for AC circuits:
E = IZ
I=
E
Z
Z=
All quantities expressed in

complex, not scalar, form
Y U K U U WIPiKBPUU _AK X%{] _P_ UD_KWW _

B i UK B `hI"6oHxPU!iKUP UUA WKiKBU nPoW_UP[UP
P@p_io
WPPU iUP 2 7"$o _ _P1_niW
UP iP_D@BIW WDKP_U
BiH]PUUBHnBU]D!_ KUP<DBPoiWi1UKW oK_PBU1c BK
Li_ K @ KB[ P -D!@U BK|PDPBi UU1KPWUKUBBBPBWP
UWD_W UPB KK DUBPBD_ WKi DBB#"LKPPU_KWo_7iUUP1PKP
W
I!iP_PB_ - \ ? ,rq _P l* ,rq Kio
Ui KBWUKo_PUUB1KPWUKUiWUWD_WW
PB[ !
I=
I =
E
Z
10 V 0o
6.262 37.016o
I =1.597
YKAKK-37.016
B/PP U BD PK BKiW]U _[D!BKPP UWD_W1]U _P
UKD ?HK_PUKWP KUKUUWo@UP N ,Bn q WUK!Wi Kb* ,q UUP
o
.0"0/721B3/7.#" .0/:"4657/843" .0/:9 64<;=.@?>@/
BW 1KKPiP
UBD P
phase shift =
37.016o
e=
i=
Time
-
KWKo U _PIP
W ^KKPWIi_UPKP"
DBiB WUUUUP BKiW P]WB(
D PUKUoy W7UUUUUB[Ko U# 7KPU_ ,rq K#KBKB[7PWKU^n_PP
UWD_WAUB[KIPKP
U2l* , q UK_KPUA KI KB[WUKPWKUk Ii_WB
P_Ki_ BU
E = IZ
ER = IRZR
= (1.597 A -37.016o)(5 0o)
ER = 7.9847 V -37.016o
Notice that the phase angle of ER is equal to
the phase angle of the current.
LK UWD_WUB[Po UPUK! KW
UI KU2UKUUKBKiWPWKU iP
PP@3ÙPX_2KPWUKo UWKB!
E = IZ
EL = ILZL
= (1.597 A -37.016o)(3.7699 90o)
EL = 6.0203 V 52.984o
Notice that the phase angle of EL is exactly
90o more than the phase angle of the current.
LKUWD_W UB[AP1P
WPU KPW_PU U + B *-) q K1K Ki[KWKU/P
PP UUKPWUKUU7v Z ,#n q ~}^BB _!KW
* ,rq DBiB K#LK 2i P
@`Y_P<_ b* ,rq W_KPUWKP
WUKBH
1i_lU @KB_ B_ P@W@IKo WIP @UKoUK UW PB U K U_

UWD_WxPUC DKP-}C h#WD_Wk%]cUK Ko

Etotal = ER + EL
Etotal = (7.9847 V -37.016o) + (6.0203 V 52.984o)
Etotal = 10 V 0o
%bB DKiK@_
R
1
10 V
60 Hz
_7UKi_ K @WPBps=`3
2
eL
10 mH
0
# N Z?$?y?
#2? g

(
??
#
'Z# ?ys$ as$:(
'Z# ?$ a$
Z
rB
?$
$
8 rN Z'
8rN Zr p NNZN
rB
y$
$
8 rN Z'
8 r Z p N Z
(
Nr ZN

B ZN
Interpreted SPICE results

ER = 7.985 V -37.02o
EL = 6.020 V 52.98o
I = 1.597 A 143.0o
G UP_TxUk BKD BZ8s=` WKK PB[8|UKiUPUKWPBBKiW@W

n ,rq WU7PPUKAKKK WUUU8 PiW_#KPU_PU_0v N ,Bn q PUB KB[
KPW _PUU n ) q v q n , q HpL K BB U [nPBWU0Z8s=`l_ noK_iKiB[
_n[PKUK| i_[P2BD KAK @WDi6pG _K@D U Ko U_PP
WWUUU
KPWiWKW@DDUKi_ K @WP_v Z , q _P + Z * q o!i UiBH-x P2U! !i
i1KB
$
.0"0/721B3/7.#" .0/:"4657/843" .0/:9 64<;=.@?>@/
_Kih|PUPo_UiBIDUA_!UiUBPD K BKWK WUK D!3D!BK | _

UP PK<_-DPIBKy KPnK D-DKK IK1iio Usv}P
W BK
UK 1KBBiWPDb7DK]pKI-DPW3`=s|PUKiUPPiU U!UKi[]UPi
PiBC_PB#UDK WU( PiW
_iUP U#P
UP @_Ko#XAK#UPBP
io
Ui n[PD- DK ^nD@KB UnWBPB [ UK! |UKi_!iKUP _P PW
$ H
R
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
E
I
Z
Volts
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Ohms
PUKW b KiBiU0_|PPlKiP U P i _PUK _I_PlWUAW_

iWDKW_[ KD-DK]UUUPKBUBK_W P_PU K DK iW UK!
_K KUKAP Kii WIBUnUiWED! Bi i
D_KWK _AUP WUWKBlK !nD
PIi[@W UK BAKPKiBiUT@BWB_^WU_UD oA!BUk WK IUKB
_UPUPUPB X=UKKWUP1B DKDU
W o
UKUPUW
K_ KP B_U_P1nW WU
U HKKiUD K[P_[ DU1Uy D!PBKbPiiy
G@ P@UP
UUUB$ |PUPoA_ PBo[ KBo!i U B_UPAlK DK BU
K Bol xPWX _" BIKK_D_!!iKUP WuK2PKn P_!I!iP_PBi aPBK
iiBD K P_ nK@cP_UK!WW1Bi U<
P@
o _ I!iP_PB UPKIW
P _D_ WK[Ub
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
E
I
Z
Volts
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Rule of series
circuits
Ztotal = ZR + ZL
5 + j3.7699
6.262 37.016o
Ohms
G@ P@<nK@ _D_UWD_W _P U_oK_ BU/_PKAP] %{]

BBP _D_bBKB[
sIl`=y
+*
R
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
1.2751 - j0.9614
1.597 -37.016o
Amps
5 + j3.7699
6.262 37.016o
Ohms
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
WPW Jk" KUU KB[2ii BKPUoK[PUDn U U!UKi[

LK !KlDoBUP2 Iii BKKB UKKUP_ UBi UP
P@_[KiBU
P__Kia
@lAKPWhKUKWKU0WPK[KB[Ui_D_PBPh|PUKiW KB[
WIKBUKPUKiWUP PKP
U_&U
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
1.2751 - j0.9614
1.597 -37.016o
Amps
5 + j3.7699
6.262 37.016o
Ohms
E
I
Z
1.2751 - j0.9614
1.597 -37.016o
5 + j0
5 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614
1.597 -37.016o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Rule of series
circuits:
Itotal = IR = IL
G @xUP_ A I|PUK AK UUUUU/U W K iWA_P

U#o!i Ui
LK UK2KWKU PPUaAK 3%{]`=I"s(HK_PKi1WB B_iWD1BUK_{K DK
.0"0/721B3/7.#" .0/:"4657/843" .0/:9 64<;=.@?>@/

R
E
6.3756 - j4.8071
7.9847 -37.016o
1.2751 - j0.9614
1.597 -37.016o
5 + j0
5 0o
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
L
3.6244 + j4.8071
6.0203 52.984o
1.2751 - j0.9614
1.597 -37.016o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
1.2751 - j0.9614
1.597 -37.016o
Amps
5 + j3.7699
6.262 37.016o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
P@ WK DK WKB LK!KU AUIKi _KKi K_PU Uh_

D KUKKu D KWi{{ KB]Wi@ P@AU8K[PU[i AD!BKiB[o UP
BUBK @o1BUK! D@KBP_i_ _UaIUPIWPPU2KKU!BiKoi[i 1UP
BUBK @U UKiKPPK_iWD_^ }!iiP P@UKKWWDDUBD P_PU#WBD
_"
G@ Un BnBxKB @UK
D! BilKiBUBK_o |PWKo_P/iUKK[
UUiJ Dn U PUPKB[IoUKiB[_WUUU UP BKB[ JLKX |UKiKBP@o
B @1o_ v}iWPiIi[_1K[ - $KUo

D_KWKU Y_KBUDK
UWB WKKo
WU B U WKIo U2 K BK UPP B_ WU
KU B + < o_bi UKUK _H UC )$ , n _WPU o
UKUPU UWD =L{oB& D! K UD_KK BU
i iUKBB[PPIi[Ki{UU K@cUPAKUo
WWP_P_ K _C K[PUW
WUUU2U PB[ !
oo
UKUPU KU@W( K BUnUiKi[U_K i_ UKU_PcB DKDU
W( U
- DW
W _K_D@UPUWU B @W o_ v}U1iWPiIi[ 2 _o
DBU
i@ DU!U _2_Pi UKUK _W_iWD KW_[ 1 BD KD- DKiK1W
WnUBPiP __Ki_ BU7i_ K @W( LK 22KU- DPUiPi o_ 'DK] D!IPBK#W
PWW@PIUWKPUPl D!BP! |KU_U@UP o BUBK @W @ io
UPBUo
P22_{WKUKUx_{P__U( [Kk DoDKWBUK D! WU rDoBUP2 K WKWKP_
BU< D!o
1 UB @oiU iUKBB[D
X"<!"
- 2K_D_#iWKI_WK!WW 1io
Ki[UP 2K WIP Wi
UH
K_p_ i_ # o D_PB_P_ _UPUZ iW
UP Tn DW&BoD[P B=rUP
IoUKiUK?x P&U iUP o" _P iU UP kH
I!iP_PBipy _7_PUUi8x P{W #o D_PBiao^ ii BD K{__n Bo !iKUP o
UK U K _D_!iKUP
UD 1K iW_i_ K @WPlBUK!: KU
i_ _H# W8 q ! I# "_ $CC7 %
pPKi o U2!iKUP _]P]UIKPW_PU2U W
,rq { &:Io ,q !
hKKB PP UoK_ _]P]W PPUA_PU2U#!K U l* ,rq {JI "
* ,q !
1Z('Zy3*)#)T/+)M3/7mZmCih64<;=.Cih .@6k.l;TPam
AK C%]U BKp`:Is^ZCI `=J^$MI`h?
KB
i UDA_P
UDAUiUW PBAlBD K7P _UoK_ P]W
K UIUKUUBPB D! Bi ,q _Ml* ,q LPBD P KB[2]U KUIUKU
WIiKBlDBiB ,q _v * ,rq
nBoBD PD ! K&DKK
_IKPKUB[UKU!BiUBi__BD K PB[

KKU KWKUPUKBD KUWD_UKWPUP1W K_D_UUUUP_PoK_ i
UK IU K UU !iKUP
-,
B #Bb7AT!RSA #D7
.0/ 1/3242 52
%bB UK_ WWKB[UUPBi!KUIP D K_P1 WKKo

Ki
10 V
60 Hz
P_D_B{
10 mH
ii_PK!@iUPB2UPUI2 K[KiP WKBi! KUIP D KKUP KiW

_ P
UkD!_ P]UKUA@_Ki_i D_PB_P
D_PBîo
Ui!KiAP2U
P]WP1_1]UPi_oK_PB#1i_JD!BW/UKUP_ D-DK /P1__UUi#
@_Ki
R
10 + j0
10 0o
E
I
Z
Total
Volts
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Ohms
LK UP K~ }^BBPB 1UKUP_ oDKK KWPK P@2{_KPK Po__D_i

D KPoUUKKiWBo D KCLKA_PK[UD1KPKUB[U K_WUlk"
"nK@@UUUU PUoKKUDn_!BUWKB[D AP_D_iBD KnABUD_i
Pk|PUK __D_bWUUU n, WU ,q _b WWKB[BUKP
.0"0/721B3/7.#" .0/:"4657/843" .0/:9 64<;=.@?>@/
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
I
Z
Volts
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Ohms
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Etotal = ER = EL
G@lBU_PKAK 0%{]sIl`=y{UB BU222BUKP_PKDKUBUBK @K KB[

PWKU Ki U_P1 PB[KUPU KPP W
R
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
2 + j0
2 0o
0 - j2.6526
2.6526 -90o
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
Volts
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
WPW
kpBD K BDKD_DBKiWDPUUBbpBD KUP U KUU{ KB[
DDKK-}C KiW3%]pbPU KK2UcU W3kh!
R
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
2 + j0
2 0o
0 - j2.6526
2.6526 -90o
2 - j2.6526
3.3221 -52.984o
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Itotal = IR + IL
Ohms
_P_UoK_ i_D!i_ K @iDn1PKAK "%{]{(Il`h?WB BU K L{v

U& WK(_ B[U^PUUBI!iP_PBIi_ UXD!Ii_ K @iDnPK o Kni_{UAK
1Z('Zy3*)#)T/+)M3/7mZmCih64<;=.Cih .@6k.l;TPam
B[ BU^P@Pi i_ K @PI_D_i!i D_PBi

Z
parallel
1
1 6 1 6
1
Z + Z + . . . Z
1
2
n
LKUK K DKBeAPKKWK@[Pi_ [WUUo{__i_ K @UTUBWi

i_WP1#UUb BIKo P KUKW1IWKIW K 3UWKUPUPy DKB_i
U UBUWA_WK[2UWs k NxPUE_hBD KÎ_B P]UAKKWUP2
BUBK @KIP K[P_[iWK_PUD-DKiUP K UK P~}^BB[7G_iK D
]UW i_ K @U_!iKUP AK %{]U Ki KB_7WK HUW UWI_P
_l |PUK
R
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
2 + j0
2 0o
0 - j2.6526
2.6526 -90o
2 - j2.6526
3.322 -52.984o
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
1.8122 + j2.4035
3.0102 52.984o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
Z= E
I
or
Rule of parallel
circuits:
1
Ztotal =
1
1
+
ZR ZL
X"<!"
I!iP_PBi {y
__PUUi x& U o _ i o pP_D_BBD P_PU _D_i

!iKUP oIK U K_UbI!iP_PBPKPo Kni_^WK#+
WP"DAK
!BU _i_ K @WP BUK! K_Ii_ _HW q-! I n Z n #" n $XQ
n %N
AK C%]U BKp`:Is^ZCI `=J^$MI`h?
KBi UD_PKP
UDUiUW PBPUUB! BKlxPW BoBD KH
K _D_!iKUP P]U KPW UKU UBPBD BiB ,rq UPl* r, q ELK1 BK
Ki[{P]UIKPW_PU UiKB"!D Bi , q _PXv * , q
#_D_i[ BKD#!K&DK7K_KPKUB[UKKU!Bi7U7PUUBZ_ BD PD UUUU
KKUhKUPUKW7K D KDKUPDBKiWD#UKA2WhKUUK Ki[UUPAoK_ i
K KUKW Ko Kni_!UAPrIUxK _D_boK_PB
-)
.0"0/721B3/7.#" .0/:"4657/843" .0/:9 64<;=.@?>@/
87 9(RS7A;: B1<

_1Ki_BUU1P
WU UIKPi oU
W2KBnBpLP_KWK[U c KB[

X DPUi UPP UiU U DPUKUo KB[KUP1K_Bi U
WU KiU
iUBUWKB[D h@BWB PKP
UD_K_lKWPAPKPBiU UkD!BP]nU7L
D!BU ( Ki' U _ _P <
[P@kP@_!WoiWI iUKD- DK UIWK[
_iUP KKi 1K!BD WPP K ? H LK < DKKs v}iUP W
UKWKU B
WKKo
o ii1Kio
PP UP U{P U{ & U K
Equivalent circuit for a real inductor
Wire resistance
R
Ideal inductor
eL
U KWPB[ K !iKUP _Un/iUPP W1 U]D! / WIP BU DK@Uc_

iUP _P1PP UiW
UP
U!UKP K PDKi U KK1i_oK]?>A@ ! bK D " BPKBPB]
P@
PWKUcK UB_iW U UP
U 1 Wvi UD@PB PUcKWKUK P Ki
Bi UP"
P@k KWo
W_hH{KiPIKB[ W6v o
WP_7_i _K WPP W
I@W ì UPDKK i
WPU=
@_W K _PBPUPyiP ]UW D]Ui#KUPU
PUi I KU# UP
U KKP! }î UAB[ vi UPU _i]@_ DK 7LPA n! }î
D!i WiU KWKUPP o _PWKB K[KiP i
# [K _i@KUUKB 3 |B __ P
WBKiW ii1 ]W_- }[IPUB
U _ UU io
WUUKB A]U io _ @KU KWPBPBo LK DU @i BKiWni KU
P KP
U K_P1I_KiDi#UiUP !@B P@W$ 1P BK
Pi KiU[i2U_P W @Ub KB_AUKi2 }!o
D@ Ws WZ v U
PP UDK D_KiKiiWiWUKU_biUP l D! BBKiUP pPB_1PP U
iKBU& Bo "K_i@KUUKB _ |PiK2KPBiBP P BK_K BKB[D
KKU W7 nK@Uh ZHs @LKiio
BKB[DbKWA W]U#@UiBU
Pio
B_[iUP }!io Dn2KW( ]KDKUW{W[2 WPP WWBUK!B T`K KB[
Wo_K_ BUK[iW
i< D[nKKWBU K[UnPKBB UP_UP H
iWD WKiP_D@iU K_KBh Dn P1]WB_Bi i_PK_KI]UP( a KB[ v
i
WAUPPBUKn iKI[2_nBi i_ U @oAi UP _ KB[7i_KP_# BK_K
@ W vi UPU!UoUPKB( D!K WUi i WWoWx@! }î
UU1W[P]U ! !i i( PiP BKB[Wo D_ PP UBUi_PoKBBUo
KWk_^Ki_ 0LK! }î IWKUPUKPBiI@KUPB# K[KiP i U_Ii_ D! [iP_
W i! KUi1_n W
PKK ii Ki_IBU{ DBxi
D4 h W
PK P o_
1ZCBr64<;=.CihED;b65Fm
_P
UAKi_K _BPiKUZvKK D_ WKP1U!BD@U KPBIBUBBB[
_ _@nPh!D 2Pi@i ]W KPxBnnUKiW]WU WWD_P@WDn _UP[KB
_K_D WKD W Ki_K iDPKUUW UK J!D 1Pio U KUBv BU[W
iDPKUUW7P
Ko@oBD D_PB2P_P]nPIUD K W KnKP KIKUUKB | B y
KUZ}v [K KBPB BnB iK KB[i_ BWB iUiW P K Wv i U _K
B6 W[KD KKIUPWP_ i W2 !} o
D 8L WK[iW
K BPiP P o _b UK_
Ui| K n PUPP_i D_PP2i_oJW0 Y \ s KU U W0 Y!s UN BUE!D PiyL P
PP_UiP_D@P1D_PP WoUD _PBKBWB[iKK PB[2U BK @K1PWKU P

KW B[ vi UPU!UoB
PWP_ {U[UUKB AnBiP@KiiK2<D!@UiBU BWB1BWBDUUKZv
P W #_WK h |B WPoUI iPKUîKBUAP__KiDi{W#iUP P
D K XnW U@i _ PDU2i UPUBKUKUUUPUKinB }!o

UPWBDU KK }!o
2 DoKUK Dn1i__#KU!B2 U@BU{io
WUPUP
!i- UUKB " |PB 1[iP UBPBD@oiWD1B
WUBKi ]K] iUKU!Bi_i_nPP W3 o _ @DUK_UWo @oK
PB[ K_ nBiWo U2! Kio PPBKKW2B _a _ }!o
W2i D_PB
Equivalent circuit for a real inductor
"Effective"
R resistance
Ideal inductor
L
UnAAP_P_Ps[ }!o
UPDU @W[iUKKlxPUiPD_U[BKUP
_ /U/ BD PUAKi BUoHG_ KB U DKKi }!o
An _
KU $DK_WK[KiP iKi1i_D KWPUWWIUPBUWBKBW!K_K
oUPi K nPoPK!WUP_KK Wo@oI_UK[AUBKiW PU _
Bi U_WK DU @W(
à}î Uo D_PB _ PKP
UB_X
D ABWPBUP BD@WUK BKoUKi 0L
Ki K[PU[ KIi_U_WK[_ }!o
WAiUP UP
U !UK_KB@_KA n i_o
PJ I V! ! HU3 K[PU U W IK D i_ K @i1UU@
K
XL
R
LKnD!U'NMl PWKUKK Bi
DPUW BUKU DP!UK DBPK DBUK#
KWWoUU(^ KX7@BD"LP_ Ki o PK_ BUK_KPDBiK_
UU !} ii[WK _[
Q=
.0"0/721B3/7.#" .0/:"4657/843" .0/:9 64<;=.@?>@/
LKKWKBK2@_KW=M Kl_KKB KPP W a ii_P oUIWKWKUPU

iUP ^PBiKiy[ KWZv-MYPP UaD! i_ @hv-MYP
W#UKiWIPK!Wi7Ki_
PP UUP P]UOMeUZ|PPKBB!}î U o _
ii_PP
WiU UP l@Ui KWPBPB#PM @@BUiPBK o W
!}î UPP UD s [ ! }î
bDU @W Wo îP PB[ bUPnBi _ 1@_
K[KB 1M K[o K_@UPWWWP_ iW
D_PB UDB WM @_KP]UKiB
iUKP# AP3 D!i |Po1__ K _i KWPBPB
[] o D_PB ( KAWK1P
W"
K[Ks KiiX D!]__6 KKA W
P_P
APKKPUbBUKKPP UDUiP_D@iIU iWD_PB8 Dn_ PK @KAW_E _
@_K ( UUU_KBp nPI_^Bi i_KPK_U$ !UP]UKUiWUUB_U UP BWBU
D! BB PP
hBUPUBD_PBa D! KUi KK! nDP_KB yDKA Q i]@ K
!UW7P@#0 D!B]UiUi }^BB[U P
UP U_PB UKKBa __[ KoU
W
KK_7o_ PP W
! R S A# R U TW
VX < R P Y X V
{KBnWPIi[UKoy oK n! }î
{KB_i@KBKiW BPPb]UWD]Ui@KUPU P
i[BUW BUP
W nKDi WPP U Pi_KK UB aLK ! }î
WBP
W vi UPU^BUPKP
UUoI]@U - DK2i_ UBP@PBi
W]
P@_ KP iWKIKAo D_PB
_@ WPP U D@W@WK KW_ D Wo
KB[
area of a round
tCross-sectional
conductor available for conducting
DC current
"DC resistance"
area of the same

tCross-sectional
low-frequency AC
"AC resistance"
area of the same

tCross-sectional
high-frequency AC
LK
"AC resistance"
B i i_ iUP 2_P UP

U_b Wvi UPU!UoAP CnK@UP
_o D_PB KUho _ _PUIBUP
WBBK1KUPBk|PWKiKK
U P sn !}î WU1B_1i@KU K[KBPBoKYBKB[]UWKD]UiKUKWW
1Z[Z5ih3/ih0/]\ mFk62/+Û^0/"._\
_P WPP U W6v o
WP_7_i#XKW KPK!W_ WPP K KB[{KIU[AW
By DKW@`
AUDUUKKi@U8 U[BPPU]I[K_D-DKB^K!}î !KUi(@nP W-v}KWPBPB
k KB[UPb ]WB7KWKU K K_BUP
WA_nn] bn K_3 xAPU@

D_!KiU_{U D_ô_]W3 D!_ iWW_P W w]z[_[iKPP Ki_
U UKW@cB_^B D!iWK iUUb
LK2BWiK D K[KB }î K2! }î U2o D_PB_{2 UP
UIU
i
Dn
PWUU _7@ K P _U v}[_Wo! K& DKUKUKWKP o n! }î
DPUKU
iUP W khP_U v}[_Wi_UnUUB K[KBPB aLK K[P_U U_KP? _K
s [1! }î
2@KU KWPBPBo
Wo@iPU n z UW@
R
AC
= (RDC)(k)
Where,
AC
= AC resistance at given frequency "f"
DC
= Resistance at zero frequency (DC)
k = Wire gage factor (see table below)
L K2U@KID-DK UUiUKK?@@UKo_0-Z U

UW]UUUPP
eZ g Z
fgZ#B
f = Frequency of AC in MHz (MegaHertz)
&Bi
hhhNhhhhhNhhhhhNhhhNhNhhNhhh
i NrNNNNrNN ? =
i NrNNNNrNN Np
i NrNNNNrNN Np
NNNNrNNNNrN Np
NNNNrNNNNrN Np
NNNNrNNNNrN Bp
NNNNrNNNNrN 7
? NNNrNNNNrN p
NNNrNNNNrN p
NNNrNNNNrN ?
N NNNrNNNNrN 86N
K W K _K{ iK_ UnKD!B n, [_UI ]khBPZv=-vBP
P]W2U !} o
U?o _ _aZ n _AK[KiP _ n, z3
R = (R )(k) af

AC
DC
AC
= (25 )(27.6)
AC
= 2.182 k
10
o D_PBAU= +] UK
.0"0/721B3/7.#" .0/:"4657/843" .0/:9 64<;=.@?>@/
iWiB
D!B@K = |PWK2 " I!iP_PB K_K[ol ' BUP B_niU U! }î
D
PP UWBUPUBW0LKKIUi_o|PUKU^PKi D_PBUKBUP
W"P_
UP[U K2
@u_Bi UP2K D H P@I!@B KUUKo@HHBUo
i
Usn }!o
]oiW
D_PBUP K BU DKPi !}î
DUiW
UP _ i D_PB !iKUP ?H7_
B[B }!ii[_BD
lnmpoWqsrut
y

y
y
|
|
x
x
}
z
~0{
QP #7 { #
biAPUP PB[UPUWD_WUAUiK D K WPKU{AUKD UP

Io UnUP n W PKW K
e=
i=
+
Time
-
ii_PPiW_@_ UUK[U KB[o

KU!UUPUAKUWD_UU W#_
_U!BnP{UI]K]W WcUbKBKiW!KU KUP]U WcU{KUWD_U
B_n __n!UW_UKIKKU& BU[D_b _KPU_P WP_2K[@_Ko_
PB[_P UWD_U21iUD1_KB_ =_nX UPUPP_ An @P2@UKo_7]U _2BBoW
B -'N #!HWo_KK P@_Ki@P@ # - HaPBPD_[UKBWP#@_KW
UWD_W= iB# WK2D_[UKBWPBKiWKUPUKi U _ Bi$ @%{ WB [_KWIi[
KBK UWD_WUB[K iW @!WW!i '[K Ki[KWKU K iW
_ A@!WWo- n_PUb 7_nIUUB!U[_UP K]Wi rAK = %{]KWK
*
.0"0/7'Z/8.$ .0/"4 658/84 .0/9.0y.@P@?>0/
K2UKP_[D_KiUP@_KiUWUUU _P1 KB[

i_ _ BUBK_K!@i2KP_iEDnK iW _ K_2PWI@UKo2U K_
UD_P(
e=
i=
p=
+
Time
-
GUP_P!@i KiUiPBW_U@UK0KBK Ki[!WW D@WK2K?H[P

UWD_W U!WWUiKK @B"'I7Ub[U@UK8UnUiB@KiP KB[
KB[@W Di@cKAK !PUWD_U2 _ KiW_UPD1oPD!WW ]UP U!@i
KB[@W nK
D!BIAPKiJ DnPBW_UnK DiK[P_ [U nKD!BHHMLK IBUP B[
_!U _N U@BB P@KAi U U] P@K @B KD- nP2U KIWKB
_ioUP PAW _Pi@ BPBU "K KB2KIBKiW2!WWAUKB[@W iW
{KP_iiKBU
, H O
P P /3/
A #D7
Q
_U WIK_C D!BP]WKU2Wi UD TKBiWi UDU@
P@_Bi
WPKUPU
PBo
KU!UUPUK1UWD_UKW( BUPUBUDUK!W U -NrH UWD_W Dn D]K
UIPKK[K KB[UAPBDP_U UKDP_UK1KBxWU_WBUi MLKX
P@x_io
U
@KUKW# i_PW U o
PWWWP_!K
s 6V U -Nr_7UWD_W2W WKBUPUBU
LK UK!WWUWD_UDP_KW UK_KBU _8 ! !NDKUPP@KiBBUK!W
P_ [P1! K& DKo< DnP
W
àKii@KB_ B_ KB @UK
D! BilK PB[ @PWKU# Ki_PW WIUP
D@ UUWD_W2DPUKUW WKBUPUBUUPD(
d
i=C
dv
dt
LK KoU
f WKU B_ PP Po_KKPAD@UDP_PU_#P_[D_KiUPWUUU
@Ui#lWUiIiBUP(ELKBUPUBD_PB{hAPUWK7UP K PUWD_KiUP KB[
H_ WKD b_P LK@kP@_K!BP UBP@PBKiW{ UP_NBK
BUPUBU D K
'Z gB..0"y.@PCih.@6_.l;bPam
ABPUPIBKB[UPWU_W UK UBKI BK! WK nU KK

WK
e=
i=
Time
o iIi!D B[ K PB[KUKW Ai_PW W AiW

U _WUK U 1UUUUW W
LKiBUKKIPU[_PBU PB[ iBKiKBWBKAPUWD_KiUPUWD_UA2@ o-iB
DPUKU@ U#BUiKU!U UKWU_WK]WHW _PAKPUWD_KiUP7BKB[# #@2o-APBBUi
PD_[UKBWPUWD_U @-n AP DPUKU K!U[U#iB!iU!U1KUWD_W2]U
KiB[i Ki BK!L K AiKlUWD_W]WP_Av* ,q WA_KUP
PB[]U=b% nn K@KWUK(K KABKB[]UBBP]W_ KoUD_ W KAWUUU
]U[^ K KB[3_ iUPsA KWUUU UPKUWD_WlU UW!D BKP P Ki[
uvoltage slope = 0
tcurrent = 0
uvoltage slope = max. (+)

tcurrent = max. (+)
e=
i=
Time
voltage
slope = 0
tcurrent
=0
voltage
slope = max. (-)
tcurrent
= max. (-)
WU U[P]U2UKoi( UKUI2KnPP_^!@i]WP_ ]c KK2PP U

D KPoiW1KKBUPUBU D Kn[$
.0"0/7'Z/8.$ .0/"4 658/84 .0/9.0y.@P@?>0/
e=
i=
p=
Time
7IKKPKP
U D K @K3 * , iUBKPWKp D! BiUUUU_PI PB[#oPD
!@i]UP@_iP_oK[PUDBiB!WUUPKiW_U0LK o_PP_B_U W
niKU7KP_@B7U7iW
DUW_PDPUKUo{AWUUU^@#BB-DPUDP{UPioUib!@B
_i@i
i_PW U UK!WU11DP_KWWUUU D_ @i _WK[U _i@KWUUU
WBKiU {KD _ Dn |PKU_]n DPUKUK PUWD_KiUP UUKPKUP o
Ub XKW
_n UUB1_WKPU7 cWU_W@UUi1 KWPBPB Pi_PW UUWWB iT W UP

iD_ _WKP U BKB[ U
WPWKBKB[KUKW IiW APP
W U{P2WUUU
UB[Ki UUPIKo _ - }^Bi DnKo U _K PB[#PWKUi_PW W#
KP U_K UUUU UB[ P_K s - - }^BiX DnKi_PW W 7PP UD
PiW
UP _B_U W KoiWK_Pn D!U ii DnIP Bh W7 D2U
o | !
nP i_PW Wk
UBUPKP
Ki[ KU!UU K_UWU_WID_KW bKB U
UA PB[W WBs vDPUKUKUWD_Wi =UKiD_U_ DPUW KIUIAUUUU!i
i2 H_P oBKiW2U@i v DP_PUKUWD_Uo P@ Po_P2 2P_ iW
D_PB
UPW_n i_PW U _ ! 2KU!UUPUK K[KiP _{K_i@K PB[
L
XC = j
1
2fC
B?NZ #N?B=
NB#?jsBrZ'
BN#?BH- g
8 N
?N
8
N
rNN
iWIKUIP_KB @WPK _BUPUBWiW
UP 1K[KiP W
WK[IU
@U^P
UiW
D_PBp_PW UoU _ UP7o iUi7 PBoUP K[KB
UnWBDi PP UiW
D_PB UP PBoUi PBoUK h[K KiP PKP
UDUBv
!W UiD_KWK Ki[pnD KP KUi@BWUUUU n^ BUPUBUDUP[ UBDP_PUK
UWD_W2Uh[D _@KIUi@B PB[
KB[{AKi_PW U D K bWK __KWU_W3 UWDb n i[D PBUPUBW
iU UP ] WK!Nx PU W_keBKiW 1KIiUI BK [K P_ PIWUUU
UWD no][D KiUP UPH
'Z gB..0"y.@PCih.@6_.l;bPam
10 V
60 Hz
100 F
XC = 26.5258
I =
L
E
X
10 V
26.5258
I=
@BWB _Kii
UiBP_WU_W_ Ki[_KUKPWKB7WK@
iUBUK2BKiWPUKPUK_@l* , io
AK UWD_WbiKiB[KiPPU
_PUiUUWD_UUP BKB[I_Ki@ BU7 i_ BUBK @ K KPW1_KWUK1PP U
iU U2UK!WU PB[
I = 0.3770 A
Opposition =
Voltage
Current
Opposition =
10 V 0o
0.3770 A 90o
Opposition = 26.5258 -90o
For a capacitor:
90o
-90o
0o
Opposition
(XC)
z_Ki_ BU i]P@bKKU_KW#Uni_PW U ÛK!WW2 PB[b v* ,q ]iUKK

@#BUPUBU {UK!WU PB[ 7KiW_U_UPUkK[P_[@LK PPUUKUUKoU
W
UP[U BKiW Do WIo i_ I!UU[I/BD K_PU #io _ WBUK!
?)
.0"0/7'Z/8.$ .0/"4 658/84 .0/9.0y.@P@?>0/
D KKBiW
D_PB_PAo _ [BDU T[K@UpD!BP!|BUWBKiB[C# U!UKi[
UP[U PB[1BU7BUK! nK DiK_ KUaxPi_ _CK[P_[iUi D_PB2UP
iU UP
X"<!"
s - KWK!WW P@i_PW W}!i_iP_K KB[K
KPU!v KiWUU_ioU_biKBU Dio
h|PiypoiU UP nD!U&BiDnIP
B_PD_ B3" _P1 iUKi WK@xP&U o _ o!
_PW U2oU
D_PB2i_]D i_ K @i1PPK UAK B0 I n B^ {h
_PW UiU UP < s!! P iWK[K KiP UKiUDKK PKUPBK v
WK PBPBn PoUK!Wi_ KW U WPP P
P@p_7Bi
WP
B #7 {ATP/3/
#
PWAi U(o_Ki P_AWK _K!B Ko UsvUK_Pi_PW WvUK

D K@G@ K U DKKK WWKB[UW PB7Bo{WUPnUo[@K!}î
D
L-UPBD PW_1! K_K2_PUNi
,
10 V
60 Hz
100 F
LKiW#P}!i +_ _ iUP BKB[B[_DoU!K[KiP UKKB_U W

-}^B"B + + UiW
UP p Ki[@ , h iBUP Ki U iUP iU
nK D!Bk + ,rq nU + x , H_K2BUPUBU #iW
D_PB__UPU[PD!Bk-# + +
v * ,q [W , v'xs-B + + ![K WDKKo!}î UbPBUWKB[D'D! _ WK!WW KB[
K[PUK1 WIP K_PnK
D!BD LPi UAK I UK! UP[U KB[
b [ DW7_ @ _P 2U Koi KIKK_WK rxP& UIo _ AUP
iU UP @ P- D!@U2! K_K K UUb BKoK_
Ztotal = (5 resistance) + (26.5258 capacitive reactance)
Ztotal = 5 (R) + 26.5258 (XC)
total
= (5 0o) + (26.5258 -90o)

or
(5 + j0 ) + (0 - j26.5258 )
total
= 5 - j26.5258
or
26.993 -79.325o
'Z1ZmZ/836/7m<3/7mNmCihs.0"y.@PCih.@6_.l;bPam
oK_ B @o UWD_WUP PB[CxPUUU U[A!!i _PKBAI _

iUP 2AK 3%{]_
Ohms Law for AC circuits:
E = IZ
I=
E
Z
Z=
All quantities expressed in

complex, not scalar, form
Y U K U U WIPiKBPUU _
AK X %{] _P_ UD_KWW _
B i UK B `hI"6oHxPU!iKUP UUA WKiKBU nPoW_UP[UP
P@UBi
WPP_pK iUP knYiUP UPU[YiW
UP iP_D@B/W
WDKP_UM Bo@P_D_i ![i_]DUPPUK XD!BKiB[o WKU !iKUP
Li_ K @ KB[ P - D!@U BK
|PDPBi UU1KPWUKUBBBPBWP
UWD_WUKD [PD1WBKiUUPIo D!_ Bi$ =LK KPU_KWoUiU _ BUPUBW
I!iP_PBIU< - \ ? ,q UP v * ,rq ô!i UB ^B[_Do_#PWWBKU_PUiWWUUUW
PB[ !
I=
E
Z
I=
10 V 0o
26.933 -79.325o
I = 370.5 mA 79.325o
IPPKii_PW U BK@K Ki[]UiUKKPUUUU]W"UPKWKB!

_PUKW KI K}!iiP "*# +q PiW UKT* ,q
phase shift =
79.325 degrees
+
e=
i=
Time
i_KoK /PKP
D_PBDPUiWKl@D-DKAIBKUbUWUKiP BKhK[P_[i
Ui P K{nU Wc_PUaxP2U UlkpUP_ =%bB K UBUnK@]|PWKiW
PBi BK[DK_P1 WWnK K__n KIK [W
.0"0/7'Z/8.$ .0/"4 658/84 .0/9.0y.@P@?>0/

R
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
68.623m + j364.06m
370.5m 79.325o
Amps
5 - j26.5258
26.993 -79.325o
Ohms
5 + j0
5 0o
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
Ki[2ii BK 7PUoK[PU_Dn_ U!UKi[_K=|PWKo{PW iAAKCL{U_

WPI1W Ki[i_DKDPo _ _PB WPIUB
R
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
68.623m + j364.06m
370.5m 79.325o
68.623m + j364.06m
370.5m 79.325o
68.623m + j364.06m
370.5m 79.325o
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
5 - j26.5258
26.993 -79.325o
Ohms
Rule of series
circuits:
Itotal = IR = IC
U[nKKUP_PUKBUUKKAP] 3%]`=I"6oWB BU BIKWUUU

UB[Ko UUP i_PW W
R
Total
343.11m + j1.8203
1.8523 79.325o
9.6569 - j1.8203
9.8269 -10.675o
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
68.623m + j364.06m
370.5m 79.325o
68.623m + j364.06m
370.5m 79.325o
68.623m + j364.06m
370.5m 79.325o
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
5 - j26.5258
26.993 -79.325o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
GU P@lKWU_WUB[KiW#PUK! KU UKPWUKUUK Ki[KUPU

KBKP_"`_<_1PPUWPo UWKB!7LKWUUUUB[PABUPUBUPW
KPWUKU _@v n, r + q P!KW
X* , q !PUKPPU_KWUK BK Ki[pLK i P
@PB_U W UWD_U _ BKB[_ b* ,rq UUKPW iWD UKi
%bB DKi UKi_ K @WP
Bps=`3
'Z1ZmZ/836/7m<3/7mNmCihs.0"y.@PCih.@6_.l;bPam
10 V
60 Hz
R
5
2
100 F
# Z?$?y?
#2? g

(
#?N-
#
'Z# ?ys$ as$:(
'Z# ?$ a$
Z
rB
?$
$
8 rN Z'
r Zr p ZN
rB
y$
$
8 rN Z'
8rN Z' N N
(
8

N ZN
= 1.852 V 79.33o
EC = 9.827 V -10.67o
I = 370.5 mA -100.7o
APB_[_(ZZps=` WPKWKWDK PB[PPUUKU2_A@_KK[P_!PiU!PPU

_PUAKP n , q U2InP n , q !k @iUi! KI@B2 Wi K"P| WK_DKi1
B{WKU Ui
b K iUW K"v n,, q UK=[D Z8s=`W PB[PPU_PU[K P_o
!WW*B q P KDno UiWPIWKKBnUPi_ K @i<P| WK2_8*# +q
[_(! AP"!D AiKPU&B iP_Ki_ K @iP| WKiBUo!UP iU~v UUUUUP
PB[iWKBiWDAUKW - W7 KUAo
D_KWKUUK W!K _K7 i
U PUKD K KBio Usv B_U W D K_P IoUKWU_WW WK o UW WKUWsv
BWKPKi@WUo P_ ) nn UWD7 o_[o
D_KWKU U n r , UWD8 _WPU
i
D_KWK _HHko iUPKB[ BUKKo
i iUBD K2K@nKi@WP UiWPK P
Uo
UiK_E UUKPK _bK B_ P_iP| UPo @ K2P2i UKUK _Ux_BUK! nK!D B
KU@W P PU!BUPWKU_ BD W
W(b AA W-D W
UUKU_U
_WUn K D_UK PWo
WiWPiP K iWPiIi[
X"<!"
- 2K_D_#iWKI_WK!WW 1io
Ki[UP 2K WIP Wi
UH
K _C_ iU&r i D_PB2UPM_ _WPUZr# iU UP
.0"0/7'Z/8.$ .0/"4 658/84 .0/9.0y.@P@?>0/

I!iP_PBipy _7_PUUi8xP{W#o D_PBiaoîi BD K{__n Bo !iKUP o
UK U K _D_!iKUP
UD1K iW_i_ K @WPlBUK!:KU
i_ _H# W8 q! I " $ CC7 %
iUKUP@1!iKUP o U]UKcBiB[_Di_P_ n _ABUWKB[D
UK KI!iKUP o _L P_2 ^ iU!iKUP ^ PKP
WoK_PBb UPBUPUBW
!iKUP _2!D i@i PUI ]@PB@i_
pPKi o U2!iKUP _]P]UIKPW_PU2U W
,rq { &:Io ,q !

eKKB BUPUBW!iKUP _]nP]WKPWUKU _#!K U v * ,q I
v* ,q H
A K C% ]U BKp`:Is^ZCI `=J^$MI`h?

KBiW_1i_PW W_2I i WUBKi D K P _D_boK_ b]U

KPU_KW UBKik!D Bi ,rq UP<v* ,q
PB[
n BoBD PD ! K&KD K _IKPKUB[UKU!BiUBi__BD K
KKU KWKUPUKBD K UWD_UKWPUP1W K_D_UUUUP _PoK_ i
UK IU K UU !iKUP
.0/1/3242B52#Bb7ATP/3/
A #
GKP_@_KBUWKB[DUKii# K_K BK[ WKKo

KBP_D_BPUP
B P@_K!BP
, -,
R 5
10 V
60 Hz
100 F
ii_PK!@iUPB2UPUI2 K[KiP WKBi! KUIP D KKUP KiW

_ BUPUBUhD!_1P]WP _2@_Ki_o _ UP1B_U UP no!i UB[KBPU
P]WP1_1]UPi_oK_PB#1i_JD!BW/UKUP_ D-DK /P1__UUi#
@_Ki
R
E
I
Z
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
Ohms
LK C D!BK PUUBbBD PP@_P_[P@cP@WUUU _i1K[PUXDn_{ WI!UPB[

i_1K U Kk|PWKU_D_ WU_W n, UWD ,q _ P UKP
-*
'Z('Zy3*)#)T/+)M3/7mZmCih.0y.@PCih.@6_.l;TPam
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
I
Z
Volts
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
Ohms
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Etotal = ER = EC
G@lBU_PK AP] a%{] sIl`=ybWB BU222 WKP7KDKUBUBK @K KB[

PWKU Ki U_P1 PB[KUPU Ki_PW U
R
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
2 + j0
2 0o
0 + j376.99m
376.99m 90o
5 + j0
5 0o
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
Volts
Amps
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
WP#U
k BK DKUPDBKiWD{PUUB BD PUPK2UeP_D_ KB[
DDKK-}C KiW3%]p_[_$H
R
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
2 + j0
2 0o
0 + j376.99m
376.99m 90o
2 + j376.99m
2.0352 10.675o
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Itotal = IR + IC
Ohms
_ @U_noK_PBB_D!i_ K @i DnPKAK a%{](Il`= Uii_K3L{U_

WPIb]K PP UP DPUi@PUUB[I!iP_PBi_I_ "DBUBK @oDnPP
.0"0/7'Z/8.$ .0/"4 658/84 .0/9.0y.@P@?>0/
i KB_UAK KB[ BU#P@Po i_ K @PP_D_iiUP o <AAK_BUn

B[U @PPUUBôK_PBP KWKKB[_Di_PlnP1_!iKUP oKW o
PUUB{ b I_KB7UDK ]ni( #@i#! i_ K @P22 BK#BU!WiUPPUUBniW
PUUB^PP UDP_D_i B_U WnUU U DKP@WPBB_6# K W UoK_PBiyH
_PB_ UUY_i_ DUKKoKKUI K_1UAK B APB_WUb P
PUUBÎ!iP_PB UAK In W K
Z
parallel
1
1
1
1
+
+ ...
Z1
Z2
Zn
LKWK D]CDPU KPK[P_UKIUP~|i_[_WK[_#U K[Ko U

UK{o!iBU PUK UUP _BUBK_WB_-DK_UKKK @KBUK!EK[PUWo
oiW_Di2_K@uBUBK @_D_oK_PBUWKPUUBBD K< BKiAK %{]uWP
i KB_!WKrH {_W2_K_l|PUK
R
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
2 + j0
2 0o
0 + j376.99m
376.99m 90o
2 + j376.99m
2.0352 10.675o
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
4.8284 - j910.14m
4.9135 -10.675o
Ohms
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
Ohms
Law
E
Z=
I
X"<!"
I!iP_PBi {y
or
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Ztotal =
1
1
1
+
ZR
ZC
__PUUi x& U o _ i o pP_D_BBD P_PU _D_i

!iKUP oIK U K_UbI!iP_PBPKPo Kni_^WK#+
WP"DAK
!BU _i_ K @WP BUK! K_Ii_ _HW q-! I n Z n " n $ Q
n %
AK
C %]U BK p`:Is^ZCI `=J^$MI`h?
KBiW#UPB_U W7U~ oAUW PBP_D_iK BK3 xPU#ii#BD K H
K1UU!iKUP ]U PPU_KWUBKi] D! BB ,q UPJ v * ,rq :LK BK
Ki[{P]UIKPW_PU UiKB" D! Bi ,q _P l* ,rq
#_D_i[
BKD#! K& DK7K_KPKUB[UKKU!Bi7U7PUUBZ _ BD PD UUUU
KKUhKUPUKW7K D K DKUPDBKiWD#UKA2WhKUUK Ki[ UUPAoK_ i
K KUKW Ko Kni_!UAPr IUxK _D_boK_PB
'ZCBr
.0y.@PCihD;b6_Fm
P/3/D: B1<
PKP
UD UK iUPBUPUBU# KKBAiW
WKBnBUBU[UPKDPUiiB o W
!@BKP_U ! }î " KIo_{U yU WKK_KK !Bi k@BWBBUPUBUD
P]WKnK_UiKBD_ DiK Zs iW
WBU!UKiWD _ P
UD <A UiWB
oU UP BUPP 2 i_PW W @h[BPUBoiUP APU 2 KI_I
_PP U :LKKDU
i_iKUK P@i_i_PW WAnKi_lP]U1!iKUP PPU
_PUi2UIB[iUKKWUDPK< * ,q W
P_ yv * ,q P_ PP UD U KWPB[ ^KB#iP
P@o!@BPU_1 K[K]Ui[PKP
U
_U W_ iPAl DUB7_AW[BBU[P_PB K[K@UiW7PP UBUK[BP_
_ PBKiIBi |PB KI_ _WU_ BU[UPiM D! BB KBIK_o< KK W PP UD
K[_WK |B KP_KD_iP ! niPM DiUWP K KBUPA_K U !{KB _i
KUK D_PK WAi inKio
UUUKB _KW 1N ]W UKiBUWKB[D KUPi
iUU D K KiWKBDBP 1 ]WUi_PW W@UiPP W2KiiUB2iW !BDiKB
_i@U
_U W1UK |BU[iU2! }î U2U D P1BBBPBKBiPB
P@ U[ 7!@i WiW 0LKUKD _bBUPUBUW PPUIK2io
@BU
D@PB__n iUP KU BKU1BUPUBUUBP_{
io
@BUB oU A DP_PUKBi
|PB K Dn PPBP Ko@ MLK APi@P
! }î iKiB[ 1[ @B {UP KWP@_B[ i D_PB KBD K LPI }!o
U
KUKWKPBi @AKUPB K[KB iUP W
ABUM D ! nBP@AA U i! KUi
_n W
PKIKBioKo@PP_K_B _ W KW aLK KW DBxi
D! Ki_i
K UBi D! BiAIBU!P_i n UPKi iWKD UbKWZ v} KWPBPBI /WU_W 0L{ii_K
BU[Ui Dn@_nKK UWD_WU K[KBPB_bKWKD n_PK @iKiUBP]W W[U
P DZxo
C DiPKi_i(
LK 2! }î
KPo DKUi_PW UDPB o
2K WWKB[2]
DiP]UIU KPi
s A BKBBB[ AKUK]2W@K ! }î
_Bi

_W DKnW
Bi @i _7i P i& DKI1K }!o
GUU#Bi I@BU2_I K[P_ _W
B @U B_ _#Bi
2[U oUUi_iWWB KB
, 87
N NrNNNNrNNNNrN ZgZ g[g

B g NNZ#
r-
d gng
Z B?br
g r
' Q? N
B
e Z?Tr
-TN Z
BNB ZB Z rN s erg
Z gng
B#N
io
o [lUKoD B_DUcW BiUPPUUBi D_PBK KK
BUPUBD_PB
.0"0/7'Z/8.$ .0/"4 658/84 .0/9.0y.@P@?>0/

Equivalent circuit for a real capacitor
Rseries
Ideal
tcapacitor
Rparallel
KWKP_B [Ki]iUP oU2PP__oIU

@cBio _ _P KW
PUUBîUP ?HAD1iWK~|!B_[PU1KD]o _ iPoiWU]UBD_WPP U
ì U[ BUPUBUD rnK@WKBi_UiKUBUPUBD_PB_@Ws nKAWU_W n_
_ [P@UKBKUWUP[Pi PKK DUKDPUW
B BUK W UPi_K
Bi 7 |PUPAKio
U[PW UGKio _WU in UBi
W[BUPUBUD
KUK KBWB_ D!Pi hPKo ~ o: DK Ui# 2BUPUW _uUUUUIKBUi[K
P2i_PW UWxBWB8 D!BK# DZxi iIiUiUWD_W TÙiKi( nPBi WDP_DU i i
] D! niUB KWD WIKUK_KP B_U_nn]
lnmpoWqsrut
i
7
BWs/RS
%bB UK
}
w
W@K!K_K BKUP1_PUNB
R
250
120
V
60 Hz
650 mH
1.5 F
LKl|PDi
K iK PoU
D_PBikUKUKP
UUPKBUPUBU
-)
L
.0"0/8]Br/8.$ .0/"4 658/84 .0/:9)#"4 .
XL = 2fL
XL = (2)()(60 Hz)(650 mH)
XL = 245.04
XC =
1
2fC
XC =
1
(2)()(60 Hz)(1.5 F)
LKP!nIi A !KiA_i D_PBiUPiU UP o/@PB@i_ WIW U]

I!iP_PBCo BiD!BP@UP
WiU UP 2D_ @i[!WWUUP_I!iP_PB
W UoK_ /_Ml* ,rq H
Kli_PW UiW
UP UP_i[pKB[@W_W_
I!iP_PB oK_PB_pv* , q !0o iUP U _bBUKDU iWUoW KPi_ iU&2 I!iP_PB
!U _UKU _ ,q !
XC = 1.7684 k
ZR = 250 + j0 or 250 0o
= 0 + j245.04 or 245.04 90o
= 0 - j1.7684k or 1.7684 k -90o
ZR
250 0o
120
V
60 Hz
ZL
245.04 90o
1.7684 k -90o
G@_
]_r K[PU[i_PWK[U2Bi
BKiW!KioBUU(_BUK!nKD!B
U@_ W!iKUP o KUP P_UiUP oWoU
D_PBiH[PB i_]D PUPi K_2]
U7PUiUP o7_ _lBD P@LK # _ iUD]lP__PUD-DKU#K BK
_Pi_K _WWB# |PUKi_D_7UWD_U!UPK!iKUP o2_Ki U!P
W UP
BUPUBUHH
BrmZ/836/7m<)1#"4
+
.
Total
120 + j0
120 0o
E
I
Volts
Amps
250 + j0
250 0o
0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
0 + j245.04
254.04 90o
Ohms
Po UKi o |Pi(bPUPBIWUUUApDWK BB UKPWK7_P

_U _PUU ,q poBB DiP@PB KPDKKU_]U-DW_KW_PPU
KU WU_WUBKB[WPB _]#_K[PUWi_U_KUKi#]W UTPU_KWo
U2I!iP_PB bK@BWB & UPWUKIiW !P
U b_P BUPUBUH H^_ nK@ DPUi
D!iBUPP PPU B @WPPPX
DBiBpUUUU UPcBKiW@iWDc WI!UPB[1U - DPUi
|PKi(
GU 1@
H UPIK io
iW
W PP W _PBUPUBU Y!iKUP PPU
_PUiU! KU l* , _M v* ,q #i!i
WB KWKU iUBUWKB[DAU( D! !Bi K
BWU( KiYKWK D _ W KUKB H UK !Bi
YiW
U PKP
UD UP
BUPUBUDW K@cW A K_KB_ P_UP! KBBKi KUo UKi
nP PI D@W! K_K BK2 1ii BK
nK@e@ KUUBD K !iKUP I
K[PU^KP _KPnKP_ K#
G
D!2i
Ztotal = ZR + ZL + ZC
Ztotal = (250 + j0 ) + (0 + j245.04 ) + (0 - j1.7684k )
Ztotal = 250 - j1.5233k or 1.5437 k -80.680o
PBKK h|PWK2W_D_boK_

R
[UKD-DK
C
Total
120 + j0
120 0o
Volts
250 + j0
250 0o
0 + j245.04
254.04 90o
i_ K@kUKKEAK _%]
UK iiBD P
0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
Rule of series
circuits:
total = ZR + ZL + ZC
250 - j1.5233k
1.5437k -80.680o
sIl`=o"WB B_
Amps
Ohms
PL{UU&1 WK ]|PP _U KB[
.0"0/8]Br/8.$ .0/"4 658/84 .0/:9)#"4 .

R
Total
Volts
Amps
120 + j0
120 0o
12.589m + 76.708m
I
250 + j0
250 0o
0 + j245.04
254.04 90o
0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
77.734m 80.680o
250 - j1.5233k
1.5437k -80.680o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
BK BiBD K#BKB[APD K[PUPWKU U U!UKi[L[ 7

|PWK DUKoWU_ Ki[UP&DKoUD1_{K_KBBUKP
R
Total
120 + j0
120 0o
E
I
12.589m + 76.708m
77.734m 80.680o
250 + j0
250 0o
12.589m + 76.708m
77.734m 80.680o
0 + j245.04
254.04 90o
12.589m + 76.708m
77.734m 80.680o
250 - j1.5233k
1.7684k -90o
1.5437k -80.680o
77.734m 80.680o
0 - j1.7684k
BU -WP
12.589m + 76.708m
Volts
Amps
Ohms
Rule of series
circuits:
total = IR = IL = IC
G @ PiP_i _KKAK "%{]`hI"syoUDUKAPnKP_ U!UKi[ WKP

K DKnK iKUWD_W2U
R
Total
3.1472 + j19.177
19.434 80.680o
-18.797 + j3.0848
19.048 170.68o
135.65 - j22.262
137.46 -9.3199o
120 + j0
120 0o
12.589m + 76.708m
77.734m 80.680o
0 + j245.04
254.04 90o
E
I
77.734m 80.680o
250 + j0
250 0o
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
12.589m + 76.708m
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
12.589m + 76.708m
77.734m 80.680o
250 - j1.5233k
1.7684k -90o
1.5437k -80.680o
77.734m 80.680o
0 - j1.7684k
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
12.589m + 76.708m
Volts
Amps
Ohms
GU W PKD_KWKB#UKUKW WKKKPWUUU UK n , UWD [KWUUUW W

Pi_PW W n Z )rUWD4@ i_ K D?wQLK_BIiIlK[BDU
WJD! BB/P
PP UUPB_U UiW
UP o @àKioW#I!iP_PBiWBUBP@KP
WUP[o
PB[ _KKiKiBB WK[P_A_P BUPUBU]`pnPoi i UKUK _ WP
PP U oK_ PUI [U1UUP_ B UPKB_U WUI KiW_U1_W_
i Ki Ko U[UI!iP_PBiUUKKi ii H KB iP BUP i#iWD UKi
UK AKUKW KB 3 U !1KnKP K P@P W
_ !_ iKB
_K1P[ PU i_PW U1UIPKP
W !iKUP o_UK JUP_UWUPUKKK WUBKi
BrmZ/836/7m<)1#"4
N
.
1[U_ 1KiW@W<=i_ _HnK Di2PK K[P_[i2PU iKBWK 2PKn P_

-DW ]UP
PUUPI!iP_PB BoBD K<DUPP U2_Pi_PW UiiIi[oPU
P!iKUP UBPBiiIi[AiP_D@B^PB K_D_BKB[ P@BD KAD!-
_ P_IWKM D!1lUP P PP U UIUK K1B_U U BBB[KB K
- DPKU_ KW KB[KUPUiWD_#PA WI!UPB[ WUUUiWo@BP_KUKD WUUU
] D2 DD_Ki U WU_bKPnKP_ WWKB[ 0KKKi U KWPBPBiU{PP UD [UP
BUPUBUD nWK[ iW
UP o1PUIBD K( D!! KUi 1KK! nDPUi
APBWU( UUioKiDKK K[K_îPBP U U!UKi[7@UKo7oK_ i {y!U_PUN v
K_n BD KWK DWU[ Q KU__r iPIU[ _BD P ! K iP_K_ K[P_[i
o_Al_Uo
UPiW _i_ _ < K K BKU_ KW@UiUK !@BX 7H
K[P_UP
xBD KU1KUWIK[: k BK PK !iKUP o {yIPoU/_
iUP o] oHCAK X %{]
`=I"syIKU KK UPYJ DDKK- }C #UUU_P KB[
%{]
LBU_3 DKP- }C p #U_W3 %{]U lBD P UB_n I@#P_BD7KBWi
U U!UKi[UUUUUPPWBD K =k"% BP@KA_U DKD_ K _KWUUU
UPW WKiW nPP W KUPB_U WKWK K[P_^K_KPi1UWD_WUxKUKD
`WBKUPUK ]KUn WK @= |PDU[ n DKU WK nK
D!BUPW K@Uo
_KB
ER + EL + EC should equal Etotal
3.1472 + j19.177 V ER
-18.797 + j3.0848 V
+
135.65 - j22.262 V
EL
EC
120 + j0 V
Etotal
?_[?_??-?-[+?#N
5
[ 4?
44? ?4[[ 3-4P?[? ~ - C!4
34?? Z8? 4[O_4[
250
120
V
60 Hz
1.5 F
# NN :Z?'??
#2?N0Z
(
650 mH
"U8]Br58
$
"5
++
)#*
N
#
#
'Z# ? ys$ a s $:(
'Z# ? $ a #:
Z
rB
8 rNZ'
rB
8 rN Z'
? $
B Z'
y$
8 N Z'
a
Z
a
ZN

Nr ZN

8 N ZN
(
86NN N

8r Z'
= 19.43 V 80.68o
EL = 19.05 V 170.7o
= 137.5 V -9.320o
I = 77.73 mA -99.32o (actual phase angle = 80.68o)

Z8? ?[?_P44??[3!
5H4H?4#4O[-?C444O44H 4[!C-3 4[!C-

44P5[#NN?[?PX[4?4N?- 8[ -5`[
[4!4+?41E-4N-[ -45[+[
` ` 48?34[![5POP5 [4 444[
??--?4+?[O#4P!?N*?CP?4+!44
?5? 85
X"<!"
41?4[4
" $ PP %
!
_[?ss ?4[4?U[4[![`N![? [8
O [O? `?O[[[4X4?
-?? 44C[4 441!?` Js
[4?N?44N!?3?[O[
7

__?[ _ ` 4C![ H 4[!C!4- [O-

?34 [ ?H?s3[

P!4[44N_
.0/1/324252W/
_`?4N`-?4[O?!P?4

![_?O4[`4[![
N?[4
Br By3*)#)+)M)#5
120 V
60 Hz

250
650 mH
1.5 F
58??*4!??[![-?#-?+-[4

_?[P4 [?4P-?`?44
?`[8[344C[8!4P[_!_[
120 V
ZR
60 Hz
ZL
250 0o

ZC
1.7684 k -90o
245.04 90o
[?H4[`4??? 3[ {( XOH?HH[?!

4 ?s-O[J[444?JP[ s[[4_4[![
U?4[4
R
Total
120 + j0
120 0o
E
I
Volts
Amps
250 + j0
0 + j245.04
0 - j1.7684k
250 0o
254.04 90o
1.7684k -90o
Ohms
P[3-?JN[[U4N* O![![4J?!

?C!*?O[4_4P[
Total
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
I
Z
Volts
Amps
250 + j0
250 0o
`!*
!4
0 + j245.04
0 - j1.7684k
254.04 90
1.7684k -90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Etotal = ER = EL = EC
#" h y
Ohms
4??4[[![?4?4[4?4N?
$
"5
Total
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
250 + j0
480m + j0
$
480 0o
"U8]Br58
0 - j489.71m
489.71m -90o
0 + j67.858m
++
Volts
Amps
67.858m 90o
)#*
250 0o
0 + j245.04
254.04 90o
0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
Ohms
Law
I = E
Z
Ohms
Law
I = E
Z
Ohms
Law
I = E
Z
Ohms
??s-?!4[44?H!*4?![ -_4

44?*?? ?N[![
B &J &
!
4 hy

'
N

_?!(
P[? U?4[4? y ?J?C ???4 ?

4?[44!4H? COP ????
N @ [ ? 4-*? X?8!*;`C[4 4?
)**?UN4!-#4 [- ?J?4?3!14N
O[?J[!?N?[*4N ??N
![4[!C#*O ` *??`? ?!!?4N N4?* +"#
4?4[?!4?E?[4N { h
?

,
I
Total
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
480m + j0
480 0o
250 + j0
250 0o
0 - j489.71m
489.71m -90o
0 + j245.04
254.04 90o
0 + j67.858m
67.858m 90o
0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
480m - j421.85m
639.03m -41.311o
141.05 + j123.96
187.79 41.311o
Volts
Amps
Ohms
? [
[?43U-? ??XP[+??83-4!!"4 `
![_PC Zp? ?4P_44
Br By3*)#)+)M)#5
battery symbols are "dummy"

voltage sources for SPICE to
use
as current measurement
.
points. All are set to 0 volts.
2
Vic
Vil
/
Vi
3
1
120
V
60 Hz
0
250
Vic
bogus
650 mH
1.5 F
0
13254 NN 2628794:29;79<
>=?=5@?132A=9BC@ 7ED
7F=5B?132G@
794HBHIH132J@
7 B 132J@
4LK3M e ; FN =9OCP:=9B

7L2JBHQH132J@
4>=RIH@?B N @
= N @?Q N @ES
23=RQH@T=VU N ;
UW132 7XDY=RQC@?QC@
U 4:7ED8<?132H7>sZ 7L[67>Zs794:[67>Zs7 [?7\Zs7L28[
U 4:7ED8<?132H7 sZ :7C[67 sZ :794[67 Z 7 [G7 Zs7L2C[
UWO]D8^
4O_
:
QÙW@L@C@
@ =
4O_
:
QÙW@L@C@
@ =
7>sZ :7C[
QÙWILaC@ PL@:=
7 Z 7C[
P U=9I:= @=
7\sZ 794[
WU bC@C@ PL@=
7 Zs794:[
@eUW@C@C@ @C@
7>sZ 7 [
WU bCaLc L
P @=
7 Zs:7 [
PaÙW@C@C@
@ =
7>Z 7L28[
QÙdcCbCQ P@CB
7 sZ 7L28[
aÙd@C@C@ @=

g
fU`h]BLiRh5`f j flk Gfgk5nm++lflk oh)3flk*
total
= 639.0 mA -41.31o
= 480 mA 0o
IL = 489.7 mA -90o
IC = 67.86 mA 90o
p 5]JOC??C?)??4rq8s p? (5JtJ?4[ou-[[

v v C!?4 !!!? ! 4N? [-[ ? v v
?-?3[H?O8?! ??4Ns[?? ? C!?![#XP!Rq8s p?
41?4!Ew_41?5?[N4 4[-[?*
C!5-!gu4?4N4?)w1O*?8[54*[5?[N-4-
q8s p? [?4N+5Xx ? ?4N+?5[N45
?48[O!P44?
y )z
{|}e~}>: gG?
?] ?44?4[![ 4[-![OC44N?

` ![-[_-+???-5?_-?- ![[?O5`?
4A -5?N4![-?U??4?4NPC!4N
*?_?4- [4![PP4[
120
V
60 Hz
C1
4.7 F
650 mH
C2
1.5 F
470
!!-? ??4u\w+_[44N!

- N4O 4`?! JX ?!-4
uwU[[8!+4[?4O4-8!4uw?-!4ulw1?
?P[u\w
Li8iJ`h}m\flh}fgV`hrj 3fgk5

Reactances and Resistances:

XC1 =
1
2fC1
XL = 2fL
XC1 =
1
(2)()(60 Hz)(4.7 F)
XL = (2)()(60 Hz)(650 mH)

XL = 245.04
XC1 = 564.38
XC2 =
1
2fC2
XC2 =
1
(2)()(60 Hz)(1.5 F)
R = 470
XC2 = 1.7684 k
ZC1 = 0 - j564.38 or 564.38 -90o
ZL = 0 + j245.04 or 245.04 90o

ZC2 = 0 - j1.7684k or 1.7684 k -90o
ZR = 470 + j0 or 470 0o
g`-4_?`[?_[!
C
120 + j0
120 0o
E
I
Total
0 - j564.38
564.38
-90o
0 + j245.04
245.04
90o
0 - j1.7684k
470 + j0
1.7684k -90
470 0o
Volts
Amps
Ohms
4?4[ !4
4 :
4[!CN-P?*C?4*?5?
-?4# !4 5?" # ?454[?4s
?4_[P4? 4?543P[J[4P[?34
5???_?44[?[4 X[PNNCP[
?`[` + ???!
p O++!5 [?-?N[P[4???OC[[
?C`??!s-???-N?55[[5?4NO?!?P
P_[!?4+-[`-- p P[*4 414?
!4?[NC!?-?`4N5?
flU`hTLiRh5`f jflk Gfgk5nm++lflk ohrje3flk*

L -- C2
Total
C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
R // (L -- C2)
Volts
I
Z
Amps
Ohms
??u4[?:w5P?N[ [? ?4`

[? v 4[?4 v ?*4[5s[4 _[4_
4*#?`??X`?N[?43?_?P
L -- C2
R // (L -- C2)
Total
C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
120 0o
E
I
Amps
Volts
0 - j1.5233k
1.5233k -90o
429.15 - j132.41
449.11 -17.147o
Rule of series
circuits:
ZL--C2 = ZL + ZC2
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 -58.371o
Ohms
Rule of series
circuits:
Ztotal = ZC1 + ZR//(L--C2)
Rule of parallel
circuits:
1
ZR//(L--C2) =
1
1
+
ZR ZL--C2
qCX]`G]`(X]3o)l]L']t3`t v] ) v #lX'']'o'3]

']'#3'W']t 3tX3]3)+'o]e]33o](X']t+t(('+]3
x L E)wg3(o(]']]t']]|uWE|])
A'3r#CA'o()t:X]3uxXx3 ]! d
v ]'] v ]('(]j]'
w\X]g gV9u p( \w+]((]t|'
( ]']>'(XLX
L8J8dgV `rj

L -- C2
R // (L -- C2)
Total
C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
120 0o
76.899m + j124.86m
0 - j1.5233k
146.64m 58.371o
429.15 - j132.41
429.15 - j696.79
449.11 -17.147
1.5233k -90o
818.34 -58.371o
Volts
Amps
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z

#>'VjtLV#`Wg])WXtX:'+LXW(]V>'(X(`]CgjL'>]V]jL ]tj(]j

+)R(3't(3(|()#])]|]'!()#'(XL p (W:' 3 '|j)tX
3(]| u

wWj'}(3r'ou (]']w#3('LXC(t3l'(]':o:X33o:(X
(3d()t:X]3E ('XX LjX()3Wr'3'(]']`''LtL(:'
t3oj
C
E
Volts
146.64m 58.371o
" 0 - j564.38
Z
# 564.38 -90
%I
" 0 + j245.04
" 0 - j1.7684k
! 470 + j0
245.04 90o
1.7684k -90o
470 0o
C
R // (L -- C2)
Ohms
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
120 0o
$ 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m

"
Amps
Rule of series
circuits:
total = IC1 = IR//(L--C2)
L -- C2
Z
$ 76.899m + j124.86m
C
L
0 - j1.5233k
1.5233k -90o
146.64m 58.371o
146.64m 58.371o
429.15 - j132.41
449.11 -17.147o
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 -58.371o
Rule of series
circuits:
total = IC1 = IR//(L--C2)
%I
Volts
Amps
Ohms
XeXX']t']] 8']3>''' 3g'`('tE 3)3'tr8 ] u

w
3(t3g3 } 9Tu gp \w]((]t(LW']r]3X
)(

C
$ 70.467 - j43.400
Z
Volts
146.64m 58.371o
" 0 - j564.38
# 564.38
-90
" 0 + j245.04
" 0 - j1.7684k
245.04 90
! 470 + j0
1.7684k -90
470 0o
Amps
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
L -- C
6 82.760 -31.629
& 76.899m + j124.86m
C
l
TL*l++, -.
/10` -324rje
5
C
R // (L -- C2)
49.533 + j43.400
: 65.857
41.225
120 + j0
120 0o
146.64m 58.371o
146.64m 58.371o
429.15 - j132.41
! 449.11
-17.147
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 -58.371o
" 0 - j1.5233k
1.5233k -90o
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
8 Volts
& 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m 9

Amps
o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
L)8]3t )3X)>#]'`':]L##]3:g((+(X]`'g]t']]l8']j

(L( ]3(l('X 3]']tC3(]o\ ] u
wt3X(r'(]';l])8
]
(=<r')3?>+ A@ ]t'V9C(3!(>
B
Etotal should be equal to EC1 + ER//(L--C2)
70.467 - j43.400 V
+ 49.533 + j43.400 V
120 + j0 V
Indeed, it is!
3]W}d']'|o'X]8(]V p o']+'C|W(j+]#(3+r3]XC(3'

3)]:]((3d#X(']EeW]jj(L( )X)8e]g(3r(9gjX'(]+] #]'
j|3XX'(]('3W()'t|C|8L'C('t(o(rj3VW(X!] '']
+ '39Ct(]]Eo]]]t']]+8']3](L(
3o'l3(] u

wC#lLW
]3'(]Ee'`3XW(]>+3](X+]:]XL'Wj'l'(]o])l]+('LD p |'+X](]L(3
'X(W(gugw`]3(3g3(]V(gt33']3'rWE]jj]t(gu

wWj'+(r'
])]:XX3(+(3(lW'`>o:X33X`](+3]']t3+'X)o](XX X(]']]#lX()jdX
(3]]t']]g3]3(F
Ed3WlWtX|]+L(o(]3#]}A]3

L8J8dgV `rj

C
& 70.467 - j43.400
Z
C

H 49.533 + j43.400
R
: 65.857 41.225
82.760 -31.629o
& 76.899m + j124.86m

146.64m 58.371o
" 0 - j564.38
# 564.38
-90
" 0 + j245.04
G 245.04
90
" 0 - j1.7684k
+ j0
! 470
470 0
1.7684k -90o
Volts
9 Amps
Ohms
Rule of parallel
circuits:
R//(L--C2) = ER = EL--C2
7E
L -- C
E
49.533 + j43.400
: 65.857
41.225
o
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
49.533 + j43.400
I 65.857
41.225
120 + j0
120 0o
146.64m 58.371o
146.64m 58.371o
429.15 - j132.41
! 449.11
-17.147
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 -58.371o
8 Volts
& 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m 9

Amps
" 0 - j1.5233k
C
R // (L -- C2)
1.5233k -90o
Ohms
Rule of parallel
circuits:
R//(L--C2) = ER = EL--C2
7E
G#] (}]t:W`](('Le''](g(EWd']`]3o(3(]'l('tE`3(]

}>rXX!(o+3tg + 9 u p(# >we((t:']V'(]3X
C
& 70.467 - j43.400
1
E
I
Z
C
+ j43.400
I 49.533
65.857 41.225
82.760 -31.629o
& 76.899m + j124.86m

146.64m 58.371o
" 0 - j564.38
# 564.38
-90
" 0 + j245.04
G 245.04
90
105.39m + j92.341m
140.12m 41.225o
" 0 - j1.7684k
! 470 + j0
1.7684k -90
! 470 0
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
% 7J
8 Volts
9 Amps
Ohms
L -- C2
E
I
Z
! 49.533 + j43.400
I 65.857
41.225
l
TL*l++, -.
/10` -324rje
5
C
R // (L -- C2)
&
! 49.533 + j43.400
I 65.857
41.225
120 + j0
120 0o
-28.490m + j32.516m 76.899m + j124.86m

146.64m 58.371o
43.232m 131.22o
" 0 - j1.5233k
! 429.15 - j132.41
1.5233k -90o
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
! 449.11 -17.147
8 Volts
& 76.899m + j124.86m 9

Amps
146.64m 58.371
! 429.15 - j696.79
o
818.34 -58.371o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
% J
3(33)8 )X)`((jtLrj((te'o'(Xg3]3(E}

}

]3!A|'(r')>3('LXKg'to'L<r))?>+ '(X} 9C(X!(]\
IR//(L--C2) should be equal to IR + I(L--C2)

105.39m + j92.341m
+ -28.490m + j32.516m
C
76.899m + j124.86m
Indeed, it is!
qC3(oR]3M
](]3X'X('tE:3W3L3H''(Xl('](Xtr('tE
3(] t:X]3 #] 8W('8('3o'(XLj]'('|6jN ]3rt+
(3(r WX(Xt)t'}+'C('tE+]:]XL'+(3'l'''(XLX
C
& 70.467 - j43.400

1
E
I
Z
C
L
82.760 -31.629o
& 76.899m + j124.86m

146.64m 58.371o
" 0 - j564.38
# 564.38
-90
-28.490m + j32.516m -28.490m + j32.516m

43.232m 131.22o
43.232m 131.22o
" 0 + j245.04
G 245.04
90
" 0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
49.533 + j43.400
65.857 41.225o
105.39m + j92.341m
140.12m 41.225o
+ j0
! 470
470 0
8 Volts
9 Amps
Ohms
Rule of series
circuits:
L--C2 = IL = IC2
%I
O t(o]#d W(u'3t9dr](]j'w]t(]3]38WV'3t](3 t)tX

t (t:X]33'(XLl3(El3]r5]3P ]t#39'8!r]g3 rV9
u gp \w]XW'Xt(LWd#]3'X'r]]t']]r8']3X
L8J8dgV `rj

C
& 70.467 - j43.400
Z
82.760 -31.629o
" 0 - j564.38
# 564.38
-90
"
8E #''!'|q8s p
0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
Vir
S120 V
1.5 F
C2
0
650 mH
60 Hz
I 65.857 41.225
470
UVXW)YQZ\[]YWQ^?_U)ZÙbacadYcaeZ`^cac^`VfVb[gZ,Vgh[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnkgoclpWb[rq
j\[giskmotUVl
j\[)abV.u3vpUV3l
j\[gZtutwtUVl
Vk*otu3vFxzy?h
a.vn{twc{clg|
V)oX{tl}k~xz{?h
Zpwtlfv`ycl
xzUV.a[qk*wclXwcl
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjoKu,Njd_o;u,3['j[gi\3[r_zj\[gi\
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjv{,Njd_v{,3['j[)a`Vb.[_j\[)abVb
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmj{Kl,Njd_{;l,3['j[)a`Vb.[_j\[)abVb
Volts
105.39m + j92.341m
140.12m 41.225o
Amps
470 + j0
470 0o
Ohms
more "dummy" voltage sources to

act as current measurement points
in the SPICE analysis (all set to 0
volts).
Vilc
! 49.533 + j43.400
]}]8'+'jX't|]3##]'
C1
4.7 F
"
0 + j245.04
245.04 90o
Vit
76.451 41.225
-28.490m + j32.516m -28.490m + j32.516m

43.232m 131.22o
43.232m 131.22o
146.64m 58.371o
-7.968 - j6.981
10.594 221.22o
& 76.899m + j124.86m
C
R 57.501 + j50.382
L
Q
X
l
TL*l++, -.
/10` -324rje
5
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjwKl,Njd_w;l,3['j[gZ\3[r_zj\[gZ\
xzY)qb
`Z YQ
wxzldlclQbblk
Z`YQ
wxzldlclQbblk
Z`YQ
wxzldlclQbblk
Z`YQ
wxzldlclQbblk
jo;u,
jQ_oKu
xzodycwQbblk^duxkgwcuQbcl\k
jv{,
jQ_v{
k~xzld{cQbblk^k~x1uccQbclco
j{
jQ_{,
yxzw)v`{Qbblk vxkgocoQcbl\k
jw
jQ_w,
wxz{dcwQbblk vxkgocoQcbl\k
['j\[ri\
k~xv`wdwQ^dl\k
['j\[?a`Vb
vFxzucoduQ^dlco
['j\[?a`Vb
vFxzucoduQ^dlco
['j\[rZ\
k~xv`lk^dl\k
[r_j\[gi\
{x1cucyQbcl\k
[r_j\[)a`Vc
k~x1u\kgoQbclco
[r_j\[)a`Vc
k~x1u\kgoQbclco
[r_j\[gZ\
vFxkgocoQbcl\k
k
bo
)t3+:(lq8s p ]8'8eW(]]E (+]t']]t'33](}t''LX]]3''L

3Wot]+ >`' \3 t(3'8XXl]](]:'X(j]'X8!]3+']3
3]3 3(X|3(E#t(3'l]38W']t
l`L't'](]e('tE 3]']tb 5't3]t8(9o:X]X`3W`jl3WEo(3
(3''t3!'X]tn]|X(jEW8El'3(]o3t CjX'Xg 9u t'
X]' #gp \wld't ]g('>]r8!(])j3('L 9}
<r')3? > O to(3'
g(oj](X']]rCX('] ]('Ct3|]g'XX'(](o3t L3:](]3X(3
3W(3tX+]3!(E)3X ('tE 3)'+'X8j(]'r ]((3(]o
') ]3t
}3]t8(]:('tE 3)c )t' j)'}(] WX(X 3)tX R
Wjd)L(]r8:
> X(X3#(3l\3(E3](]j#](r] u]l(Xw (
yLz
t:](']('jX'3:(!WX(X j)tX (E83't6u(t:'tjwX :t>

p
]]3W8('t3'jE3u\w+]`'!'X(d']E3383(]E\3j]t(X 3#9
jLg]tEl+ : C3(E((X ]](X(ou\w}tjd'X]`t3]3(t
'X(d)3oulwjt33)3u w3j!X3t'ju w
{
;
O t( (]'3to X8(] X't3g]j#usw\]tKt)3](]3'o3](X

(3(]oX']3(3X3(]3g] T') t W]tjXL8>'j(3
]e(j
5](]j 3(}] L3L''tE +t 5](]3e3Wg(XL3L''tEeg
V9\
<r')3?
>+ V9}X3X]X(od(!(X]'gtE'X AW(t'(3
F+X
])]]('LE]3ojE3}'} 8'X'(X+'] L3:) l'#(']3tEWC](
W()(X]X#3tX|() 6)t'(|]
g8t(]
6X!(']t:(8
(#]'+t(8r'o33](tE+)'V +']W('X|C!o3j8t('E
s#](XeW`
EdX#t(]'E]j+3:}]X(Et' +)3]8(Xeto'`jC: XX3(
:X#'X'tt)t+:']3(]'jE|j|'XWEL
;
Ed3Wl8((3'X|++'(EWd'])
)+''X\3]38t3o'L'X+o]'rt'X+]X't!] '(]]'('Wt]
'tX '|j'WW(XR5]38W( ]C((EWd']E
O X ]XR+'5jLXt3 m
383(]EC3X3t(]e]:]X9]t3XeL(jEjXu>w]j](X]'}'LX3\'}:X
L8J;0M0
X3
(])4
} ((3XV3(8XX +'('d'3]3 d''(X]XtE'X]]3C T')
3(t3' v 3 v ]'`g +V9 #gp p(# e3]3 #9p
+XoX:r'3]3t'](Ej]'X8'X'(XP`? ] ]' ]8(E('(]
XW'X)r+])]3 ''LX+X'3]]'(] ' 3(`(C]e]3(
jW38()]t sjL(t(Xl(]'Egs]}]''t>+'']]t(3!u3( eX']w
8(E't!(X(X+((3]3'38'])]rl''L+oE]('X\3]3!(t8'X't!(X(E
((3WW3 R8(XXX (3!W3'(]9 ( 8(E(ot HjL(t(X]'t
jC(
XL
l
TL*l++, -.
/10` -324rje
5
=
gF;e~

#j]t('W((X(|'r]' X('g3X>33!X('Xt|]tXW+(3ld']'XX']

:'L(F ] d p j83'])W((lX((3}]' V]](3X\8]3X('Xt
]
tXW+(jlW(]'X!3']]+oC'r't!]XtE'(3 bD3 #]3]'])3!tj83'])+'
W8Xr]''(E]'to]> W((3'XWX(t tXL'](88E O X
(3X(d#dC:Xr]`(E](]]:]X)r'o8'X't]3X'X(]'E:(Xt]L)'!'
8X3X#'d']'X']+>'C3C3(3\'X(tX
p 3X'(3X3t( 383(W']W)V8 tog)j']Xd)(9(#d#g]jL) +8 )33]
3']jdX'3)]3r]((V9(E't}(Xt+
])e3'(X8XX p #((
(j:' ]:]X)'W3b
EdX(X'Wj8 ]X(] ]#]t'u(9>'] oL'](t
E(EjW''w\'j]t(r+t ]X(sL)Ct)3](]3'383(]r+t`]:(o)j
3('LX8X9C(X3t(]()3](X!d)(]3!(383(+t(38')3](X|W'(
Battery momentarily
connected to start the cycle
e=
i=
Time
capacitor charged: voltage at (+) peak

inductor discharged: zero current
j]t(`+t:t'o')3']]t'])]g8X(E](tjXC+](tj83']#+tjX]

(3t v )3]( v !(r(o'j!+'(XL3(E](X#t''tX
e=
i=
+
Time
capacitor discharging: voltage decreasing

inductor charging: current increasing
l
sm}'A
4
+383(XLd'tj)3](t33+tj]XX'(3 +r(lt)3eL't3(lX3t( 3] :X

t(Xt|')3']E\CtE9CtX']t'''#E
e=
i=
Time
capacitor fully discharged: zero voltage

inductor fully charged: maximum current
otj83']r+t L']t'(XL T]X+t(]]t']]oX\ p XV+t]X)'

]t']]|ut]o3W(X(w}t ])8l(|X''Ll(3o't'X(]> oX3t(XjjXt!(3
'XL+(}('LEL+>jX](]X()3](l!']3jLWt(r:]'d|j]']

e=
i=
-
Time
+
capacitor charging: voltage increasing (in opposite polarity)
inductor discharging: current decreasing
O X|'tj83']+#33]t|8Xt(E!] t'+X']'X(']3|(3X'(3o'o3]E8(3

]3]']+t>j9](E])Eù]]t']]9w`)3](g(:(':]'td|]+XlW']W'X\
e=
i=
-
Time
+
capacitor fully charged: voltage at (-) peak
inductor fully discharged: zero current
? 'g+o38t(]!]'(t]'+3'g#W']W'X\'j]t(#t>)j']g]3X'

3('Lto(3}'E 3X3t(Xj]']+t8:to'r')3'](3(](+383(X]X3(
3(E](t '(XLu(3]3jLWt(t'X(]]lj]'Ewl3!8X(E](t]t']]]lr83t(X
t'++X((EWX(]
e=
i=
-
Time
+
capacitor discharging: voltage decreasing
inductor charging: current increasing
L(jt(X3t(]+t\8()3](}'X(])CX9Ct3(3g383(3t)3']E+t(3t
3('L(']3]E
]m V
+;
` 0
e=
i=
Time
capacitor fully discharged: zero voltage

inductor fully charged: current at (-) peak
383(X 8EW(']tL) '(XLt '|'8(E(]V +t#]t]W']tV

]X)'t3])]]|jW''' L(L3( p 8](3'|]3]']+:t '
)3](g]3'3('L++tV8E'XWtt(38
e=
i=
+
Time
capacitor charging: voltage increasing

inductor discharging: current decreasing
L(jt5( X3t(]+tr:X?)3']E6L?]!(338j(! 8jX3rt'

3']'X(']E`'(C(]tL']t('LE ]t'g+V]jL!:})+jLWt(]:X]!]3
(3('LX'3 ](E#]lt\Ctg>'X(8)j}jdX'rj]t(]3
383(]E
e=
i=
+
Time
capacitor fully charged: voltage at (+) peak

inductor fully discharged: zero current
+'(]+t ]L(Cr+'d'X]t!8E'XW'38r(:X+tL((X#'] d''9

'X(W']3El''E>L(('8E(d']3r]']](XXg):':39C]]Ct(!(3
#|:3t3l'ojX38 (W+Lgj])3]((V(X(or|()3W]''t`X']
']Ct ](Ct3( u](]jw' j](L']uXtwG (o](]5( '#9 X']
r()3W''X t(3|]3]'] 383(]t)t3)3W' t(3|t(X(3(]'+''L
uC'r](]X'(3)w]3!]]t']]u:'L(>XtE'(X(8w
#(:X]Xt+] X)(+o:3t33(r]''t |W(3+3(+))X+8'X't3X
p 'jtL'3:'L(`X(RuXtL)w] 8 3C'X']5u'tjw
}X'3
g((}(+3)(3'+9]8t}3]'(XPL)L'']:]L}+'(W('
jtL'XGd'']tL8+Vf
#(:]Ej](L']+X(?uXtL)woX( ]3RC'X']
u](]jw] 8 >]|('tX`jX38 o3) ]3 ](( '(] +t+]L(C
+t(W(E]8]jXX]tt(j8]j((EW3l]`+'(] u'X(d)3Ew+8'W3't3X(]
}(
t(}t)tX](ljX38 `jLWt(]]3o]8tdXW'X)()]d#(t+9]Eu r8X]'E
]} 33](Ew#(o
l
sm}'A
4
maximum
potential energy,
zero kinetic
energy
mass
zero potential energy,
maximum kinetic energy
potential energy =
kinetic energy =
p C8(X(3oCtj }3()#W 9]L(t(] oE)3]#(8d' o]tX3

u] ( 'C'X] v qb
v w 3'38X(Ct3't3t3tE}]'!:'(3
'(]R] ]3]'] 383(ot)t3R(3't5]jX38j((o'd
>XX p #''XW(']:(d]VCojX38 (j`t'jX(88+(le]'EC(gtX'
(3d'(t']'X33]+(Xt}] ']'+t'(td j}++C!:383t +t
]X(+tt3+(3(]r(33!]+(L(t(]j+8X(E](t(38 3't't)'
t3:38XLl ( ?
b3 ] 3']|W((EtX
`'eV(' ]V(#]3]'] 383(]>t)3E `'(e]'t'td'('tr8:j8L
(3(tXX\'X3t(`3|tj83']E3]'g]oL]V])]u]''L)wÈ])'X(:X't
:Xto(3+#9XX +3td]e(3)t)3 'd']'X']o((T't't])#]3
3('L3]E'X|+'3 ] cb p '']:(d] L'o(]]83()'LX3
']'tE(+]ej)]ttW'toX(!]'3!:d']'Xr]]E}tr(:X(t:j
X('rt)tl8EW]>
}#E#(!(j83G(5't']} 3]W']'LX3G|]ot(E6'
)t' 8tjW]Xt|X(tX|]'3}3(:(] p ]X3X'|C
?'}+t(3(]
]3])3ljt33)3u]]X] v
5t)t v w +tj(X3'tXW3LjW3]3 >:E'
+X(
?:Xl(])r'LX3')X#'3g3'']\'Lj] }+'((X)8X'#
(3'E L(X38X3(:(]
p >'l:X#(3to'Lj]t)3# ](o')Ee'gj(3']3'LX3\'r'E
]tj(]V '!t)3o(]':|RW'(] :] \ |C3(3]` >X'+t#(E])
] 8 (38t(]]'X(]3]3g'r(E](]>#o3X(:]'!3(E8+3r(3
'X(]3](L3+t\:g9](]j]3t3(]3#]3
g83!j9'}+3#(3 >:E)
'X(]3]3r']
?D -
Jc10VJgVVp,
1~l'A
-
X3t(]o3
t33']8t'X( X(E (]']' W(3t]tX5 ]ceb

+)'(Xu] Ww}r3((3](33]K#+(3+(L3]X']}]'
3'|WCb
E!:d#X(X3t(]+]3!(383(}t'r]' t(X(j(])]3
'(XL o]'E#]8}] 3Wr+t(E])|](XX
R(:Xo( 'Lj] )to]'t ))X'3'tX j(3']

't't'LX3 ](L(63* ]jL)38t(] ] +t`39
jX(E])E\
=D
{!~
l/)+}~K~K}-+
38t(](EW3j+t>:8:'tX3E|)'t}+(3(E])3X#(3j]t(
jrt33']V]( j'}X)](XX E]3W 38j(]`(E])3 tj'X](X+t(3(E](t'LX3

joX3t(]'X]']3}8E'XWE +t(3(E](t'LX3(3'++t3tjl]'LX3+'
(3X(rdo(E]'jX#+tVjj
10 F
100 mH
p '!]j|'tX!39]! X >X3t(3R X=383(]Eq8t3|#|C (3

L3(]3]8('t3t('X]']3]}X)Rt 'Lj]e]3 #] 'tCL](3
:]#+'+'}d#'X]']3Ee'+L3](X)o](XXL#l]W`(3}d#(E]'j]'3]}L3]
(E])(3}j(]]g]'LX3!]3']Xt
Xx
XL = 2fL
XC =
l
sm}'A
4
1
2fC
. . setting the two equal to each other,

.representing
a condition of equal reactance
(resonance) . . .
2fL =
1
2fC
Multiplying both sides by f eliminates the f

term in the denominator of the fraction . . .
1
2C
2f2L =
Dividing both sides by 2L leaves f2 by itself

on the left-hand side of the equation . . .
f2 =
1
22LC
Taking the square root of both sides of the

equation leaves f by itself on the left side . . .
1
f=
22LC
. . . simplifying . . .
1
f=
2
LC
r''++j9]E((r(Xtj3'}'X(]3]'LX3>']t)tX]]X'+X

t33)3 gl'8g]3 X3t']3 gt 3]'X e]t!t(Eg]#J3eA
]3+ 'E#r](']glo(EW3L#(33 ] }

O 3#3]:3+#'X(]3]3lPLt(tL''XW(3 O t(j]t(]3|tj83'tr(E])3XL3]

(X)R](XX '(]'jE3!3(E](X(t8jdE'3''3 '8)9}3
3('L|'] '
j#W)] O X?X'(3 38C8jrt:X]3E'5E >
]3]']3(rX+=
Jt33'] 3(g(3(]'3)Lt:X]3]'+']3W()'
(3+(X(]t
Jc10VJgVVp,
1~l'A
-
XL = 2fL
XL = (2)()(159.155 Hz)(100 mH)
XL = 100
XC =
1
2fC
1
(2)()(159.155 Hz)(10 F)
XC = 100

lg]t39]X'(X\ })('X(]jLl]tE}'|t(EW3jo:X33Xl(3

#'|XW'#]'+t( dE] X]
X `!3W!(3!3]']tt:X]3!]'3( WX|+3
3]jX3'')

Zparallel =
Zparallel =
Zparallel =
1
1
+
ZL
ZC
1
Zparallel =

1
100 90o
+
1
100 -90o
0.01 -90o 1+ 0.01 90o

01
Undefined!
O V gtC8C|CjX}C|X']3'(]loE]V'X(tXlX'9(3}(3

' X(l]')X+] , (d3]']t\jEjXl]g('X)](XX O 3
(3 E3 )]'X8'''3E]'(]']t:X]3l\l)o'te 833' :39C] ]
b è'X(]3]3 O l]o3t] (l]3(LX3E :(3`]er+8}:#e('LX3
)g+t((](
W3(]>

]E
l
sm}'A
4
1
1
1
Rbogus
C1
L
10 uF
100 mH
0
0
1 p
0
0
iÙ)q/Vc[gZVgh[ri Z`YdQh`Y)q\VXW YcY)_

j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
VkXkml}kgl)h
! #Z "%$'&dhWf[dWmq`YV)YWcW?UQZ .(i $XYba[D|[rqUQibY.UX,[gZ`YV]ita'$$)_
! "YQ#i YdY)qfj'k*U)q`tak) *[QV *+',.-]dnV?U)0q /z1
i *U)qbàdY
Z#"%$2&dh\Wtk*oskgYc^kgo
ak*otl}kglclr|
xzUV.a[qocl/kgldltocldl
x_,'a $QitUVX['j'kQ
xzY)qb
Z`YQ
['zj'kQ
uxkgwdoQ^dlQv
k~x1lclclQ^Qlcu
uxkgwco)^dlcu k~xzlQ^Qlco
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
!
k~xzldlclQbbldo x1wcucoQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
! x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo x1{clcwQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
! x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo yxv`{c{Q^Qlcu x
x
x
x
!
k~xkr{cQbbldo wxv`yclQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
x
k~xzokckbbldo {x1{QvòQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x !
x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo vFx1wcwcuQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x !
x
k~xzukgwQbbldo ux1cocQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x!
x
!x
k~xzudwcQbbldo ux1lcucuQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
! x
k~xvbo\kbbldo ox1ocy\k^Qlcu x
x
x
x
!
k~xvbyQvcbbldo k~x1{Qv`lQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
x
! x
k~xz{docwQbbldo x1ucycuQ^QlQv x
x
x
x
k~xz{dycQbbldo k~x1{cclQ^QlQv x !
x
x
x
x
!
k~xzwducoQbbldo vFx1cwcQ^QlQv x
x
x
x
x
k~xzwdQvcbbldo k~xkgucoQ^Qlcu x
x
x !
x
x
!
k~xzyducyQbbldo k~x1yQv`Q^Qlcu x
x
x
x
x
! x
k~xzydcQbbldo ox1uc{clQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
!x
k~xz)vòQbbldo ox1cuQvc^Qlcu x
x
x
x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo ux1{clc{Q^Qlcu x
x
x
x!
x
k~xz)v`yQbbldo vFx1lcwcuQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x !
x
!
oxzldlclQbbldo vFx1wclcQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
x
8Jc10VG8d#}'A
4
]
3

jC(')o!tt'(]J
!3 ] W 'X(d']oo]X 5(
L3]L'3}X]#]3Cgo)t#]L']to8'X383(] ]]t']]}(])gtC>K
]X(?'X(d)3]tr]+)LWX!(]#(j9]o> >:E}])t}jX39CtX
(t(]3t]''r''Ll]Xl'LX3)}E]'=
}otdXd

W(X3 WX] ]3 N
}3t3(] s
'(X]]t(3]G'']Gt3(E](Xo'] t |'
'tE+to(L3t3(E](Xl( ((:W'] 3('Lrt(r'']]E!Wj' 8
']33o(rjC(e:]#e l]C+)`(3tLWEd]38We:]L'`'X(X|(EW3j
'Lj]# } }++(3:]L+(3+()>('L']Y'j#}(]3'l]t(X'3
38XL']#( ])G8(|'C3EGL5(3
]8'!]38W]']X)
C+]}
3)])jt]l'38+3](( g]]? C+j|'LX3!](3
'E |W(X3X'l 88|t]3(|)3)](X(E'tX 'LX3 (EW:]jW
(3('tr}()3]]E#t'Lj]

4

5
6

87 9

:
+X(]3]38'+3]3]'t]3|38j(]'X)3X'rL3'X])'E
]R'3 '+t(F5'X(d)3

]t+]'
;<+'X(]3]!(L3
fresonant =
>7
69
(](XX
+t(H(3
LC
(]'3t:X]3+]r3]']t; t)3]')X t3tdo(+:#e('LX3

')X'X(]3]3
=@?
=2
]?:X'X
|'] 3t]W(9](
A)BDCEGFBHF
]o3tt(3]r3W]]3?8rj'LX3
KHF-I+
(t] >X`33jX3 WX(X383(] ]3]'t+')
XW'(+]'X(]j3 'X])3X
X3t(]l]3383(]g(E])3X L3J(ldt:X]3EX33E])](X8j(l(]'

o:X338(3#(LXK '%M
10 F
100 mH
ONQPSRsm}0T'A
4
]9
UAt 159.155 Hz:

VZ = 0 + j100
VZ
L
= 0 - j100
VZ
= ZL + ZC
VZ
= (0 + j100 ) + (0 - j100 )
VZ
=0
series
series
('}')WX(X`t:X]3WL3]3' `'g'X(]jL (6WL3e H

K]L'l'X(t
O tseries
gYX [ZbJZ ](L(+(4Hj#l(]3'l'X(]j3]\ 't)t'9+]j]8'#]
][^
]jL8\
`] (]t`(EWd']r ('X]3+t(']3]']3 ' tj83']']X
(3l]8 't''L(]+3`tt(X>C]3:(]' ]'
]3 8W ]X (3g'
)g] ' LX3XX

W
R1
1
_C
1V
2
10 F
3
L1
0
100 mH
0
W)YQZ[?YWa`VXVb[gZVrh[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}k
Vk*otu}kgl)h
ak*utl}kglclr|
x_,'a $QitUVX['j'kQ
xzY)qb
`Z YQ
['zj'kQ
uxkgwco)^dlco
k~xzlclcl)^dl\k uxkgwdoQ^dl\k k~xzl
k~xzldlclQbbldo k~x1lcucQ^Qlco !
x
x
x
x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo k~xkgycwQ^Qlco x !
x
x
x
x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo k~x1'u `'k^Qlco x !
x
x
x
x
!
k~xkr{cQbbldo k~x1'{ ``{Q^Qlco x
x
x
x
x
!
k~xzokckbbldo k~x1c'l `c^Qlco x
x
x
x
x
!
k~xzodwcuQbbldo oxk ``c^Qlco x
x
x
x
x
! x
k~xzukgwQbbldo ox1w\kck^Qlco x
x
x
x
k~xzudwcQbbldo ux1occwQ^Qlco x
x!
x
x
x
6h
ba8cTc10dP0eVfT8dgT}0T'A
4
k~xi`bo\kbbldo `Fx1uccQ^Qlco x
x !
x
x
x
!
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo wxj``ycQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
x
k~xz{docwQbbldo k~xkgcwQ^Ql\k}x
x
x !
x
x
k~xz{dycQbbldo {x1uco'`c^Ql\k}x
x
x
x ! x
k~xzwducoQbbldo k~x1cycuQ^Ql\k}x
x
x !
x
x
! x
k~xzwd' `cbbldo x1yccyQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
!
k~xzyducyQbbldo {x1yclcyQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
x
k~xzydcQbbldo `Fx1oc{coQ^Qlco x
x !
x
x
x
k~xz2 `òQbbldo uxj``lcwQ^Qlco x
x!
x
x
x
!x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo ox1c{coQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
! x
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo oxj``w\k^Qlco x
x
x
x
!
oxzldlclQbbldo oxkgwcQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
x
W
llj]']:''(XLl'383'XWE'] g(']LX+3t' Ljt3(E](X#']

((!j]W'] 3:XgW((X(!jol'ot]W'X' LX3:]} :((XW
j XXjtL(r]33(E8(E'X(]3]3jtL ] ] (]XWV'3 ]3 (EW3L
' Lj(g('#] W('X
') ]te8CX] (t3)8 ')
+)#'W
W
#K
kf
resonant
HK
W
HK
=
2
LC
G#])]:]8(] o'+'WX(X ; 'X(]3]L t)3) jEjW:(3}]'(XL'+)

9:+'X(Let('X R
)te'X(]j3]te`jL((t''C3}]]X(3(t]]t']]
8']3 '' (}X3t(] ]3(+383(X]X)o]jLe:'WE((X(ttj] jE3] O
] E8t(
4 3(d ':]o
o(338#])]](L(l(3j]t(
j|383(+(8Xo3W()(r+3}33jX3
W)YQZ[?YWa`VXVb[gZVrh[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}k
Vk*otu}kgl)h
ak*utl}kglclr|
x_,'a $QitUVX['j'kQjoKu,Nju,
xzY)qb
adY'&bY)q`0l
! lP['j'k)
0ljoKu,
m lju,
! ?^c^c^c^c^d^c^c^c^c^d^Xk~x1lclclQ^Qlco
uxkgwcoQ^Qlco
k~x1lclclQ^Ql\k
lxzu\krwco k
?^c^c^c^c^d^c^c^c^c^d^Xk~x1lclclQbclcl
uxkgwcoQbclcl
k~x1lclclQbcl\k
u\k~xzwdokglcl
n
ONQPSRsm}0T'A
4
m ?^c^c^c^c^d^c^c^c^c^d^Xk~x1lclclQ^Ql\k
k~x1lclclQbclcl
k~x1lclclQbcl\k
kgldlskgldlcl
Z`YQ
[j'kQ
k~xzldlclQbbldo k~x1lcucQ^Qlco !
x
x
x
m x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo k~xkgycwQ^Qlco x !
x
x
x
mx
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo k~x1'u `'k^Qlco x !
x
x
x
m
! xm
k~xkr{cQbbldo k~x1'{ ``{Q^Qlco x
x
x
x
! x m
k~xzokckbbldo k~x1c'l `c^Qlco x
x
x
x
! x m
k~xzodwcuQbbldo oxk ``c^Qlco x
x
x
x
! m
k~xzukgwQbbldo ox1w\kck^Qlco x
x
x
x
k~xzudwcQbbldo ux1occwQ^Qlco x
x!
x
x
x
m
k~ix `bo\kbbldo `Fx1uccQ^Qlco x
x ! m x
x
x
!m
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo wjx ``ycQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
k~xz{docwQbbldo k~xkgcwQ^Ql\k}x
x
xm !
x
x
k~xz{dycQbbldo {x1uc'o `c^Ql\k}x
x
x
m x o x
k~xzwducoQbbldo k~x1cycuQ^Ql\k}x
x
x m o
x
x
k~xzwd' `cbbldo x1yccyQ^Qlco x
x
o m
x
x
k~xzyducyQbbldo {x1yclcyQ^Qlco x
x
! m x
x
x
k~xzydcQbbldo `Fx1oc{coQ^Qlco x
x ! m
x
x
x
k~xz2 `òQbbldo ujx ``lcwQ^Qlco x
x !
x
x
x
m
k~xzdc{Qbbldo ox1c{coQ^Qlco x
! x m
x
x
x
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo ojx ``w\k^Qlco x
! x m
x
x
x
oxzldlclQbbldo oxkgwcQ^Qlco x
!
x m
x
x
x
X'8 '
4 `]t']]](L(( ]3]']|]36383(]p((E
l
q:rS:
1: :
: (:
+t(
3
( LjXe'X(jE't 'X])5 :X] W+X(!jdXFX] 3HX]]t' ](X C ' ]

+X((])3l]X(
L'(E((]|j#W3t'3]]X)'X]E
XX8X'#('9]8X8't'+C:'oXL(+'t)3)+W3)#(
s
tM

SW
=z
K
W
|')t:X]3]g ('Xo

')X'X(]3]3
+(]o]'3g] 8(X(t3(EW3LV' LX3tWt)'e]tE(W

WX(X)t'+Xt
C(']]]t']]E`]|:]'oE!'' 'rt3tC83>]:]X)# ('tEGt)t'

+(EW3j]883r(]''L }3(3W'L']\t3tC83>]:]X}jEjXX
t)t')X X( ](:Xo(3t ' LX3
W
uCCEvB\IwB4F yxfKHF-I+
E(X]3] ]}(EW33|3jE)( jjWXtE(o'(dWC'j'

:9]8X X(:X('X(EW3jXl]WW t)3r]''}F])(])
z
'M
8mQP0P4e';HRA STP {*}0T'A

4
}|
}#E'VV3V'X](] +X(]3]3 }]X(33te3(jXWd'X(]')9Xo3tX

o'd]3t(]3X
g 3( V'X(]3]3\(lXW'3tW+]3'td) ' LX3tt)3)V8EW]E(+'883
(t3X l(3]]l3)tX '] Vt)t3(X] ('jLW9+''#X3t(]3383(]
8(E'to]3X(X(](XX )33]gX']jdXX)](XX ]3W`]`g:j8 X:+3WE
(d) Xe(3`' LX3r3g8)E)3( >L(t(]j(g]+)t)t :#3WEr(d) X
(3XtE(' ' Lj]M
] )tX
l]g'X:((' LjWgC(3
']'ggWtXt8:3Lg:]']tE+e53
g3]l]'t(38E}]]t']]
]}'(X'X(L+t''t't3X
~
W
(
W
W
...
^
W
the natural frequency
... to the rest of

the "oscillator"
circuit
of the "tank circuit"

helps to stabilize
oscillations
...
}3(33W](EW3jt]X't3l+3'(3>:E']e]'X't3'XWE]8X(E](X
o:X33g3(('WLX3l8EW(E\An
'X(]3]}t)tgX:3(X():8):(EWXL
%
6W
W
W
]Go:X33() o( L3R']]]g' LX3XX#(C3( WW]' LX3

j' (d'']tR(']t ' LX3X]8olo l](X'X R]E(EW!3((3])t'o'
]tX
33|(3l8X(]]jd''8(E+8't3]W(j8!]t\Ct'(td
@:
Z
W
d
AC source of
mixed frequencies
load
Tank circuit presents a

high impedance to a narrow

range of frequencies, blocking
them from getting to the load
X'WX3(rr3T3]t|)]8(E]Xl'X')('|3t(XXV]WXtEE>]W''t

' Lj8} (! 8>:X(XL)]tW''t|' LX3!W]3]#L()X8(EL(]'j
W
W
|+X(]3]3]j+Xo3tX(L'=
6W
t)3eL(t(]3`]3W']L ( 33]D Ed3W

:j8XjjWE']tL)]3W']+L(t(]W:E!(oX]XX)3](
|+X(]3]3]R:!C3t'X )jEj']:((XXt(X8'](]t tj'X](

8X(E](t|t:X]3]rXW)(6WL3tE-)t'8X(]E(((X(']t(6W33tE
]8+ o>'L+'WLjX+']tX Z )
ONQPSRsm}0T'A
4
(
=[
H F-I+BFBQFCIwIEEQE.HBKB}F
Wt'X](]')#+'!((r]o(EWd)3]L(3g>:E']V)]8]tt('X|t:X]3r+t

tXW#`'g'X(]j3(6
W 33o3(E8(EC'l6LW 3't]]XX'tXX} |j)tX )(`
)tXC'#X]3#t3t(rt:X]3r'X(]3]3 ('tEGt)tXCt+oE3gXK 'o:X33
+'X(]3]3
kf
resonant
=2
LC
}#E(C]R(]tj]L]Xg(EWd)3!](L('883E L(Ld t)t'X '

(t](]J(EW3jjEoEL]t\ O l) tC]J!()};t)t'|+'
]38X (EWW'j]\jW!('9]t3Xg]X3t'j]3 t33)3j]']X
j X
=:(EW:X(]XtF
g't']3lW L3(]>3((EW3L+' Lj!(: ]
3]t8(XX
O ')V8(]V8+''(XL'X)X#] 8]+t3t(rt+t3
'^
W
W
Parallel LC with resistance in series with L

1
1
100
1V
_C
L
10 F
0
0
100 mH
0
0
Z`YW$)qU)qbitVb[gZVgh\[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
VkXkml}kgl)h
Z'kXkmo}kglcl
ak*otl}kglclr|
x_,'a $QitUVX['j'kQ
xzY)qb
`Z YQ
['zj'kQ
yxzlcyc)^dlcu
yxz'`ù)^dlcu
xz\kgu)^dlcu
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^
!
k~xzldlclQbbldo yx1uccyQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo yx1'o `òQ^Qlcu x
x !
x
x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo yxkckg{Q^Qlcu x
x!
x
x
!x
k~xkr{cQbbldo yx1lclcyQ^Qlcu x
x
x

HK
Lm}0T~A 41 T8dgT(P<eeV0e1vRwT
! x
k~xzokckbbldo wx1co\k^Qlcu x
x
! x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo wx1c{cQ^Qlcu x
x
! x
k~xzukgwQbbldo wx1cocuQ^Qlcu x
x
!
k~xzudwcQbbldo wx1\kguQ^Qlcu x
x
x
! x
k~ix `bo\kbbldo wx1cuclQ^Qlcu x
x
! x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo wx1cy'`c^Qlcu x
x
! x
k~xz{docwQbbldo wx1'``wQ^Qlcu x
x
!x
k~xz{dycQbbldo yx1l'``c^Qlcu x
x
k~xzwducoQbbldo yxkgwcyQ^Qlcu x
x!
x
k~xzwd' `cbbldo yx1u\kg{Q^Qlcu x
x !
x
!
k~xzyducyQbbldo yxj``c{Q^Qlcu x
x
x
! x
k~xzydcQbbldo yx1wcycwQ^Qlcu x
x
!x
k~xz2 `òQbbldo yx1ccwQ^Qlcu x
x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo xkck`c^Qlcu x
x
x !
!
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo x1uc{cQ^Qlcu x
x
x
!
oxzldlclQbbldo x1w\kgwQ^Qlcu x
x
x
[rq\[|h)|sVghcZcZ`Y)qbi3UQi krucwxzf
s[rq\Wgi`YcUd
$ kg{cxzc
o sg
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Parallel LC with resistance in series with C

1
1V
_C
1
1
1
100
Rbogus
3
L
10 F
100 mH
}X(#]GC()(EWd']d|Q [ EX''' ( 'L

jC(
X^ j38!]R383(o]E'X 8'X't
0
'] X3L(X((']3t

]']t+'5C ])W'
3
]oC 'otj83']EeW(]'t l WX(X(EWW(]XX'(]( ( 'X] 3 '!]t']]
(]) 383(]tC(3##]3](X(+(l:l(X> 3(EWW(]#)LWX(jr g 69]t3
]+t3}]!(3' }jX39CtX
6^
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}kglcl
Vk*otl}kgl)h
Z#"%$2&dh\Wtk*uskgYc^kgo
ak*utl}kglclr|
p:
%:
[
ONQPSRsm}0T'A
4
xzUV.a[qocl/kgldl``ldl
x_,'a $QitUVX['j'kQ
xzY)qb
`Z YQ
['zj'kQ
yxz2`ùQ^dldu
k~xzlcldlQ^dlco
k~xzoc{dQ^dlco
! x
k~xzldlclQbbldo k~xkgycwQ^Qlco x
x
x
! x
k~xkr{cQbbldo x1wcuc{Q^Qlcu x
x
x
k~xzukgwQbbldo x1oc{cyQ^Qlcu x
x !
x
x
! x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo yjx `ùclQ^Qlcu x
x
x
!
k~xzwducoQbbldo wx1ccQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
!
k~xzydcQbbldo wx1cuc{Q^Qlcu x
x
x
x
!
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo wx1cucQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
!
oxkrlc{Qbbldo wx1' `'k^Qlcu x
x
x
x
!
oxzodwcuQbbldo yx1lccuQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
!
oix `bo\kbbldo yx1ocwcQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
! x
oxz{dycQbbldo yjx ```Q^Qlcu x
x
x
! x
oxzyducyQbbldo yx1wcocwQ^Qlcu x
x
x
!x
oxzdc{Qbbldo yx1yc' `c^Qlcu x
x
x
!
uxzld{cuQbbldo yx1c{\k^Qlcu x
x
x
uxzokckbbldo x1lccwQ^Qlcu x
x!
x
x
uxzudwcQbbldo x1ocuclQ^Qlcu x
x !
x
x
uxz{docwQbbldo x1uc{coQ^Qlcu x
x !
x
x
uxzwd' `cbbldo jx ``'w `c^Qlcu x
x !
x
x
!
uxz2 `òQbbldo x1{cwcyQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
!
`FxzldlclQbbldo x1wcwclQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
[rq\[|h)|sVghcZcZ`Y)qbi3UQitsZ $)sh &#*,a }kgcf
l s/[rq\W]i`YdUd
$ kg{cx11
o g
+t')]3}W'L(]'WX(X+; t)t'X8#8jX(L}+t(](t:L}'X(W']3E

j)tX\+'t(Xl ]
g ']+t('tE+'t}XX 'X(d']
#+]E
!('tE`+t(|(r383(]j|]3]']`(ot#(]'\('L(EW33] ]C() (EWd)3
3WXW'X|( X3'X(]jL' LX3| >X)+#(E] 'X(W(X ]
(
W
s|H
S:
|<
2:

Series LC with resistance in parallel with L
R1
1V
_C
10 F
L
100 mH R2
3
100
0
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}k
Vk*otu}kgl)h
ak*utl}kglclr|
ZòXutl}kglcl
xzUV.a[qocl/kgld
l ``ldl
x_,'a $QitUVX['j'kQ
xzY)qb
`Z YQ
['zj'kQ
k~xzldlclQ^dldo
k~xzoc{dQ^dlco
k~xz{cd{Q^dlco
k~xzldlclQbbldo jx ``cQ^Qlcu x !
x
x
x
k~xkr{cQbbldo k~x1lc'u `c^Qlco x
x !
x
x
! x
k~xzukgwQbbldo k~x1oc'l `c^Qlco x
x
x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo k~x1ucucwQ^Qlco x
x
x !
x
!
k~xzwducoQbbldo k~jx `'kg{Q^Qlco x
x
x
x
!
k~xzydcQbbldo k~jx ```yQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
!
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo k~jx ```{Q^Qlco x
x
x
x
!
oxkrlc{Qbbldo k~jx ``'o `c^Qlco x
x
x
x
!
oxzodwcuQbbldo k~x1uccuQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
!
oix `bo\kbbldo k~x1ucwclQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
oxz{dycQbbldo k~x1ucocyQ^Qlco x
x
x !
x
oxzyducyQbbldo k~x1occwQ^Qlco x
x
x !
x
!
oxzdc{Qbbldo k~x1ocwcQ^Qlco x
x
x
!x
uxzld{cuQbbldo k~x1'o ``c^Qlco x
x
x
! x
uxzokckbbldo k~x1ococoQ^Qlco x
x
x
! x
uxzudwcQbbldo k~x1oclcoQ^Qlco x
x
x
! x
uxz{docwQbbldo k~xkgc{Q^Qlco x
x
x
!
uxzwd' `cbbldo k~xkgwcQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
ONQPSRsm}0T'A
4
E]
!
uxz2`` oQbbldo k~xkg{c{Q^Qlco x
x
x
x
!
`FxzldlclQbbldo k~xk`ùQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
U'o [|h)|sVghcZcZ`Y)qbi3UQitZs$)hs&#*,a}kgycxzc}[rqW]i`YcUd$ kg{dxzocsg
}j|j3tWX(X+;6)t}+'((ttj]+'X(W']3j)tX\+'!']3]']E
Series LC with resistance in parallel with C
2
2
_C
10 F
1V
100
3
L
100 mH
R2
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}k
Vk*otu}kgl)h
ZòXotu}kglcl
ak*utl}kglclr|
x_,'a $QitUVX['j'kQ
xzY)qb
Z`YQ
['j'k)
Z`YQ
['zj'kQ
k~xzoc{c)^dlco
k~xi`'kgu)^dlco
k~xz{cc{)^dlco
!
k~xzldlclQbbldo k~x1ucucwQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
! x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo k~x1ucwcuQ^Qlco x
x
x
! x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo k~x1uccyQ^Qlco x
x
x
!
k~xkr{cQbbldo k~jx ``lcQ^Qlco x
x
x
k~xzokckbbldo k~jx `òcwQ^Qlco x
x
x!
x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo k~jx `ùcQ^Qlco x
x
x !
x
k~xzukgwQbbldo k~jx ```yQ^Qlco x
x
x !
x
k~xzudwcQbbldo k~jx ``{clQ^Qlco x
x
x !
x
k~ix `bo\kbbldo k~jx ```yQ^Qlco x
x
x !
x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo k~jx `ùcQ^Qlco x
x
x !
x
k~xz{docwQbbldo k~xj`ò'`c^Qlco x
x
x!
!x
k~xz{dycQbbldo k~xj``lc{Q^Qlco x
x
! x
k~xzwducoQbbldo k~x1uccoQ^Qlco x
x
!
k~xzwd' `cbbldo k~x1uc{c{Q^Qlco x
x
x
!
k~xzyducyQbbldo k~x1ucoc{Q^Qlco x
x
x
k~xzydcQbbldo k~x1occuQ^Qlco x
x !
x
!
k~xz2 `òQbbldo k~x1oc{cQ^Qlco x
x
! x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo k~x1ococ{Q^Qlco x
x
!
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo k~xkgclQ^Qlco x
x
x
oxzldlclQbbldo k~xkg{c{Q^Qlco x !
x
x
'U o[|h)|sVghcZcZ`Y)qbi3UQi krucwxzf
s[rq\Wgi`YcUd
$ kg{cxzc
o sg
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
l(j83]]X'X(W']3l(oWG(3g:]L+)|jE3l'X)X]8

t3t R)tè]tX l]W((+]jWX(+t](}r3W''o:d#X

(3|
X]]5:]] ''gY(EWW'j|?>:E'(3!'X(]3]L:X ]l
)tX
Z

zQs(S.(L 2
')
|?WX(X+t(e8'X(]jL(6W 33|W3 'X9)
|?WX(X+t(Mg'X(]3]L'LW X3|(t (E
c#g'2}Q
|?3)tX\+'e8'X(]3]#'WLj!(t (E
|?3)tX\+'Mg8(EW3L(6LW 3|( 'X9)
}L>8'}ttjd''(X+(]L)'3'']ej]t(']3t33'])e3H'X(W']3r

( 'tE+''X(X]]L((EW33l>:E} LL+('X(W']3r3)tX+'!''E
]tCtLWX ((+
8]tEet>]] j(+'3`(l( 33tE`'}( 'XC
(3+
= b C3o'3(Wj:}(3gtXL'](o])je'+t'( ]]E\X)(3
}L't'X(]3]3r] >:Er(3(EW3Lt)38EW]X'gjd:9']d L3(]3g
8('t3t]L((EW33 W3 '] \]]3o+t3]ej}]X(E( 't:X'(]> `W3]
(b
+'l:t3tod'38X#\X(']e(338)W'jo(3`(3l >X CW'XL]3+3#)eX']
(X38X3X}](
l38X'X(W']3ot ]; )tr38W(XX O rjL((to']C8]('
]3]'])o+'J3]]tCL(ER'X(d)3XXetj83'])'dL3Xt 3]]ER+t(6(3W'L']
L'#(EWW'jr8(o(3t3(j +'jWE|(Xt}]3W('3't> O 3+]']C(3
'X(W']3+''3'!3(E](]g' LX3LE>V83'W()3oX] C+
(3+
]M +X(
J''Le(X3`(j 38E'] ()9]X8(']3]'l'oL(X]V+(
(3'C|'X8jo(+' + >X(]'' (X(]3]](E C3X383('+3}]3t!39]r'X(W']3
8 d)d \
(EWd)3+(3X
Z
g:
vZ
(X @
W

2^
@:
9 %Z
w
6W
W
W
t 9
^
6M
}
ONQPSRsm}0T'A
4
E
6^
lotl'!'X(d)3|r5t33'] +t'X(X 3] ( ]3(|']Xe#](39'

L(j+'( ]('WE r]\t'] (383('X]+)tXWe'(]X]e8E(EWd)3
(3#t)tX 3#t']l]38j(V]3X('d]VXt8Vl]33']' b\)33]
b o'C3ECot('3(''L(']o(}]+t'3't33}XtE'(+''L'(}]'
t'(t bD 3 >:E}]!:(]L(]|((!]'l ('']3d(X#'
(](}eWE3''']3d(X}]>:X('X(W(]r\e'X' (3] jXWEl383(Cd!
(3+t']o'] >X'eXoj+o E+']o3(Xo(E]]C8]'#8EW]j3t '8
'']X88}X]X]'|o3(X>
g3'] X8(]'(3't`)tl'X(W']3X3('X(]3]+' LX3( l(3
Wg ('X(EWd'] 38j( ]3]']
};
et)3) ot ]C]:]XL'#'gE(E
('X#+'X)|'EC(3(EW3L#( 33| (t)3}+t\:3? >:E'XC(3(EWd)3]
g 9'9
S:
Y:
%Z
H:2| g:'
6W
Series LC with resistance in series

R1
100
1V
_C
10 F
3
L1
100 mH
0
W)YQZ[?YWZa`VfVb[rZVgh[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}kglcl
Vk*otu}kgl)h
ak*utl}kglclr|
x_,'a $QitUVX['j'kQ
xzY)qb
`Z YQ
['zj'kQ
yxz'`ùQ`^dlcu
xz\kguQ`^dlcu
k~x1lclclQ^Qlco
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^
k~xzldlclQbbldo yx1oclcoQ^Qlcu !
x
x
x
! x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo yx1w\kgyQ^Qlcu x
x
x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo x1l\kgyQ^Qlcu x
x!
x
x
!
k~xkr{cQbbldo x1uccwQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
! x
k~xzokckbbldo x1'y ``yQ^Qlcu x
x
x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo x1lcwcuQ^Qlcu x
x
x !
x
!
k~xzukgwQbbldo x1ucucQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
W
2h
!
k~xzudwcQbbldo x1{cyclQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
! x
k~ix `bo\kbbldo x1yc{coQ^Qlcu x
x
x
!x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo x1ccuQ^Qlcu x
x
x
k~xz{docwQbbldo x1cwc{Q^Qlcu x
x
x
x
!
k~xz{dycQbbldo x1ccQ^Qlcu x
x
x
!
k~xzwducoQbbldo x1ccQ^Qlcu x
x
x
!x
k~xzwd' `cbbldo x1cucwQ^Qlcu x
x
x
! x
k~xzyducyQbbldo x1c{clQ^Qlcu x
x
x
! x
k~xzydcQbbldo x1ycuc{Q^Qlcu x
x
x
!
k~xz2 `òQbbldo x1{cc{Q^Qlcu x
x
x
x
!
k~xzdc{Qbbldo xj`ùcyQ^Qlcu x
x
x
x
!
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo x1ocwc{Q^Qlcu x
x
x
x
oxzldlclQbbldo x1lccoQ^Qlcu x
x
x !
x
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^
'U o[|h)|sVghcZcZ`Y)qbi3UQi kr{cxzf
o sq$)q\V?YX2U &Ù,[r\
q

](r'3}':X]|(3''L+])3+l)jX|('X](tX}WX(Xl?' (

]3+'(3| (]X(EWd)3 (3]((EWd)3g Xo(X}(E'E 3
]3t'(3j])33]X' ](3'E( }]3'+']gCCt3W]9' 'e8CE 'X(]3(
]W(']t+'!X'+WX(X'X(W']3 t+'': X'#(X(] C+#Xd+t+3](3
'r3'']( L3
'#]((C}'3L((EW3j 3\(3 >:E ]3:l('t't3\8' '3tg

)t'(3)|]))t'X (3:t3t3]>()3(##g'96?X3t(#]3383(]
E(E8(E't(](Xg#]]r(](t|jX38\ )3]]]t'j''L
:X8
Ed3dot]jX38 )3]]ErCt(|]3 j](X']`X'] jXWE) )t 3
'X(W']3 (3rL(t(] 'tCo(X]Ed
Ed3W'(]3tE(:383t ]L(C
((+}t'+'X(]jL( 33]'E #8+('tX'+])X+](8 t}'33!''X]
#]'\>]3(''WX'l'3') X(tLd(']3]'X(d)3 ]rtj83'](o'WEl
)]8'X X(']'9]E]! AR'] 't+tjW'|L(t(]j( 8XX9
t(38oL( (X](|]'] e]X']'WEl''X(Lt']'Ejtr+tV]t
('X(]3(}]t
}L't'X(]3]3 l:| >:Erg]'(j
Edjdr|3((dt]:3(X 3' >X(]Xt
(o3( b
't't3gt')r]L)t3!W()938j']3Er3 ]j]t']3E\
W}>')}8j r'] 'r]+t H(o9'E
\:
6W
[
:
L
.M
6:'
O

6W

b
<
'^
4 Z 9
switch
)
5W
L
:
6:
+8X:(`t)tè(t]( )3'] }'}383(e+'l(+))(X\ })'+

383(]})j']+tVj(+C(3'(o 8+)#'r(]jd)L#]V''tWE3X
}#EtV]|#'}'3t|(3)t)tXC]|]L#3338:X'X!'t't3 V]t']]
S
ONQPSRsm}0T'A
4
'^
](L(+(38j(g+3(3(+))g(X\ O C+(3 X( l|X3t(]lt't)3E:(

F#j9]r(EW3L't't|+t(LEd3Wl383(]E8'X(W(X8j!jW''`
ideal L/R voltage curve =

actual L/R voltage curve =
H%%s[Y'0t''@8t@8L2%'0 v2%2v@%vHs(HY%Y Y (8%(Y t2

%%Y2z#%zQY%4Y((2vvLv#LSv@t%]t'%s%tY2@] t)Y@ v2%2v@%v21(
t2zt@t(y 2'sL'@#yv%Y(5y%@\(Y@ v2t2%t'}Y(Y)\g2 s
8'L%'2v2((L%Y'8j0(v2%6Y6'%#( v]](g2'pQ#YvY2t
2%sY2%t] Lg ]8t' 0j}Y2\|H2Y'<(2('(H\%YLt2s'
42#YY6'%%v2%(%Y(8v%2('dv(Y'8(2( Q(%s%t2%t%Y@ %'t2%t2
Y%@((L't'%02\2Y'(%
i#YY6('(2%2Y(](%t(2gL((Y6tyYvL%](g2#YY2%2%t
2%W#('65d(]sY'520L@%2(vOYY]v\(YLL% ( [\YpL'YS
Y#Y%Y2Y'12Yv2LL2]%(vY2L.(Y(H\2Y(s@ ' v@O8s2L
1Y('sY(s@p Y2 @0'( 2%%t)\spY(Y2%2'W#(%tJv%YY(2#
(LyY(gY#2 (gY(s@ Y2 ^ Q#Y(%tgQY2(S#YY6'%#v6[ (%Y(
v%v2]ss2(d(Y2LS LYQY6Y2\s% (v2]6[Yvst
z<)t<
Q(s65Y@%vY2}tv(pvLt2s'5(\p2] Z J v \(YY%
6L6(%v\t.tw%2(v]wW#(%tO2Y(wY%2Y%\(@L''}W#%2%v2%2v'g2%
%(%['S'[@%v
~Hg2#YY2%t6 %(vv#QY6 g2%s%tY'Hdv2#Y sY'Y6Y8t'%sY2%H
#YY6'%t21<('(@tSY%@fY2%t(e
]p vZ v2%Y zY(t(v%Y2c
Qt(v#Q2(]tv#v0v2%(%[2@vQ((vY2(@ty<YS@ Y] @ Q5Y' t2
%(%[2@v
icYL(Y]O>t@t(8t2#@(%Y2%tf:2|HOg:v@t(@t0Y@%vs6 Z
(Ysst]#YY2%2%t'|\6'%tLsvv(\%vv2tY2]2%5%s[Y2]'[@%v
W#%
G

!#"%$'&)(*,+-" B &.
/ '(w%s2Qv@t(#220'^ ' vv#'(Swtv(}gv SY(' W#(%tY%

2'@'< 2v2 / L2(%vY2%gOvtY2(v#Y(\ (\(v'''0<%JY0] ]v
t'(#Y}v@t(\(Y0(Y(4W#(%t%'222tvOYy(%v22QY%v@t%}g 't2]
] 8'vY(((vY%2Y( g 'yY%p\%@v'Lg]vOY%v 2J1 43 v517'6 498 v
2: [Q(('%''gQ] v%v2(#v0YY%Y2%4\(v<; ;0Ls8\Q>'= \%vQ 2v2
Y(YL#62]2(@?7; B\A Y'%DC tE; q(#6 (Q2v%2\Qqs(@GF W#(%tHyF
HKvY / 82#y.Y%YQv'6O\(v\Y%v\0L.Y6W#(v%v6wLY(SY2Hv@t%6'Y
'Yv2L(t8%\%H0'^ 'SYv%)Y(\2'6
C 'vYLLs6 W#(%t52222L%v(Yv#Y'%LvY6p2vv(v#22] (]
Y%)Y(2H(('v%(ct2%(tY2% v0vctv(@J
I v293LK J1 NMOpI ]2()'
v2%2v@%v%QP 2\%s[2%t v0vY%t'%s%tY2@\2}('Yv@t( t2t(2%2t2
(%]((v%2Lv('\Yv)W#(#Y%sY)\(v2%2\(] %'tt'YS%Y s]
Qfgv \(%w ((6 %Y6%t}(2Qf2'@' %t%Yv#g] 8v2%YRF 2v24F 2'
'g L(Y6YY)(2Y%(}Y(Y'%\(S#C Y@ %'ttS2L Y( ( v
%%Y25Yv%2Y(80<v2%s[Y'HY'2%2v2%s[Y'Q] %Y'2'O? \YY6tQ
2d22%%4gA 2 Y%y0<v2%s[Y'HY yL(Y(25Y(LY'%}t2s%[2@v\(
%s%tt<26 L%@%(%g\Q)t'%s( L Lv2%Y<t%Yv#42 (<gv0v2%(%[2@
YvtY2]'(t%s%v<'2'Q2%Y%SY'%.t'%s%tY'1%v)Y(6S L2'@'Q2
2(HQ0O\%SLy\YY%gv'(w2}v2%(%[L2(<Y%H2%2\%%(\Y6%@
%Y%(%(Y@ 20(2HY(H''sgvQ\%8% v'vY'%\Y(8Y(2% 45 T
2sY(2('Yv@Y6ss(Y6t2s(
QY%vYLLs Y6W#(v%v5Y'%Y(]Y(2g#Y''%0sY' / 2(v@W'%
'LvY6<L6 Y6W'%v%v82%2Y2%v% UOY%Y(' g ]0Y]L(8t2%(t '222
Y2(@t60Y =
LVXW
LVXY
Z N<[>\>]%^`_baLcdfehgi^Sj7k%_Gîl#mn^So ZGp [ Zq esrto>[<u q
v60 Hz
w90 Hz
mixed-frequency
AC voltage
AC + DC
voltage
02L((Yvv2L%('%(tg2sS% 2 vs62%\(@'Y2pY(]%Y%t(]

vL'Y(y(2 YLx#(v%vL2222QY2%2g2(.YXy{z<|<gv %<t'%s%tY'2 S Qv22
t'L(sYy(2'(ts(v%Y\0v (0@(dY%yyt(2%82Hs
x#(vtQ2'@2's%)2(S%H\(' 'vvs#
/ yY2L v'6v Ls6 x#(%tY2%2] Y6(}Y'Y(\2tY2yS('g2'@2g'(@t2 (
\Y%v'\YdLt2(('((\(@t'#'vYH%s x#(vt)2\%Y6YY(g ' '8t'YY'%s(
2'@'< 2v2L %%YYt( L)} x#(vt (ss%t6 ](LvY'(('(\s%s'H'
Y%Y2( %v(ss%t6 / 4Y('(% 26Qt'%YQ4)(''%(Yy('HY'(2(y'222
2t'Y \ y]Y%g '<8Y(2YL x#(v%v2 / OY('(% 2Q]@('2QY%vQ'
22}%Y6vY(]Y(Y(2222yg 't2(ss%t6 (LLvY'((2%\t224Y%'Y
x#(vtLsL22vY(~ }wvv1%Y(@'(%(0t'%4Y%22#((Q(<g '\# @'% s
@Y%vHyL)2Os.vv# YL x'%v%v8 @'%\Hs.vv#QL(%s6v
%YvL % 6d(ss%t6 %s(z'(d x#(%tc\q2Y(8 x#(vt)%YYt%2
@2['%Oy(%6gY(# %@ zHgv'v626#(L%(v6g# %%Y%v'vY(2
((%YE ?((%t6 (%@26]Y( AOv2%Y@O2(\%Y6s2L%#w x#(vtLsL\Y8Yv22
(vYL x#(v%v6v\62@f x#(%tf$' ( 8(Y(2Y(@
%
?v
4 2 : 4 1t[Q\(
Y%R %\ x#(vtH6(G 3sQ 6 :] A[ H%Y@'2(YYY]\HY(\ \
(%%Lv#22 x#(%t2! yXyytzG|i? Y@G %'(Y0@('Yv'(t(2% A['@s(4 x#(%t
%(Q((2%Yv] 6=
4XH + N 45HNH XLNNH`

N4X H
|
NNNNNNNNNNNNNX N*N N|NNN NNNN HgN| XNNNH
N NNNNNNNNNNNN 1* |
N NNNNNN 1* |
LV
acXceo.]%_JBjm Z ]~eBo
N NNNNNN *q* |
NN NNNNNN *q* |
N NNNNNN *q* |
N NNNNNN *q* |
d LQ |
C 'vYLY%)vF 'vYY'(FL%YzYs6YvY ('(8x#(%t%Yss%v
v2%%Y%#O (>F9% F 'vYY'( Y(t 4%2YL2% #x (%tM 9 v Y%H(%%LvH
2 / }0%'2)%Y(Lv#\(Ysst(Y(v#<@%2S'(H#x (%t Y($)Y(S
2'Y%% 22(g2( OVXyXyXyzG|? Y(V %p%2YL2%L[A \%LY(8Yv2%p'vYY2%yg2(
EXyXyyzG|)J? ({2 )%L2(tA (t@SQz 02#Y%<((v')2(vF 'vYY'(F HYt S
%2v(2 %Y(Lv#@v
/ 8%2(v%%vvYz%Y(Lv#]2Y%v2% S(Ysst(tvY2;6LS%L2(
#x (vt>( 'Qvs2L('2d%Y%#<]2sY'LY yY%SH'52'(%d2%dt'Y'
Y%H(v<? @82 YY2#\(@L(ss%vY2(L\(v] \]2vY#Y}(H2v%(N}A 4v
y(Ysst(z2v ( Y6f%L2(vC %@q2q%Y%#Yt(z(ss%vp(%(2#
#x (vt2-LyXyy.z<| 0'(2YL(Ysst#x (vt\2%yXyXy#zG'| QWXyXyXy#zG'| Q5yyXyzG'| (t@ sQg2(
9. (YsstJV9yXyyEzG'| HyyXy{z<2| HYXyyXy.zG2| s'g2]Y%vgv2Hj (Y(Q#x (%tgY(S(%%Lv#2
QQ%@(0g2%Y 8Y%HY(R H22(J? (J% @\#x (%t2v %Y%(%(2# A
Y%@)28Y(L' g2( RyXyyEzG|J? (i2 8%L2(tA #\%Q(6t2]22(Hg2% JW9yyXy
zG|)? Y({W Y%2YL2%L[A ()YL2
(%YY%g '? ('#x (%ttA v(]v#Yv)s22)%L2(v%Y2(%%\2YOF9 F
@F 6(Y6Y]F Y(L(]6 #v2}%Y(Lv#2Yyv y20(ss%v(Y2(%%
Y%0L('14''O'@y%Y(Lv#4(Y%['\Y'(\OY(<Y2 (%v('(2%4''O62@
v@'sY%['<'2tX= Y%<(%#x ( %s(%2YL'(Hg 't2]\Y)2@L%%(L'@.(2Y2
s6YvY 6 Y((sY L2Y2)2H62@%(#x ( s tH((%t(yY(Y2(
'YQY(L'@s)%#YYH(]Y2L.F '(t'#Yv#F 2<g#ss\%5%Y(Lv#@v2%
((v (ss%tQY(LQ%2YL'(Qt2#v#g'0Y%28%Y(Lv#@vwsY%tY2 %82#x (v
t04\%0''%Y%Y(Lv# @0@@2[vYgY'(2w<02#'2(\\%%'( 26L2(20v2
Y.'2v.Y('4% 2SsY# Y2(LY%2'Y(#vOHY%#Y(<Y'(Q%Yss%v ]2(2
Y(]@%2(26 svv%((L')\(Y2'(yH()H %%@' %Y(.vv%v 2('%2ggv
QY(02(.vv#0'(Ht''v#4(ss%v Ls.vvt0]Y(<L@%2(# @'%22
%Y%# %2@vHY%Y8Y(L'@(ss%t]'(YL x'%v%v6) ?\(' ( %(
\(]((Lv#@0YL x'%v%vH A\(vz5(28(2Y)( ' (Y%vY282L(Ysy Y%'Y
%2YL2%YL x#(v%v6Ls.vv#L28sY#L%Y(Lv# / ;y%v2gYv]v4Y(L62Y(YS
Y'(X %2YL2%t'#Yv#\Hv2
1 :vY 2@
%Yv4Y'( 6t')v'vL2v2L(t\(vY(Y6'%%vvLv#y2Q%Y(Lv#y
g9 isL%2Y(Y2vY(H%p]2( j(Lv2%2Y%% / %Y%# 2Y'Y( Y2
QY(
?2%@6}%2(% 2 %ws2s(tLv6wt@ A'Qt'(L2QyzdY
?Y(Lv
%s2t(t6(Y ((y2'%t@ A)Y%Y(YsstY2((Qv2L#68Y%2YL x#(v%v ?Y(
F%%(L'@ FA<%Ldg%L2(v / %Y(Lv# '6d25Y( Y2520O ( ?vv
s(]vs2%8Y2LH0 v A[s(gv'v62(ss%vQy%@ ''sv42(2H2 x#(vt'(20LY6
Y\%2s j#% vy(%6gY(8(%(2#) %8Y6%s[Y2L2(8Y%']v'(
%%'t2]2%2'
Q42'8v8Yv''y%Y\%YsY@ %v]2%sy24LsL x#(%t0%(v0v6[@vwY
Y['%O.(4@%svw\%Yvvw%Ys%Y(Lv#'Y2(@t62 2v2]'4YOLL2
LVX
Z% [>\>]%^`_baLcdfehgi^SjR7k%_Gîl#mn^So ZGp [ Zq esrto>[<u q
sv
z<)t<
21J3t9176X g 't'Y \2(Y%)t('[Y8'L(g '2
4j21J43v5176 2v2 v2 )#Y((2 ds2YYY(sjg ']%28Y5Y2Lt((
t2L(tvsY#H2Lx#%2YS 22
s6N x#(%tS 2t'Y] 2vv(v#Yt (%Y'Yvt 'YL(ts}2s}

(v2 #\v22(6v'\@%v2(S(Ht'L#62}L('<YLx#(v%vY( 2'
sQSY@ %(\2Os.vv# YLx'%v%v6v
(v(Y(Y% 2t'Y]H2YyLsdY'2t(v#?'QSJYd(y2Y5At(g
1
YLx'%v%vLY(sjg 'H\v](B3sQ6X :L 4h (%Y(S(v\Y%sjg '\%'YHx#(vt
\(2sj( v %(H}Y(((Lv#@ 26,4 2: 1[[
H c98 v i '((ss%t6 dYYt(svt' (#F9%@F822(<Y%{%@
YLx'%v%v)'Y6Y\Y(%%(L'@.\((.F'6t'%F]'vYY2%QY(y(tS2vQY
x'%v%v%Yss%v'C%t6YY'Q'vYY2%w] 24] L(2gt'YY2%%tvLv#@%'(v
svv%(()2(y(vv(ss%v(8Y(LsYL x'%v%v6vR C2LsvS%dYsv]Q((2
YLwY(H6@ (L'2.vvY2%L2(v22%L(v22(6}0'(y2%y%vsQY2L
?(2\2 Ag%2YL2%< x#(vt
2
OO*,J$'t#%s#,Es
/ H%' v2%%)Y%. 4T vY(%s('Hi %'%.g 't'Y L#x %)Y8Lt' %Y2

;'2'2Y(]g '%QP 2v'Y(L 26#?(] 26<\Yfy(v2vL(2YLY(JA 2Y2
L(Y%s6]%z#x (vtc (]Y((]v]( 2(22]t'22s( 2t'Y
#x (Y2zL 2C '('vy@<Y2(p2L24Lys%v YY(LY
Y%Y2( 26v / YYt(6sH2 v2(%)%<#x %g ' ](v]#x ( 2#
YY(% 248Y(yg '<Y%SL#x (vt2(%SH% (YLYQws(Nj (Y(#x (%t
Y( 260Qs(%(82L(YsX=
ac c q l#mn[>_G^.[<~^ q esrto>[Y@('Q vv2'D zHgv'v6'} x#%2YS 2

]2[%zH%%Yv(g '%2YL2%'(s6Y'2vY((yYpY62Y2%]g
Y(2( )Y(2Y( 2(((p22vY(]2v@ Y( 2%L2(vY(ss%tt'Y
%(Y s]Y2\ x#%2YL 22] (''(%)(2'(Y2(% s62Y5sL2%Y@p\
CHU / - H
(tv(ggX SY((0%Y%(yL2Q%2v@(Sg '<Qc'222QY2(@t642Y%

(2v42L(Ys0%x#(%tv2(%[22vY(8YpX %%Y>CHU / -pY((Q'222
2t'Y]g2vY#Y Y%vv22(('% O2'@2Y2(@t6v'<( =
y

plot voltage waveform
/ fY%%YYt( CHU / - Y(' / '5%L6fY( G @G W i YH2% 1%L2(

2 '@'8'(vzYv62Y20B%'Q 22228Y2(@t6v ((%(2#4YLx#(v%v.WXy
zG|2%'@)%2YL'(Sv%wt2%Y2s#Yv'v\y(%2%\x#(%t'4 (L(Y%s)?2'@2A
%'(Y6\(H@%(2 ( (@Y%v6Y()% ' vY26\Y(2('Y(Lx'Y2\(\
Y%YL x'%v%v)Yv6J ?JY%'[' HPp(Y(6 @
2! 5P5( 5P9W( PXsst@w'H'@)2(%t'(
s(%L2(v A[
N Q L & 9X X
X * | NH
HHLL N N NN
HL | N 1* |
HL ! N | N *q* |
HL ! | N *q* |
*q* |
!
hN | |
N
95
N ,4,4 95* | f *4 | N
N

,4 95 *q*4 |Q N
N

,4 95 * **4 | N
N

,4 95 * * | N
X
/ w%2Y@(8%2sYY 5Y52(Y'ts(((\%gX Y#'(6 / 5(
%@(60L(y(%(2# YL'x %v%vd(sj 22-W9yzG| Yv / <%Y%( s((
Y(S2#\8('(sY2%2%%2YL2%Hv2#Y#w ((Q%] 2v2(ss%t6 2](
Qgv\Y2(@t=
4
a c c q l#mn[>_G^.[<~^ q esrto>[<u q
|

NN NN S N H N HN
S N H SNN NNb
N
N NNb
N s N NNb

S N N NNb

N s N NNb

N NNb
N N
N N
N S
LN Q
N Q

N H

N N H
N H
N N H
N H

N N Q

N Q
N S

vwg8\%y%2(%y\(v(yv6z2%L( 2t'Yut' (6\Y%8Y%@
%2YL2%.J? Y%YQLtWXy{zG'| 2iLW9y.zG|[A DC %((v(2sHsY! g']2St2)Y%< 2Q2L'Y=
|

NN NN S N H N HN
S N H SNN NNb
N s N
N s N Nb
N s NNb
N NN
S N N
N s N NNb
N sNN NNb
N N
N S N
LN N Q

N L H
N H
N N Q

N Q

V
N Q

N N H
N N H
N Q

N S NN

( YH%sL v0vL#Y2\2%(v#Y2\vv6w %@Lv(22%yY(HvY6@
Y( 2t'YvgY v2L%.H'Lx#%v 2'@\% (v%Q2 g'(Y((v
s(%L2(QYL'x %v%vQ=
|

|

NN NN S N H N H
S N H SNN NNb
N N
%
N N Nb
N NN
%
S N N NNb
%
N N
%
N s NNb
%
LN N Q

N H
%
N N Q

N Q

N N H
%
N Q

N HN Q

N H
N Q

N N

(L'H(v @%2(2(Y\(qY(vY6@ }Y( 2S% '< v(6)2L'Y' (v
L'YL22s%5tS'@5%d2Y(L 2' s<('YLs%tSY]<
L(Y%sY%2Y%v0Y v22H@@5#d2Hgy'(Y%(v#Ss(%2YL2% 2v2 8Y%
L=
|

N HN S NN HN NN NN
S N H SNN NNb
N NN NNb

N N
N N NNb
S N N
%
N N NNb
N N
%
N NNb
N NN
N N
%
LN X Q

N Q

N Q

N N H

N Q

N N H
%
N N Q

N H

N N Q

N NN

Hz Ygv2dY(g ' v2L( YQ<2@.B} %22.2%s%LY({Y%2YL'(2sY%
(Jd(g '<'222'(v<2(Hv@t%6(0 2)Y(\Y(=
|

NN NN S N H N HN
S N H SNN NNb
N N NNb
N NNb
N N
S N NNb
N N NNb
N N
N NNb
N L
%
LN Q

N X Q

N Q H

N Q

N Q H

N Q

N N H

N Q

N H
%
X
N s

(v%qY6()22(((zY(%@%2ps(1%2YL'(5g 't'Y]L22vY(?(%Y'
L(Y%s6v0t2%YLA Lt'Y(( s]Y22<x#%2Y)g '2z (2']c(2(pY(Ly
%Y@Y(gLv (p#x %2Yyg '(Y'(Y(LY(y 26<(.vv#SYL'x %v%v6v.
(2Y((d'x 282tY%2L'x %v#]c v 1 2Y(g '11(v#x %
2Q1'222SH2((6Y8Lt@t(H\Y62tY2t'2%v#E? v2%2v2@g2%s%[2@tA sY%'Y
t'L'(v#Y62['w.(vy0Y v(ts'YyYYv'v@(Y%\g '0'2'O2.s.vv##x (vt
\(@)2t\Y()2
(2[<Y%<vY(%(2j Y%Y2(2 2Q#x (v#Q)8s% (YLYQ4'(sY2.;
2'@'2 ( 26v %QP 2t'Y(wg '}Ht'%L#x (v%vs( 260'Y= ((Lv#@#(Y'
H20g 'sj YY(((2L(2}vtY022Y(Y\' (8](v]0(Ysv\s%v%d
('Hj Y#'(2sg ' #YY(6Qv2%YY%v##x (vtwv2 53 1 v Q T 21 @#(Qsvw\(@
Qgv 22LY(t2Q2Y%0Yv'Hz gv'v6't'L(sY\22Y(] 2 v)tY6LY'Y
Y%S%2sYQ<%'dv6(Q'Y6g 't2]v(2%S(%vY25Qqgv<#x %2%Y2%2
Y0\\sY('
CHU / - %2Y(4 Q<L(4 2t'Y%(%t#YQt'%(v#Y(4 2O%2YL2%
8 ]w 53 1 v( %t 2: 2'YY%'sY((Y(L(YL#x (v%vYg'\y O( v@
v Y](H2#x %g '2$@)gY62s]( Qt2L'Y)}%N '(SY(g '=
9 X X H QH 4 5
!N X | | | |
hN | |
N

HN
X
(EKQ3 2(Y2dd(y%tY(Lst %2'@''(@t %Y[JCHU / -f
YYy(Y
x'si%26EF%(YF< 2t'Y (4v2Yg2(0Y%OYLvY!?Lx#%#YL 2O'@%2itsvA
%'\L62L(YsB 22'} H0 (\(#x %2YS 2<Y 2%Nv| 6=
|
S

S
S N H N H
N NN NNb

N NN NNb

N NN NNb

N NN NNb

S N NN NNb

N NN NNb

N NN NNb

N NN NNb

N NN NNb

N NN NNb
a c c q l#mn[>_G^.[<~^ q esrto>[<u q
LN N H
N N H
N N H
N N H
N N H
N N H
N N H
N N H
N N H
N N H
LN NN NNb

N NN NNb

N NN NNb

N NN NNb

N NN NNb

N NN NNb

N NN NNb

N NN NNb

N NN NNb

N NN NNb

LN N H
N N H
N N H
N N H
N N H
N N H
N N H
N N H
N N H
N N H

'(H%2sYg2(v@ CHU / -;' Y(Hx'< 2=
v(gX %Y#g(E(
N9 r | 49HQ N H99H4 X
g | 4XH
5H X 5H
*4 | X4X5 H9
g | 4XN g | | N 4 XH * &\ *4 |XN &\

*
S N H N NN NNNN
SNN
N H NN S N L X N N
N
N H S NNNN
N H NN S NN N N
N H N S N LS NN
N
N H S S NNN N S N
N H Ss N H LS NN

N H SsN S NS N
W
Y
%Z [>\>]%^`_baLcdfehgi^SjR7k%_Gîl#mn^So ZGp [ Zq esrto>[s$#LY6[Y( 2Y%Y2( x#(%tg()YY%
( #Yz'(O(%y]2B; 2222] v6 g| 4XH / 25s2CHU / -2HY%
(%%Lv#2.YLx#(v%v?J' x'Q 2Q\YV9yy6t'%8vs(4x#(%t]GW9y.zG|A[%Y
#%v %Ydv'YY(]%2YL2%v ]( Y]OY(%'('OY(]25%2YL2%
?V% 2Y Y! A[2%d((LL(%sS2Y(s(d'(vQ(L(Y ? S<2Y' d
YL2 At
(LLY6@(( x#(8G F(2%Yv@%2]Y2 F2JYvz%6v2L(sv |0YH
Lv#Y2'Y2%(SY(\Qg 't'Yf ? A2%stv((SY(\'(0v2#Y'O(vv2}1v2LL2
t'L(sY2'YY(
?L x#(v%v %Y'2@v%}'Y Q' A2O(O}( 2 5 3 1 v s (2
t 2 : 2 (%[' 2()( v2%vv(\)vs'[](Y(6t'L(sY Y'sY(gg2.
s <2Y%vHtsv%v2%(%vY2
(4LQ]Y(LYv2(Y6@(( x#(Q%Y8, CHU / - y2%N |v\(Q%2YL'(Qt2#v#4 26v2
(()YL(Y6@((v2%s O9 = 2((8YYt(HY2(#Y]Hv2%YY(#
Y( 2HYL x'%v%v6v / )2[622)] ]% 2SY62s]Yvvy(vvS(Y'(8YLs Y\\(2(
|v(8\%Q 2! HM K4N1 " 34 1$# v <]%6t2(2H svv] x#((Lv#<Y%v2#Y2
?2%Y2LtL<s( s A Y(y%(Yw%Y9 H%2YL2%v2#Y'6G Sx#((\Y5Yv'v@( H'
Ysg2v@(g x#% |vv} 0YYv['vv%Y> ?Y6s%vL AY( L(%s %vvY2YL x'%v%v6
(Yv# %YY F2v%Y2L |vL F('(%]' Y(Y(vL v%s (64(v22#Y%vS\ # F 2
2@%4 Fy(Y( 8(t\62@t''Y'.2v6(s% ((L(Y%s2}62@%YYt%20 x#(%t'
Graphic Equalizer
Bargraph displays the

amplitude of each
frequency
% 50 150 & 300 % 500 ' 750 1 1.5 &3.5 % 5 ' 7.5 10 12.5
(Hz (Hz (Hz (Hz (Hz ) kHz ) kHz ) kHz ) kHz ) kHz ) kHz ) kHz
Control levers set

the attenuation factor
for each frequency
svt %Y[dYs( , Id(2t2#Y'I(8L(%s6 2@5YLx#(v%vd@('y'

Ls6Nx#(%tp2(v26pK s 3 : Q T!# t d %sY2HY6[Y(|v@
] 2OYL( 2O<YtOQ F5%Y F<tv(@B ?Yv0Y( (v#@%2sY'wst@A(Y'(Y%@Y%
sY#Q x#(vtQY' 62@d2Y(2S2Qv2L(td2S8Y6t%(Y'Ys22}v2L(sv<Y(%(%
%O 2'2( z](v]fY((Y2%2Q'z)%L2(dv2L'(v#@v
Cs6[Y(
|v@\Jv(Y'(y |\tYvL(2H YL x#(v%vY2%2'Y%@82Y(#Q(Ysst
@2s82%Lv@S2%5v2L(sv(v0'Y%2(g2Y' / YS2Y(JY 2y2p2(@t
'<%H2O2)#Yv't2X =
N
Spectrum Analyzer
*amplitude
frequency
2;'t't''wY%Y[Y% %2N |v%6L, +O ?2]t'%sYL(Y( L@(

+OGAQYsY( d%2S24Y%LY2%2.-Q(2]25't#Yv22Y(S(2%Y%('vB Y" 3 T
,
@Y%v0Y%2)L(Y%s'v< 1 :] / )%t'YLx#(v%v8%2N|vg224Y%<'Y2g ssS(
Y% Y2%2=Y2LvY(((2(vOL''- Y" 3 .sT5 6' : 51J@Y%v}Y%2y# 1 :L 62 : 91J2%s
(yYY F's2]4 F](v]Yv =<Y2((Yvg2@(t (L(2 |v2#@Os<g
2@% %#2L't't' O(2L(%s{ ?2vYYv2 A}'v}YL{ ?%2 |2#2 A}J FL js']4 F
Yv\(Y62S)Y[Y% %2N |vL <( L(%sf ?'vYYv AQ2v< x#(vt
?%2 |2#2 AQ
@ FYL x#(v%v js']4 FdYv1(v;0)%f CHU / - Yp(]2%202%Y%( ?vY('2228'
t%Yv#HL(%s Ag2v\@('<2 x#(%ts02YvY2(J Y " 3 .s T5 6' : 51J2%sv
U'22(2Q(>(f ('(Yv]2%syY'Y(2 CHU / - Y('; ) FvYt F
/ s6'%(2L(Ys<42Y(v'v%2YL'(QY(2% L Y2sY |vY2%dYY(2((# ;
t'L'(v#wQ''Y(00(gy%@8. x'%y2n CHU / - z20g(2vYy2g 't2]O2v%v@
g 't2 H %(Ys%Y2@
?H (#% v vst Av2 S2%N |v6]\ Y2sY<(Y6t2
sY(8vv6 yY()t2L((Yv22%svY(8(vYLY%8%2sY / 2%
\(0% ' x#%Y2st (8L 2v2>Hv#YYv8%> %2(vHY\vst
Y8](s %(YyY\2OY#'(2g 't'Y] (vgv L6\Y<L 2tsts(Ht@
x#(vt5)}%)(t'%tsY'2v2wtYvL2}%2Y((# I 2v2Y%ysY!
v'v]t'L(vYQvst- Iy2[% Q` Y " 3 .s T s4@(v02[@24L %(YQ@%2 . x#(vt
(\(t(Ht'L'
J 2s '6](((2Lv%2s(2 %QQ1'2'g%v(Yv#@v
C0 /8v<) %<Y(( vS4vv6<2%(yvvY#)248 2v2 x#(%tt'LX
(' ? A42Y<stYLYY}p<v2(]L(Y'\Y%<(vY2]'( %2sY4(v vY(yY(S 2
'tY2%22]dvv6v%5Y(LY(g2% ]Y6[Y( 2%sSL2Lv2%Yv#
\Y8(Qs6 / 8Y(<2\(2%s / 2Q'LYY]Y(Sg 't'Y (24' vQ gY22- I %
Y6'(] x#%2YSg 'X =
9 X X
!N X21 3 33 43
N 536HQ7N

hN 3
N 1L
HN 1
X
N9 36 49HQ N H99H4 X 1

N
36 4XH
*4 83 X4X5 H5 73 N 5H * X 73 N 5H
1
36 49H 36 4XH 1 X21
S N* H NN NN N NNN &\ *4 S N&\N
N s N
N H NN S N N
N
N H NN S NNNN S
N H NN S N N NX

N H N Ss NN L N
N
N H N S N N H
S
N H Ss N N
S N
N H NN S N S N NN
N H NN Ss NN N N
; v2L'(v#2'@2%0S2%Y%(S262@
2Yt((2%s%HQSg
w(v2%L2(#x (%tY(yg '2 6v2%0yvQY%v2L(svY2%L'YtstQ
Y%) 2'5H#OY(%Y6t22\Y(% @L%2sYy(2LY5y%@zf CU / - '
(%%Lv#2(2vY]Og 'g%2}Y'%2%sv
z<)t<
CHx#%< 26 SL x#(2'\]](g 'S\Y(L?J%%(L'@Agx#(vt'(s)L2
H (Yg2}s(N j%(Y( 2<%L2(v\HsvY62Y(LL(Y%s6v
02L(sv82'YY%Lv8\(@f YL(g 'Y%L;svYYL(Y()t2
(v#pY#'(2t'L'(v# (
9 3 1 t9

( % t 2 : 2'YY( ?%2v(qY(
9 3 1 t
( ( t 2 : %': A Qv2LL2(6)dt'L(sYQt@t(Q%Y2(22@] Y%@
2t CHU / - f2%vtY2(<vYY(] x#((Lv# 2H(tYYL((]gvt x#%22
;
">=,G$ t.<=,.?G
Q Y@('Q2gg] ]Yvv! HT v%%(2jY%Y2(2% 2t'Y 0'[YLx#(v#gYLYv6
O%Y2(. 2t'Y]4}(.vv#HL(%s6\%YL#x (v%v6 2(s682'tY%v6'Cx'< 2602YS
2Y8v2LL2gv j (%(v@#sv'' sQ(2g(2%8'(2
tY2( 04t''Y'%s#t64Y%@82Y@%Y2@%]Yt'Hj v2#Y2Y6[ % <A? @CBEDS A JY
(ss%t222282%t%Yv# 2v2LS%L8Yv#Y@('(6Nj (2Y'%2\Y()Y%v\Y
2F v64F? ((LA ( 28Q 2uY%)0yY(((2 (6svt% 28Y( pYp(sv%
NM (v0Y@%vH\]Y%<%(vY282t'#Y2Y2%2%2'@'\20v(Y'62%`F Y((('4F
2>F Y%Y((L]F L'H@#2(v'%2%(Ysst(8t(v#\g 't2] 6(]YYv 2%tS
<
Y%H'(v 2222 2t'Y0Y(SY%Htv(6w (Y\t(Y#O 2v2](v]%Yss%v\@%('O
acGFHc J] ^`_.[<~^ qH [>\S^ q
Y%0'2' 2t'Y YS(vOt@t(Ov2L2('@v((4<'2224s2vY6Y6 Y(g('HjY#'(2

t%Yv# Y(2%2tv(\L6(%v
0v(Hv2L'(v#@gY%\(Y' Y%(2]( 2S2}Q12222S2Hv(Yv#\S6
1J 2(%t'L'(v#SY%@'i C%, +Q< %d2(%2Sypgv<vtY2(vSs(yY)Y(
yYyY2(\2Y'QL'(#w2v[Yv2%0\Y('sgs%%%@(O1(QY(442
2( 2#'2 Y(Lv@tY2Lgv(Y'H /8tv%v2Y(] 26%2s2YY2%<Y%v5#Yss%tLv2
v2%YS%Y ]v
(6]('H i%'% 2v2Lv#@s6Y2 Y(L2tY%242w] x#(v#YdY
Y%Y2(%g 't2]O(2(< ?'( A} x#(%t / %@2L#Yyt2sv@' yY%Qtv(
s62(Y%Y%2YL2%g 't2]HtY6 6[Y2%y\@((v2L2('@Q] v2%YvY
t@t( v% 26 / ) v2L%t2Y(2zt'L'1f(d6[Ygv]%sY;Y Yv2
2Y%%2OY@%2Lv@H%L2Y2@Hs%Y(Y''%HY(( 2Y%O(yQq0
(2222YL(]2 F2Y\@@(( FL''(HY%@d2Hv2L(sv@Q2%(2H jH /8tvt2#\ (Q
(Y%v2tvvYX =OH 'v82%2Yv#282Y8Y2 Y2L'
/ LY%06[Y2 / \%26#YHSf.Y(Q'YHv2LL2] 26%26w%LY(;Y(0%L2(
t'L'(v# 8 82~ ('(H%2sYg%Y% CU / - H
<( 2Yyt2LL2 %L2(vw2Y 2(v@]]QgvYsvw\(LQwt2'vYY
2 FtY % F#Y
;<\ (8'v(2;s'(d\Yqv2L2('@6 651L 6 @S\(@12(f
%'Y'v(Yv#p'(8sY6['8 (8YL(]2 Qt P9;Y6[ 'p{ AIS58 w\(v]
Y('H(ss s@sw%..Y(HQ;v(Yv#G ?'vOLL AOY' %'YY%<(2('y(H''wS%syv('(2
Y%yt'2v#'%sssy@(LYY# 'Qs@ \dY%@Y%<6[Y2B %
M51J% Y%ysY6['
Y% 2 \Y\(62 =
J
diode
2
+
load
-
The diode only allows electron

flow in a counter-clockwise
direction.
*4H
45Q9
HLK1
d
3 d
L 3 Q 3 d
hN 4 3 3
N 1L 1
H 1 1
X
y
% & X 1

` 1
H 3Q
1
1M NNNNNNNN

1N NNNNNNNN
S N H SNN NNb
S N NNb

N S N NNb

N NN NNb
%
N N
O
N s N N
7
N NN N

N N

N N N

`
N N

`
S N N

S N NN N

N s N N
P

N N NNb
Q%
N sN NNb

N NNb

N NNb

R
N N Q

~
N N H

N N H

N H
O
N N HQ
7
LN X HQ
LN N HQ

N HQ
N HN HQ
N HQ
N N HQ

N X HQ
N HQ
7
N H
O
N H

N N H

N HN Q

~
N N NNb

R

S$TUWV!X0Y,ZX [$[EU\ZMZ^]`_8YCHU \/ a c b7dOb7[fe!| Z!U,VN]`Z.UW_g`ThHZ:Y,b4iZHjk_lTNmnX0bo6g`T\ZÛ\S$d6Z^Y,b4iZi_l[$VNb7pZX=

acGFHc J] ^`_.[<~^ qH [>\S^ q
N9 36 49HQ N H99H4 X 1

36 4XH
*4 8 3 H4XQ5 H9 73 H 5H *4 X 73 H H
1
3` 4XN 36 XH 1 Xq1
N*N H HN HQ NNNN D&\ N N * S &\N
N H HN S N N L H
N
N H H S NN N N NN
N H N S NN N ! N
NN H S NN D S
N H N S NN N
N
N H S NN N NN N
N H S NN NN NX
S N H HN S NN N N
_lV\SrhHZsV\]`ZZHtuV\TNZMmvZM[fewUWmbl[$[C]6b7TNmv_ld`Srhsbld6xf; a hH_lmvoy_ld`Z!dzVNU_7j>V\]6SfU:UWSfdug6U\_lSrx`b7[CY,b4iZHjk_lTNmn{ / x0Z!bl[$[felX
V\]6ZMTNZY,_lg`[rx}|yZd`_lV\]`Sfd`p
|`g0VsVN]`Zjkg`d6x`blm~Z!dzVNb7[jkTNZz
x g`ZMdOhHe}UW]6_8YS$d`pk? |yZMSfd`pboOZ!TWjkZh5VvUWSfd`ZY,b4iZLA5X|`g0V
_lg6T#6
_lg`TNS$Z!T~bld6b7[fe0UWSrUJO plg`TNZ!U~b7TNZMd! VoyZMT\jkZ!hHV~|yZ!h!b7g6U\ZfCHU \/ a x0_uZ!U\d! Vv]6b4iZV\]`Z[fg0t0g`T\e}_ljU\blmvo`[$Sfd`pb
Yb4ilZHjk_T\m_7j,S$d6
d`S$V\Zx0g`Tb8VNS$_dE{ ZMtuV!XEY,ZX [$[>hM_lmvo6b7TNZ.VN]`SrUYSVN]VN]`Z` _lg6T\SfZMT^b7dOb7[feuU\SrU_ljKV\]`Zv]6bl[j Yb4ilZ
7F TNZ!hHV\S6
Z!x4F i_l[$VNblplZbhHTN_UNUV\]`Z^[f_bxTNZ!U\SfUWV\_T=
N9 36 49HQ N H99H4 X 1
HN
36 4XH
*4 83 X4X5 H9 73 H 5H *4 X 73 N 5H
1
3` 4XN 36 XH 1

X21
N*N H N H NNNN D&\ *4 S N&\
N H Q H S N N N
N H Q S NNN N NN N L
N H S Q S N N N N
NN H N S N N N L
N H N Q S XNN N NN
N
N H HN S N N N NX
N H HN S L ! N NX
S N H S N NN ND N
_lV\SrhHZsV\]`Z~T\Z![fb7V\SfilZ![$en[rb7TNplZ.Z!ilZMd mg`[VNS$o6[$Z]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMUS$dV\]`SrUb7d6bl[$e0U\SfU!{ ehMg0VWVNS$d`p_lg`V]6bl[j_lj_lg6T
a Y,b4iZlXY,ZX ilZ~S$dzV\TN_0x0g6hMZ!x
V\]`ZZLz
x g`S$i8bl[$Z!dV^_ljU\ZMiZMTb7[]`S$p]`ZMT jkT\ZLx g6ZMd6hMeUWSfdug6UW_Sfx6b7[G?Lbh5VNg6b7[f[$eXhH_zUWSfd`ZA
Yb4ilZHjk_T\mUSfdzV\__lg`T:hHSfTNhMg`SV:jkTN_lmV\]`Z_lTNS$pS$dOb7[XOo`g6T\Z~UWSfd`Zs Yb4ilZl{[rUW_Vb7Zsd`_lV\Zs_lj>V\]`Z~[rb7TNplZ{; a hH_m#
oy_ld`Z!dVL=t6
{ WXY il_[VUM{ ZhMblg6UWZs_lg`T: a il_[Vb7plZ^Yb4ilZMjk_lTNm]6bU|yZMZ!dlF T\Zh5V\S6 ZxFk? _d`[fenbl[$[f_8Y,Z!xV\_o`g6U\]
Sfd_d`Z^x0SfT\Zh5V\Sf_ldnblhMT\_zU\UVN]`Z^[$_zblxTNb7V\]`Z!T,V\]6bld|Oblh bld6xN jk_lT\V\]HA XuSV|yZM]6b4iZ!Ubv[f_7Vmv_lTNZ:[fSflZJ; a {
d6_7V\]6ZMTmvZHV\]6_ux~_ljy a P5; a hM_lduilZ!TNU\Sf_ld.SrU>hMbl[$[fZ!xi3 J A IS58 XlY]`Srh]~bUel_gsmb4e.]6b4iZpg`Z!UNUWZx.g0VNS$[fSM| Z!U
V\]6Zjkg6[$[`hMeuhM[$Z,_7j a oy_8YZ!TCjkTN_lmVN]`ZUW_g`ThHZlX8TNZMiZMTUWSfd`pVN]`ZoO_[fblT\S$Ve_7jy]6b7[$j6VN]`Z a hHe0hH[fZV\_plZMVZ![$Zh5V\TN_ldOU
V\_6
_8YQVN]`TN_lg`p]V\]6Z~[f_bxnV\]6ZvUNb7mvZvx0SfT\Zh5V\Sf_ldb7[f[V\]`Z~V\SfmvZl{ / Y_d! V|y_lTNZse_lg
YSVN]x0ZMVNblS$[rU:_7jZMt`blh5VN[$e
]`_8YV\]`SrUSrUx0_ld`ZX`|`g0VY,Z^hMbldZMt0blmvS$d`ZVN]`Z^Yb4ilZHjk_T\mqbld6xS$VNU]6b7TNmv_ld`Srhb7d6bl[$e0U\SfUV\]6T\_g`pl]fCHU \/ a <=
NV

1
v6015HzV
V1
R
+ load 10 k
2
D2
H #& 45Q9
HLK1
d
3 d
3 d
3 d
3

L3 Q 3 dd
hN 4 3 3
N 1L 1
H 1
X
D3
D1
3
D4
% & X 1

` 1
H 3Q
1L
1M NNNNNNNN
S N H N HQ
1N NNNNNNNN SNN NN

SNN NN NN N NN N
S N H SNN NNc
S N NNb
N S N NNb
`
N NN NNb

N N
N s N N

w

N NN N

N N

%
N N N

N N

%
S N N

S N NN N

N s N N

N
N N NNb
%
N sN NNb

acGFHc J] ^`_.[<~^ qH [>\S^ q
N NNb
N NNb

N N Q
~
N N H

N N H

N H

N N HQ
%
S
LN X HQ

LN N HQ
N HQ
N HN HQ
N HQ
N N HQ
N X HQ

N HQ
%
S
N H

N H

N N H

N HN Q
~
N N NNb

N9 36 49HQ N H99H4 X 1
N HN
36 4XH
*4 8 3 H4XQ5 H9 7 3 H 5H *4 X 73 H H
1
3` 4XN 36 XH 1 Xq1
N*N H N NNNN N &\ * S &\N
N
N H S N H S N D N
N H X XN N NN
S N
N H Q H N N
N
NN H N N D N
N H N Q NN N ND N

N H HN NN N
S N
N H Q N N NN S

S N H D
_g`T\SfZMTVNTNbld6UWjk_lTNmXlYZ]6b4iZbEV7d6x]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhhH_lmvoy_ld`Z!dzV
]6b7Vb:x`SZMTNZMd6hMZl>h!hH_TNx0Sfd`pV\_{CHU \/ a G U'`
V\_V\]`SrUY,b4iZHjk_lTNm2VN]6b8VL U_8ilZ!T<v
W V\Sfm~ZUVN]`Zvb7mvo`[fSVNg6x0Zs_lj>V\]`Z_lTNS$pS$dOb7[C a U\_lg`ThHZ.jkT\ZLx g6ZMd6hMey:]`Z.; a
hH_mvoO_d`ZMdzV_lj>V\]`SrUY,b4iZsUW]6_8YUgòbU|yZMSfd`p,`
{V5v i_l[$VNU.L? b7[fmv_UWVVYSrhHZY]6b8V:SfUY,bUjk_TVN]`Zs]6bl[j Yb4ilZ
TNZ!h5VNS O
ZMThHSfTNhMg`S$V~A Y]`Sf[$ZVN]`ZUWZhH_d6x]6blT\mv_d`SfhSrUb7[fmv_UWVY il_[VU~S$db7mvo`[fS$V\g6x0Z{ _7VNSfhMZwb7[f[V\]`Zw_lV\]`Z!T
]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!U~jkg`TWVN]`ZMT_ldx0_8YdcV\]`ZnVb7|`[fZl{]6Zw_ux6x]Ob7TNm~_d`SrhMUb7TNZwblhHV\g6bl[$[feUWV\TN_ld`pZMTb8VU\_lmvZw_7j:V\]6Z
]`Sfpl]`Z!TjkT\ZLz
x g`ZMd6hMS$ZU,V\]6bldV\]`Z!eb7TNZ^b8VV\]6Z^[$_8Y,ZMT,jkTNZzx g`ZMdOhHSfZ!U!X0Y]`Sfh]SrUS$dzVNZMTNZ!UWV\Sfd`p6{
Ue_lgvhMbld~U\ZMZX7Y]6b8VKmb4e.|yZMpS$dbU>bd6Z!b8VXlU\S$mvo`[fZ a U\Sfd`Zs Y,b4iZmb4e.Z!d6x~gòblU>bhH_m~o6[$ZMtsmvZ!UNU_7j
]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!Ub7jV\ZMTo6bU\U\Sfd`p^V\]6T\_g`pl]sg6UVbsjkZMYZ![$Zh5V\TN_ld6Sfh:hH_m~oy_ld6ZMdzVNU!{ ]`S$[fZV\]`Z^hH_mvo`[$ZMtmvb7V\]`Z!mb8V\SrhMU
|yZM]`Sfd6x~b7[f[VN]`SrU~6
_lg`TNSfZMTCV\Tb7d6UWjk_lTNmb8V\Sf_ld^SrUd`_7Vd`ZhHZ!UNUNb7TNejk_TVN]`Z|OZ!plSfd`d`Sfd`pUWV\gOx0ZMdzV>_7j6Z![$Zh5VNT\SrhhMS$ThHg`S$VNUCVN_
g`d6x`ZMTUVb7d6xX8S$V>SfU_lj`V\]6Z,g`V\mv_UWV>S$mvoy_lT\VNb7dOhHZV\_:T\Zb7[fS!| ZKV\]6Z,o6T\Sfd6hHSfo`[fZ!Ub8V>Y,_lTN^b7d6x.V\_:plTblU\o^V\]`Zo`TblhHV\SrhMbl[

ZHZ!hHVNUVN]6b8V]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhUWSfpld6bl[fUmb4e]Ob4ilZ_ldwhHSfThHg`S$VNU!{]`Zô`TblhHV\SrhMbl[ZHZ!h5VU_7j]6blT\mv_ld6SfhjkTNZz
x g`ZMdOhHSfZ!USfd
hHSfThHg`S$VNUYSf[$[|yZZHt0o`[f_lTNZ!xS$dV\]6Z:[rblUWVUWZh5VNS$_d_ljV\]6SfUh]6blo0V\Z!T!Xu|`g`V|OZMjk_lTNZ:Y,Zx0_~V\]6b7VYZ [f[yVNb7Z^bhM[$_zUWZ!T
[f_z_b8VYb4ilZMjk_lTNmvUbld6xVN]`ZMSfTTNZ!U\oOZh5VNS$iZ]6blT\mv_d`Sfh!UM{
H
4T
c Y,b4iZHjk_lTNmb8Vb7[f[X4UW_[f_ld6pblUS$VSrUT\Z!oOZMV\S$V\SfilZX4h!b7d|yZKT\Zx0g6hMZ!xV\_bU\ZMTNSfZ!U_7jÙ\S$dug6U\_lSrx`bl[8Y,b4iZHjk_lTNmU
blx`x0ZxVN_lpZHV\]6ZMT{ S$yZ!T\Z!dVYb4ilZUW]Ob7oyZ!U,hH_ldOUWSrUV_ljx0S$ZMTNZMdzV|`[fZMd6xÙ_ljU\Sfd`Z Y,b4iZ]6blT\mv_d`Sfh!UM{
%;
+Z!hHV\S OhMb7V\Sf_ld_7j^ a
UWe0UWV\ZMmU!{
W
V\_
SrUbiZMTNehH_m~mv_dU\_lg6TNhMZ_lj^]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMUvYS$V\]`SfdSfd6x0g6UWV\TNSfbl[oy_8YZ!T
&{$'&# ?G+-"%$D*w E,EHO~

_lg6T\SfZMT,b7d6bl[$e0U\SfU!Xlo6blTWVNSfhMg`[rb7TN[$e~S$dV\]`Zjk_lTNm_7jV\]6Z b7[fpl_lTNS$V\]`mnXzSfU,bôy_8YZ!TWjkg`[OV\_u_[6jk_T
a _lmvo`g`V\ZMTNS|MZ!xO`
jkg`T\V\]`Z!T\Sfd`p._g`Tg6d6x0ZMTUWVNb7dOx0S$d6p._7jYb4ilZHjk_T\mUKbld6x~V\]6ZMSfTTNZM[rb8V\ZxUWoyZ!hHV\Tb7[yhH_lmvoy_ld`Z!dzVNU!{]6SfUU\blm~Zmvb7V\]H
ZMmb7V\SrhMb7[OT\_g0V\Sfd`Zo`TN_lpTNblmvm~Zx~S$dzV\_.V\]`Z>CU \/ a }
U\S$mg`[fb7V\_TblUKV\]`Z HQ9 _lo`V\Sf_ldSrUb7[rU\_ô`T\_plTb7mvmvZ!x
SfdVN_bi8b7TNSfZHVe:_7j0ZM[fZ!hHV\TN_ld`SrhV\ZUVS$dOUVNT\g`mvZ!dVUVN_oyZMT\jk_lTNm9TNZ!bl[ V\SfmvZS`_g`T\SfZMTCb7d6bl[$e0U\SfU_d.mvZ!bUWg`TNZ!xU\S$pd6b7[rU!{
]`SrUU\Z!h5VNS$_dSrUx0Z!il_7VNZ!xV\_vVN]`Z^g6U\Z:_ljU\g6h]V\_u_l[rUb7dOxVN]`Z.b7dOb7[feuU\SrU_ljU\ZMiZMTb7[x0S$yZ!T\Z!dVYb4ilZMjk_lTNmUM{

S$TUWV,Y,Z]Ob4ilZbU\S$mvo`[fZÛWSfd`Z:Y,b4iZb7VbsjkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHe_7j
`{
l{K]`SrU,o6b7T\V\SrhHg`[rb7T,jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHei8b7[fg`Z:SfU
b a o`S$VNh]w_ld
bo`Srb7d`_ZMeu|y_b7TxX`_d`Z._0h5Vb4ilZ.bl|O_8iZ 7mvSrx`x0[fZ a `{h5V\gOb7[f[$eXOVN]`ZsU\S$pd6b7[CmvZ!blU\g`TNZ!xjk_T
V\]6SfUx0Z!m~_d6UWV\Tb8V\Sf_ldY,bUhMT\Zb8V\Zx|ueb7dZM[fZ!h5VNT\_d`SrhlZ!eu|O_zb7TxUWZMVVN_o`TN_0x0g6hMZV\]6ZVN_ld`Z:_7jb.o6bld 6g0VNZlXuV\]6Z
hH[f_U\Z!UWV^S$dOUVNT\g`mvZ!dV lil_lSrhHZ
hH_g`[fx 6d6xTNZ!U\ZMm|`[$Sfd`pnboOZ!TWjkZh5VsU\S$d`ZYb4ilZ{]`Zo6[$_lV|yZM[f_8YYblU:Vb7ZMd
jkTN_lmbld_zU\hMS$[f[f_UNhH_loyZx0SfU\o`[rb4elXÙ\]`_8YSfd`p~U\Sfpld6bl[Eb7mvo`[fSVNg6x0Z ki_l[$VNblplZ _8ilZ!T,V\Sfm~Z
)F F
x
EF LF /
{F
'WXVX VXWJz<|
F
)?
LA
x
|
F
SfZMY,Z!xcYS$V\]bldc_zU\hMS$[f[f_UNhH_loyZlX,b}UWSfd`ZwYb4ilZn[f_z_0Uv[$SflZbYb4iuehHg`TNilZVNTNbhHZ!xc]`_T\S M_dzVNb7[f[fe_ldcV\]6Z
UNhHTNZMZMd{]6Z]`_T\S M_dVb7[b8t0SrUs_ljV\]`SrU~_UNhHSf[$[f_UNhH_oOZx`SfU\o`[rb4eSrU~mb7TNlZ!xYSVN]V\]6ZY,_lTx lSfmvZ
b7d6xbld
F
NW
acGHcdB_G^Bo q \S^ Z ]%_#mnd [<o<[>u pDq e q
b7TNTN_8YqoO_S$dzV\Sfd`pS$dV\]6Znx`S$TNZ!hHV\Sf_ldc_7jVNS$mvZ Uvo`TN_lpT\ZU\U\Sf_ldE{}]`ZwhHg6T\iZS$VNU\ZM[$jX_ljhH_g`TUWZXKT\Z!o`TNZ!U\ZMdzVNUV\]6Z
hHe0hM[$Srh:S$d6hMT\ZblU\Z^b7d6xx0Z!hMT\ZblU\Z_lji_l[$VNblplZ:_8ilZMT,VNS$mvZl{
s
2 1 s 2=
a [f_U\Zs_l|OUWZ!T\i8b8VNS$_dwT\Z!ilZb7[rUSfm~oyZMT\jkZ!hHV\Sf_ld6U:SfdVN]`Z~U\Sfd`Z Y,b4iZ.UW]Ob7oyZl{^]`SrUMXg`d`jk_lT\V\g`d6b7V\Z![$eXySrUbTNZ!U\g`[$V
_7jVN]`ZU\oyZ!hHS OhZ zg`Sfo`mvZMdzVgOUWZxV\_b7d6bl[$e MZV\]`ZY,b4iZHjk_lTNmn{ a ]6b7TblhHV\Z!T\SrUVNSfh!U^[fS$ZV\]6Z!U\Zx0g`ZV\_ g6S$TN0U
_7jVN]`ZVNZ!UWVZ zg`Sfo`mvZMdzVblT\ZvVNZ!h]`d6Sfh!b7[f[$eud`_8YdblU 8 l vo`]`Z!d`_lmvZMdObwZHt0SrUVNS$d`p
UW_[$Z![$e
|OZhMb7gOUWZ_ljb
oyZ!hHg6[$Srb7TNSVeS$dV\]6Z^Z zg`Sfo`mvZMdzVg6U\Z!xV\_oyZMT\jk_lTNmqV\]`Z^ZMt0oOZ!T\SfmvZMdzV!{
x
x
N|
x
/ jYZiuS$Z!YVN]`SfUU\blm~Z^
N|
<x
L=
il_[Vb7plZ:_ldnbvUWoyZ!hHV\TNg`mbld6b7[fe MZ!T!XzV\]6Z^T\ZUWg`[$VSfU g6SVNZ.x0SZMTNZMdzV

a
#FX x
UKel_lgh!b7dUWZ!ZlXV\]`Z]`_lTNS !_ldzVNbl[`b8t0SrU>_7jyV\]`Zx0SfU\o`[rb4esSrUKmb7TNlZxsYS$V\]vVN]`ZY,_lTx `TNZ zg`Z!d6hHeX x0Z!d`_7VNS$d6p

V\]6Zx0_lmb7Sfd_7j,V\]`SrU^mvZ!bUWg`TNZMmvZ!dV{]`ZUWSfd`p[$ZvoyZ!b7
_ld
V\]`ZhMg`TNilZvT\Z!o`TNZ!U\ZMdzVNUV\]6Zo`T\Zx0_lmvSfd6b7dOhHZv_7jb
U\S$d`p[$ZjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHeYSVN]`SfdnV\]`Z.Tb7d6plZ_7jjkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHSfZ!UhM_8ilZMTNZ!x|ueVN]`Z.YSrxuV\]w_ljVN]`Z.x0SrUWo6[fb4e{ jV\]`ZU\h!b7[fZ^_7j
V\]6SfUbld6b7[fe MZMT,Sfd6UVNT\g6m~Z!dzVY,ZMTNZ:mvblT\Z!xYSVN]dug`m|OZ!TNU!X0el_gY,_lg`[rxU\ZMZ:V\]Ob8VV\]`SrUoyZ!b7_uh!hHg`TUb8V
`{
{K]`Z^]`Z!S$p]V_ljCVN]`ZôOZb7TNZMo6T\ZUWZ!dVUV\]`Z.U\S$pd6b7[Eblmvo`[$S$V\gOx0Z ki_l[$VNb7pZ H{
x
N|
zG|
x
s
Q=
)?
LA
f? h'
GWXVX VXW
jEY,ZmvStVN]`TNZMZx`SZMTNZMdzV,U\Sfd`Z Y,b4iZV\_d`Z!UKV\_plZHVN]`ZMT,_ldV\]`Z:ZM[fZ!hHV\TN_ld`SrhlZ!eu|O_zb7Tx a
~Xzb a mb8_T
h ]`_TNx ~bld6xcm~ZblU\g`TNZVN]`ZTNZ!U\g`[$V!X,|O_lV\]V\]6Zw_UNhHSf[$[f_UNhH_oOZwx0SrUWo6[fb4ebld6xV\]`ZU\oyZ!h5VNT\g6mb7dOb7[fe !ZMTx0SrU\o`[fb4e
TNZ 6Zh5VV\]`SrUSfd6hHTNZ!bUWZxhM_lmvo`[fZHt0S$Ve
4A
]`Z_UNhHSf[$[f_UNhH_oOZx`SfU\o`[rb4e kV\Sfm~Z x`_lmb7Sfd UW]`_8YUbYb4ilZMjk_lTNmYS$V\]mbldzemv_lTNZoyZ!bl0Usb7dOxi8b7[f[$Z!e0U

V\]Ob7d}|yZHjk_lTNZlX>bx`S$TNZ!hHVsT\ZUWg6[Vs_ljV\]`Zm~S$t0S$d6p_7jV\]6Z!U\ZV\]6T\Z!ZjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZUM{wUse_lgYS$[f[,d`_7VNSfhMZlXUW_m~Z_7j
V\]6Z!U\ZôOZb70Ub7TNZ]`S$p]`ZMTV\]6bldVN]`ZôyZ!b70U_ljCVN]`Z._lTNSfplSfd6b7[U\S$d`p[$Z o6SVh]Yb4ilZMjk_lTNmXuY]`Sf[fZ._7VN]`ZMTUb7TNZ[$_8Y,ZMT{
]`SrUSrUbvTNZ!U\g`[V_ljV\]`Z^VN]`TNZMZ.x0S$yZ!T\Z!dzVY,b4iZHjk_T\mUb7[$V\Z!T\d6b7V\Z![$eT\Z!S$d0jk_TNhMS$d6pvbld6xnhMbld6hHZ![$Sfd`pZ!bh]n_7V\]6ZMTbU
V\]6ZMSfTT\ZUWoyZ!hHV\SfilZ:o`]6bUWZÛ\]`SjVUh]6bld`plZSfdVNS$mvZ{
? x
Lx
=
]`Z.U\oOZh5VNT\g`mx0SrUWo6[fb4e jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe Ax0_lmb7Sfd ,SrUmsgOh]wZ!blU\SfZMTVN_S$dzV\Z!T\o6T\ZMV Zblh]no`S$VNh]SrUTNZMo`TNZ!U\ZMdzVNZ!x
|uevSVU_8YdoOZb7v_ldVN]`ZhHg`TNilZ{]`Z:x0S$yZ!T\Z!d6hHZ:S$d]`ZMSfpl]zV|OZMVYZ!ZMdVN]`Z!U\ZVN]`TNZMZoyZ!bl0USrUbld`_7VN]`ZMTb7T\V\S$jLblhHV
_7j:V\]6ZnV\Z!UWVZ zg`Sfo`mvZMdzV
bhM_ld6U\Z zg`Z!d6hHZ_7j[fS$mvS$VNb8VNS$_d6UYS$V\]`SfdcV\]`ZwZ zg`S$o6m~Z!dzVg6UWZxVN_}plZ!d`ZMTb8VNZbld6x
b7dOb7[fe !ZVN]`Z!U\Z^Yb4ilZHjk_T\mU!Xzbld6xd`_7Vbvd`ZhHZU\UNb7TNeh]6b7TblhHV\Z!T\SrUVNSfh_7jV\]`Z^mg6U\Sfh!b7[Eh]`_TNxSVUWZ![j{
x
=
x
Lx
=
GF F
{?
UY,bUUWVNb7V\Z!xn|yZHjk_T\ZX6VN]`Zsx0Z!iuSfhMZsg6U\Z!xVN_plZ!d`ZMTb8VNZ^V\]`ZUWZsY,b4iZHjk_lTNmUSfU:b7dwZ![$Zh5VNT\_d`SfhZMeu|y_b7Tx ,b
msgOUWSrhMbl[0S$d6UWV\TNg`mvZMdzVx0ZUWSfpld6Z!xsV\_^mvS$mvSrh,V\]`ZVN_ld`ZU_7jmb7duesx0S$yZ!T\Z!dzVSfd6UWV\TNg`mvZMdzVNU!{]`Zo6b7d 6g0V\Z lil_SfhMZ
YblU,h]`_U\ZMdjk_TVN]`Z 6TUVx0ZMmv_ldOUVNTNb7V\Sf_ld6U|OZhMblg6UWZSVmv_UWV,hM[$_zUWZ![$evTNZ!U\ZMm|`[$Zxbso`g`TNZ:U\S$d6ZYb4ilZ bU\Sfd`pl[fZ
jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHe^_ldV\]6ZU\oyZ!h5VNT\g6mb7d6bl[$e !ZMTx0SfU\o`[rb4e 5{VN]`ZMTmg6UWSrhMbl[uS$d6UWV\TNg`mvZMdzV 7i_lSrhHZU b7TNZd`_lV>bUUWSfmvo`[$ZbU
V\]6SfU_ld`ZX7V\]6_lg`p]E{ dvjLbh5VX7V\]6Zg`d`S zg`ZV\_d`Zo`TN_0x0g6hHZx~|ze
S$d6UWV\TNg`mvZMdzVKSrUb:jkg`dOh5V\Sf_ld_ljyS$VNUY,b4iZ!U\]6b7oyZ
k_TUWoyZ!hHV\TNg`m_ljjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHSfZ!U 5{ 6_lTZHt`blm~o6[$ZX0[$ZMV UiuS$Z!YV\]6Z.UWSfpld6bl[jk_lTbV\TNg`mvoyZHVVN_ld`Z
x
i
/
x
A D
N|
x
fT
DF
]`Zjkg`d6x6b7mvZMdzVNbl[jkT\ZLz
x g`ZMd6hMe}_7jV\]`SrU~V\_d`ZnSfU~VN]`ZwU\blm~ZwbUSfdV\]`Z6TUVo6bldH6g0VNZnZHt`b7mvo`[fZX=fWXVX`{VXW
zG|X_ld`Zn_0h5Vb4ilZwb7|y_8ilZfF7mvSrx`x0[fZ a { F]`ZwYb4ilZMjk_lTNmSVUWZ![jSrUvjLb7TjkTN_lmbo`g`TNZnbld6xUWSfmvo`[fZUWSfd`ZsYb4ilZ
jk_lTNmn{d`_8YSfd`pV\]6b7V^blduewT\Z!oOZb8V\Sfd`pOXd`_ldHA U\S$dug6U\_lSrx`b7[Yb4ilZHjk_T\mSrUZz
x g`Sfi8b7[fZMdzVVN_wbU\ZMTNS$ZU:_7jU\S$dug6U\_lSrx`bl[
Yb4ilZHjk_T\mU:b8V^x0S$yZ!T\Z!dV.blm~o6[$S$V\g6x`Z!U^b7dOxjkTNZz
x g`Z!d6hHSfZ!U!XEY,Z~U\]`_lg6[fx
ZHt0oyZ!h5VVN_nU\ZMZ~msg6[VNS$o`[fZoyZ!b70U:_ld
V\]6Z
U\oOZh5V\TNg`mb7d6bl[$eNM| Z!Tx0SfU\o`[rb4e=
x
WXVX VXWBz<|
d6x0Z!Z!x^Y,Zx`_6C]6ZKjkg`d6x6b7mvZMdzVNbl[ljkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe^hM_lmvoO_d`ZMdzV_7j
`{
SrUCTNZMo6T\ZUWZ!dVNZ!x|ueV\]`Z,[$ZMjV mv_UWV
oyZ!b7XCYSVN]}Z!blh]U\g6hMhMZ!UNUWSfilZv]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh~TNZMo`TNZ!U\ZMdzV\Zx
bUSVU._8YdoOZb7b7[f_ld`pV\]6ZYSfxuVN]}_7j,V\]`Zb7d6bl[$e MZ!T
UNhHTNZMZMd{]`Z
UWZhH_ldOx]Ob7TNm~_d`SrhnSfUVYSfhMZwV\]`ZjkT\Z g6ZMd6hMe_lj:VN]`Zwjkg`dOx`b7mvZMdzVb7[
`{
5XVN]`ZwV\]6S$Tx
]6blT\mv_ld6SfhsV\]`TNZMZ~VNS$mvZ!U:VN]`Z~jkg`d6x`blmvZMdzVNbl[
6{
5Xbld6xUW__ldE{v]`SrU^x0SrUWo`[rb4ew_ld6[$eU\]`_8YUV\]`Z 6TUWV
U\St]Ob7TNm~_d`SrhMU!X0|`g0VV\]6ZMTNZblT\Zmb7duemv_T\Z^hH_mvo`T\SrU\S$d`pV\]6SfUhM_lmvo`[fZHtVN_ld`Z{
CT\euSfd`p~b~x0S$yZ!T\Z!dzVS$d6UWV\TNg`mvZMdzVil_SfhMZ kV\]`Z.bhMhM_lTx0S$_d >_dVN]`Z^lZ!eu|O_zb7TxXY,Z_l|0Vb7SfdbvU\S$mvSf[fblT\[fehH_m
o`[fZHt_UNhHSf[$[f_UNhH_oOZ VNS$mvZ Ax0_mvblS$d o6[$_lVb7d6xnU\oOZh5V\TNg`mbld6b7[fe MZ!T kjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMe x0_mb7Sfd ,x0SfU\o`[rb4e
? s
QA
Lx
G?LWXYX XW)zG|A
#?
A
N| R? Lx
.? yXY WzG|A
N|
#
i?
_lV\ZVN]`Zx0SZMTNZMdOhHZ!US$dT\Z![fb7V\SfilZ]6blT\mv_d`Sfhb7mvo`[fSVNg6x0Z!U koyZ!bl]6ZMSfpl]zVNU >_dV\]`Z:UWoyZ!hHV\TNg`mqx0SrUWo`[rb4e0U>jk_T

V\TNg`mvoyZHVbld6x^blh!hH_TNx0Sf_ld{ _lV\]^Sfd6UWV\TNg`mvZMdzVVN_ld`ZUhH_dzVNb7Sfd]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMUb7[f[7V\]6ZYb4ejkTN_lm !UWV jkg`d6x6b7mvZMdzVNbl[
V\_ 8VN] Lbld6x|yZMe_ld6xE HXz|6g0VVN]`Zo`TN_loy_lT\V\Sf_ld6Ub7TNZMd VVN]`Z:UNb7mvZ{ blh]Sfd6UWV\TNg`mvZMdzV,]OblU,b.g`d`S zg`Z:]6b7TNmv_ld`Srh
lU\Sfpld6b7V\g`TNZ .V\_~SVU,V\_ld6Zl{ Z!blTSfdmvSfd6xV\]6b7Vb7[f[OVN]`SrUhH_lmvo`[fZHt0S$VeSfUSfdT\ZMjkZMTNZMd6hMZVN_
7f y ,o6[fb4eZ!x
YS$V\]V\]6Z!U\ZnVY_Sfd6UVNT\g6m~Z!dzV 7i_lSrhHZ!U!{
g6[VNS$o`[fZd`_lV\ZUvo`[fb4eZ!xc_ldb7dbhMhH_TNx`S$_dEXKjk_TZHt`b7mvo`[fZlXY,_lg`[rx
hHTNZ!b7V\Z^b~msg6h]mv_lTNZ^hH_lmvo`[fZHtm~S$tuV\g`TNZ^_7jCjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZU,V\]6bldnY]6b8VSrUUWZ!ZMd]`ZMTNZl{
Y @?
F
F
Lx
S?
x
,] 1JNM 9
]`Z:b7d6bl[$ezV\SrhMbl[6oy_8YZ!TK_7jVN]`Z:_UNhHSf[$[f_UNhH_oOZbld6xU\oOZh5V\TNg`mqb7dOb7[fe !ZMToOZ!T\mvS$Vg6UV\_~x0ZMTNS$iZplZ!d`ZMTb7[OT\g6[$ZU

b7|y_lg`VY,b4iZHjk_T\mUb7d6xVN]`ZMSfT]Ob7TNm~_d`SrhÛWoyZ!hHV\Tb~jkT\_mTNZ!bl[EY,b4iZHjk_T\m2ZMt`b7mvo`[fZ!U!{ Zsb7[fTNZ!blxèud`_8Y9V\]6b7V
b7due}x0Z!izSrb8VNS$_d}jkTN_lmbo6g`T\ZUWSfd`Z Yb4ilZTNZ!U\g`[$VNUS$dV\]`ZZ zg`Sfi8b7[fZMdzVv_7jb
m~S$tuV\g`TNZ_ljmsg6[VNS$o`[fZnUWSfd`Z Yb4ilZ
Yb4ilZHjk_T\mUb7Vnx`SZMTNZMdzVblmvo`[$S$V\gOx0Z!Unb7dOxjkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHSfZ!U!{ _8YZ!ilZMTXhH[f_U\Z_|6UWZ!T\i8b7V\Sf_ldbl[$[f_8YUg6UV\_c|yZ
mv_lTNZUWoyZ!hMS OhVN]6b7dV\]6SfU!{ _lV\ZlXjk_lTZHt`blm~o6[$ZXEV\]6ZvV\Sfm~Z b7d6x
jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe Ax0_lmb7Sfdo6[$_lVNU:jk_lT.bYb4ilZMjk_lTNm
b7o6o`T\_4t0Sfmb8V\Sfd`pvbvU zg6blT\Z:Y,b4iZ
X=
x
x
z
x
LWXy
h!hH_TNx0Sfd`pV\_V\]`ZU\oOZh5VNT\g`mbld6b7[fe0UWSrU!XV\]`SrU:Y,b4iZHjk_lTNmhH_dVb7Sfd6U ysZMiZMd]Ob7TNm~_d`SrhMU!X_ld`[few_0x`x{[

V\]6_lg`p]VN]`SrUx0SrUWo6[fb4ex0_uZ!U\d VU\]`_8Y9jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZUo6bUVVN]`ZsU\StuV\]n]6blT\mv_d`SfhlX0V\]6Z.o6b8V\V\Z!T\dn_7j_0x`x _ld`[fe]Ob7T
mv_ld`SrhMUSfd}x0Z!UNhHZ!d6x0Sfd`pb7mvo`[fS$V\g6x0ZhM_ldzV\Sfdug`Z!USfd6x0Z 6d`S$V\Z![$e{]`SrU.UW]6_lg`[rx
hM_lmvZblU^d6_nU\g`TNo`TNSfU\ZlXbUYZ iZ
b7[fTNZ!blxèU\ZMZ!dYS$V\]
\a VN]6b8V^bU zg6b7TNZsYb4ilZsSfU:hH_m~o6T\SrUWZxw_7j,b7dSfd 6d6SVNg6x0Z~_7j_0x`x]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!{:]6Z
V\TNg`mvoyZHV^b7d6xwbhMhH_TNx`S$_dVN_ld`ZUMXy]`_8Y,ZMiZMTX6hH_dVb7Sfd`Z!x ZMiZMdb7dOxn_ux6xw]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!{]`SrUx`SZMTNZMd6hMZsSfd
]6blT\mv_ld6SfhhH_dzV\ZMdzVKSrU>d`_lV\ZMY,_lT\V\]ue{CEZMV UKhH_dzV\Sfdzg6Z_lg`T>SfduilZ!UWV\Sfpb7V\Sf_ldYSVN]b7db7d6bl[$e0U\SfU_ljbVNT\Srb7d`p[$ZYb4ilZ
CU /
Lx
LW
=
x
dV\]`SrU>Yb4ilZHjk_T\mVN]`ZMTNZb7TNZ,o6TNbh5V\SrhMbl[$[fe^d`_ZMiZMd~]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU VN]`Z_ld`[fesU\S$pd`S OhMbldVjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHeôyZ!bluU_d

V\]6Z,U\oOZh5VNT\g`mbld6b7[fe MZ!Tx0SrUWo`[rb4e|OZ![$_d`pVN__0x`x dug`m|OZ!T\Zx^msg`[$V\Sfo`[fZ!UC_7j`VN]`Zjkg`d6x`blm~Z!dzVNb7[jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHel{S$due
oyZ!b70UhMbld|yZvU\ZMZ!djk_TVN]`ZUWZhH_ldOxXyjk_lg`T\V\]EXEbld6xU\S$tzVN]]6blT\mv_d`Sfh!UMX|`g`V:VN]`SrUSrUx0g`Z~V\_Sfm~oyZMT\jkZ!hHV\Sf_ld6U:Sfd
V\]6SfUo6b7T\V\SrhHg6[fblT>V\TNSfbld`pl[fZYb4ilZ!U\]6bloOZ L_ld6hMZb7pzb7SfdEXblTWVNSjLbh5VNU_7jV\]6ZV\ZUV,Z zg`Sfo`mvZMdzVg6U\Z!xS$dvVN]`SfU,b7dOb7[feuU\SrU H{
oyZMT\jkZ!hHVVNT\Srb7d`p[$ZY,b4iZ!U\]6b7oyZo`TN_ux`g6hHZUKd`_ZMilZ!d]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!X!g6UV,[$SflZ:bôyZMT\jkZ!h5VU zg6blT\ZY,b4iZl{ VUW]6_lg`[rx
|yZ._l|uiuS$_g6UjkTN_lmS$d6U\oyZ!h5VNS$_dnV\]6b7VV\]6Z.]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhÛ\oOZh5V\TNg`m_7jV\]`Z.V\TNSfbld`pl[fZ^Y,b4iZSfUd`_7VSrx0Z!dVNSfh!b7[VN_V\]6Z
N|
E?
x
x
LWV

U\oOZh5V\TNg`m_7j>VN]`ZsUxgOb7TNZ^Y,b4iZX=KVN]`Z.TNZ!U\oOZh5VNS$iZ.]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhoyZ!b70Ub7TNZ^_7jKx0S$yZ!T\Z!dV:]`ZMSfpl]zVUM{tz_8Y,ZMiZMTX0V\]6Z
VY,_vx`SZMTNZMdzVYb4ilZHjk_T\mU,b7TNZ:hM_lmvmv_ldS$dVN]`ZMSfT[rblh_ljCZMiZMd]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!{
EZMV UZHt`b7mvSfd`Zb7d`_lV\]`Z!T,Yb4ilZMjk_lTNmnXVN]`SrU_ld`ZilZ!T\eU\Sfm~Sf[rb7T,V\_~V\]6ZV\TNSfbld`pl[fZYb4ilZXZMt`hHZMo`V,VN]6b8VS$VNUTNSrUWZ
V\SfmvZSrU:d`_7V:V\]6ZvUNb7mvZ~blUSVUjLbl[$[ V\Sfm~Z{sd`_8YdbUb 8I A!
I 4MXES$VNU:_UNhHSf[f[$_zU\hM_loyZso`[f_7VT\Z!ilZb7[rUS$VVN_
|yZ.b7o0VN[$edOb7mvZ!x
5 '
9 S98
Rx
]`Z!dVN]`ZUWoyZ!hHV\TNg`mb7d6bl[$e0U\SfU:_ljKV\]`SrUYb4ilZHjk_T\mSrUo`[$_lVWVNZ!xXEY,ZvUWZ!Z~bTNZ!U\g`[V:V\]Ob8V^SfU zg`S$V\Zx0S$yZ!T\Z!dzV

jkTN_lmV\]6b7V_ljV\]`Z:T\Z!plg`[rb7TKV\TNSfbld`pl[fZYb4ilZlXljk_lTV\]`SrU,b7d6bl[$e0U\SfUUW]`_8YUKV\]`Z:UVNT\_d`p.o`TNZ!U\ZMdOhHZ_ljEZMilZ!d dzg6ms|yZMTNZ!x
]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!U UWZhH_d6xnb7d6xjk_lg`T\V\]
i?
QA2=
LWX
]`Zx0SrUVNS$d6hHV\Sf_ld|OZMVYZ!ZMdnbsYb4ilZMjk_lTNm]6b4iuS$d`p~ZMiZMd]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMUilZ!TNU\g6U,d`_~ZMilZ!d]Ob7TNm~_d`SrhMUT\ZUWSrx0Z!U,Sfd
V\]6Zx0SZMTNZMdOhHZ|yZHVY,ZMZMdbV\TNSrb7d`p[$ZYb4ilZ!U\]6bloOZb7d6xvbUNb4YV\_u_7VN]Yb4ilZUW]6bloOZ{C]6b7VKx0SZMTNZMdOhHZSrU

b7|y_8ilZ.bld6x|OZ![$_8YVN]`Z.]`_T\S M_dVb7[hMZMdzV\Z!T\[fSfd`Z^_7jV\]6ZsYb4ilZl{,QYb4ilZHjk_T\m2V\]6b7VSrUUWeumvmvZHVNT\SrhMbl[Cb7|y_8ilZ^bld6x
|yZM[f_8YS$VNUhHZMdzVNZMTN[$Sfd`Z VN]`ZU\]6b7oyZw_ld|y_7VN]UWSrx0Z!Um~SfTNT\_TZ!blh]_lV\]`Z!To`TNZ!hHSrU\ZM[fe ~YSf[f[hH_dVb7Sfd ynZ!ilZMd
dug`ms|yZMTNZ!x]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!UM{
HA
2T :.:
s 2T
These waveforms are

composed exclusively
of odd harmonics
Pure sine wave =

1st harmonic only
CHx
zg6blT\ZYb4ilZ!U!XuV\TNSrb7d`p[$Z^Yb4ilZUMX`bld6xo`g`TNZ.UWSfd`Z.Yb4ilZU,bl[$[ZHt0]`Sf|`SVV\]`SrUU\eum~mvZMV\TNelXObld6xnb7[f[b7TNZ.x0Z!il_lSrx
_7j,ZMiZMd]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!{ b4ilZMjk_lTNmvU[fS$ZVN]`Z~V\TNg`mvoOZMV^V\_d`ZlXVN]`Zblh!hH_TNx0Sf_ldV\_ld6ZlXbld6xVN]`ZUNb4YV\_u_7VN]Yb4ilZ
LW9

b7TNZg`d6U\eum~mvZMV\TNSfh!b7[Eb7TN_lg6d6xVN]`ZMSfThHZ!dzV\ZMTN[fS$d`ZUb7d6xV\]6ZMTNZHjk_lTNZ)l6 hM_ldzVNblS$dZMiZMd]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!{
These waveforms contain

even harmonics
]`SrUô`TNS$dOhHSfo`[$Z_ljhMZMdzV\Z!T\[fSfd`ZUWeumvmvZHVNT\eUW]`_g`[rx
d6_7Vs|yZhH_d0jkg6U\Z!xYS$V\]U\ezmvmvZHVNT\eb7TN_lg`dOxVN]`Z#HN
f[ S$d`Z{ dV\]6Z.ZHt`b7mvo`[fZ!UU\]`_8YdEX`V\]`Z.]6_lTNS !_ldzVNbl[hMZMdzV\Z!T\[fSfd`Z^_7jV\]`ZsY,b4iZHjk_lTNmq]6bloòOZ!d6UVN_|OZ !ZMTN_vil_l[$VNU_d
V\]6ZVNS$mvZ x0_mb7SfdplTb7o6]EX|`g0V:V\]`SrU]6blU:d`_lV\]`Sfd`pV\_nx0_YSVN]]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh~hH_dVNZMdzV!{.]6SfU:TNg`[$Z~_7j]6b7TNmv_ld`Srh
hH_dzV\ZMdzV kZ!ilZMd]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU_ld6[$eYS$V\]g`d6U\eum~mvZMV\TNSfh!b7[Y,b4iZHjk_T\mU >b7oò6[$SfZ!U,Y]`ZMV\]`Z!T_lT,d`_7V,V\]`ZYb4ilZMjk_lTNm
SrU:U\]`S$jV\Zxbl|O_8iZs_T|yZM[f_8Y !ZMTN_il_[VU:YSVN]b
a hH_mvoO_d`ZMdzV!{ `_lT:jkg`T\V\]6ZMT^hH[rb7TNS yhMb8VNS$_dEX YSf[$[KU\]`_8Y
V\]6ZUNb7mvZU\ZHVUs_ljY,b4iZHjk_lTNmUMXU\]`SjVNZ!xYSVN]
a il_l[$VNblplZXbld6x}d`_lV\ZV\]6b7VsV\]6ZMSfT]6blT\mv_d`SfhhH_dVNZMdzVNUb7TNZ
g`d6h]Ob7d`pZ!x{
J?
FX;
;
A
F
These waveforms are

composed exclusively
of odd harmonics
Pure sine wave =

1st harmonic only
E|
acc Z e_ Z me]^`k%k~^ Z ] q
pzb7SfdEXV\]`Zb7mv_lg6dV,_7jn; a
]6blT\mv_ld6SfhjkTNZz
x g`ZMdOhHehM_ldzV\Z!dV{
L WW
i_l[$VNb7pZo`TNZ!U\ZMdzVSfdbsY,b4iZHjk_T\m]6blUd`_lV\]`Sfd`p.VN_~x`_sYS$V\]VN]6b8VYb4ilZHjk_T\m, U
These waveforms contain

even harmonics
]ueSrUVN]`SrU]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhT\g`[fZ _7j V\]ug`m|bldSfm~oy_lT\VNbldzVTNg`[fZ:V\_~zd6_8Y VhMb7d]`ZM[fog6UhH_m~o6T\Z!]`ZMd6xV\]6Z

TNZM[rb8V\Sf_ldOUW]`Sfon|OZMVYZ!ZMdw]6blT\mv_d`Sfh!US$d a hMS$ThHg`S$VNUb7d6xwU\oOZhHS Oh.hMS$ThHg`S$VhH_mvoO_d`ZMdzVNU!{ uS$dOhHZ.mv_UWVU\_lg`ThHZU
_7j.U\S$d6Z Y,b4iZnx`SfUWV\_TWVNS$_dcSfd a oO_8Y,ZMThHSfTNhMg`SVUVNZMd6xcVN_|OZ
UWeumvmvZHV\TNSrhMb7[XZMiZMd dug`ms|yZMTNZ!xc]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!U
b7TNZsTb7TNZM[fewUWZ!ZMd
S$d
V\]`_zUWZvb7o6o`[$SrhMb7V\Sf_ld6U!{.]`SrU:SfU:pl_u_0xwVN_ud`_8YSj,el_lg TNZboO_8Y,ZMTU\euUWV\Z!mx0Z!U\Sfpld`Z!T:bld6x
b7TNZ.o`[rb7d6d`S$d6pb7]6Z!blxjk_T]Ob7TNm~_d`Srh^T\Zx0g6hHV\Sf_ld el_g_ld6[$e]6b4ilZ.V\_hM_ld6hMZMTNdwel_g`TNU\ZM[$j>YSVN]mvS$V\Sfpb8VNS$d6pV\]6Z
_0x`x]Ob7TNm~_d`SrhjkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHSfZ!U!X>ZMilZ!d]6blT\mv_d`Sfh!U.|yZMSfd`po`TNbh5VNSfh!b7[f[$ed`_d`ZHt0SrUVNZMdzV!{}[rU\_6XKS$jel_g]6bloòOZ!dVN_
mvZ!bUWg`TNZ.Z!ilZMd]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMUS$dbld a hHSfThHg`S$VYS$V\]bUWoyZ!hHV\TNg`mb7d6bl[$e !ZMT_TjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHenmvZHVNZMTXye_lgwud`_8Y
V\]Ob8VUW_mvZHV\]6S$d`p~SfdVN]6b8VhHSfThHg`S$V,mg6UWV|yZ
L 7 :x`SfUWV\_TWVNS$d`pV\]6ZU\Sfd`Z Y,b4iZil_[Vb7pZ_lThMg`T\TNZMdzVX
b7dOxvV\]6b7V,hM[$g`Zmb4e~|yZ]6ZM[fo0jkg`[S$d[$_0hMb7V\Sfd`p.VN]`ZU\_lg6TNhMZ_7jbô6T\_|`[$Z!m k[f_z_sjk_T,hM_lmvoy_ld`Z!dVUK_T,hM_ld6x0S$V\Sf_ldOU
mv_lTNZ[$SflZ![$eVN_x0SfUWV\_TWV_d`Z]6b7[$j AhHe0hH[fZ_7jVN]`Z. a Y,b4iZHjk_lTNmmv_lTNZVN]6b7dVN]`Z^_7VN]`ZMT 5{
_8YVN]6b8VY,Z]Ob4ilZVN]`SrUTNg`[fZVN_
pg`Srx0Z_g`TvS$dzVNZMTNo`T\ZMVNb7V\Sf_ld_ljd`_ldOUWSfdug6UW_Sfx6b7[,Y,b4iZHjk_lTNmUMXS$VmvbllZU
mv_lTNZU\ZMd6U\ZV\]Ob8Vb^Y,b4iZHjk_T\m[$SflZV\]6b7Vo`TN_0x0g6hHZxv|uevb.T\Zh5V\S 6Z!T,hMS$ThHg`S$VU\]`_lg6[fxhM_ldzVNblS$dU\g6h]UWV\TN_ld6p.ZMiZMd
]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!UMXzV\]6ZMTNZ^|OZ!S$d`pd6_vU\eumvm~ZMV\TNeb8Vbl[$[bl|O_8iZ:bld6x|OZ![$_8YhHZ!dVNZMT{
!=
x
N|
?
3s(2T :#: 21 T
x
s
tC
2A
H
b4iZHjk_lTNmUV\]6b7Vb7TNZUWeumvmvZHVNT\SrhMbl[6b7|y_8ilZbld6x~|OZ![$_8YcV\]6ZMSfTK]`_lTNS M_ldzVb7[`hHZ!dzV\ZMTN[fS$d`ZUKhH_dzVNb7Sfdvd`_.Z!ilZMd
dzg6ms|yZMTNZ!x]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!{
%; F F
E?
, U`F; a hH_mvoO_d`ZMdzVFA]6blUd`_vSfmvo6blhHV_d
x
5 s$'+G*f" G+-"~
]`Zo`TNSfd6hHSfo`[fZ_7jd6_ldHA UWSfdug6U\_lSrx`b7[XETNZMoyZ!b8VNS$d6pYb4ilZMjk_lTNmU|yZMSfd`pwZxzg`Sfi8b7[fZMdzV^V\_bnU\ZMTNS$ZU_7jUWSfd`ZvYb4ilZ!Ub7V
x0S$yZ!T\Z!dzVjkTNZz
x g`Z!d6hHSfZ!USfU,b^jkg6d6x`b7mvZ!dVb7[o`TN_loyZMT\Ve_ljYb4ilZ!UKS$dplZMd6ZMTb7[Obld6xS$V,]OblUplTNZ!b8V,o`Tblh5VNSfh!b7[OS$mvoy_lT\V
]`Z^b7mv_lg`dzV_7j a 7|6SfbU il_[Vb7plZ:o`TNZ!U\ZMdzV Lb~Yb4ilZHjk_T\m

V\]6b7VYb4ilZ U,]6blT\mv_d`SfhjkTNZ zg`!Z d6hHehM_ldzV\Z!dzV!{
LWXY

SfdV\]6Z~UWV\g6xè_7j a hMS$ThHg6SVUM{ / VmvZ!b7dOUVN]6b8V^b7dueV\SfmvZY,Z~]6b4ilZ~bYb4ilZHjk_T\mV\]Ob8VSfU\d! V:oyZMT\jkZ!hHV\[feUWSfd`Zs
Yb4ilZsAU\]6b7oyZ!xXzVN]`ZshHSfThHg`S$VS$dfxzg`ZUVNS$_dYSf[f[ET\ZblhHVblU,V\]6_lg`p]S$V U]6b4iuSfd`pb7dnb7TNTb4e_7j>x0SZMTNZMdzVjkTNZz
x g`Z!d6hHe
il_[Vb7pZ!U,S$mvoy_U\Z!x_ldnS$Vb8V_ld6hMZl{
Lx
]`Z!db7d a hHSfThHg`S$VSrUU\g`|0Z!hHV\ZxnV\_bUW_g`TNhMZîl_[Vb7plZ.hM_ld6U\SrUVNS$d`p_ljbmvStuVNg`T\Zs_7jjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZUMXOV\]6Z

hH_mvoO_d`ZMdzVNUSfdVN]6b8V^hHSfTNhMg`S$V:TNZ!U\oO_d6xnVN_Zblh]hM_ld6UWV\S$V\g`Z!dzVjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHenSfd
bx0SZMTNZMdzVY,b4e{^duenT\Zblh5VNS$iZ
hH_mvoO_d`ZMdzVwUWg6h]blUbh!b7o6bhHS$V\_T_TbldSfd6x0g6hHV\_lTnYSf[$[Û\S$mg`[$VNb7d6ZM_lgOUW[feo`TNZ!U\ZMdzVbg`d`S zg`Zblmv_lg`dzVn_7j
Sfm~oyZ!x6b7d6hMZV\_Z!blh]bld6xvZMiZMTNe.jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHe~o`T\ZUWZ!dzVS$dbshHSfTNhMg`SV{>]6b7d`zjkg`[f[felXV\]`Zbld6b7[fe0UWSrU>_ljU\g6h]hMS$ThHg`S$VNU
SrUsmblx`ZTNZM[rb8V\SfilZ![$eZ!bUWe|ue}b7oò6[$euSfd`pVN]`Z@ `M `
L
68\ XT\Z!pb7Tx0Sfd`pwVN]`Zmg`[VNS$o6[$Z jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe
U\_lg`ThHZ^blUbU\ZHV_ljU\Sfd`pl[fZ jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMeil_[Vb7plZÛ\_lg`ThHZUhH_ld6d`Z!hHV\Z!xSfdUWZ!T\SfZ!U!X`b7dOxbld6b7[fe MSfd`pV\]`ZshMS$ThHg6SVjk_T
_ld6ZU\_lg6TNhMZb7VbsVNS$mvZX6UWg6m~mvSfd`pvV\]6Z^T\ZUWg`[$VNUb7VV\]`Z^Z!d6xV\_x0ZMV\ZMTNmvS$d6ZVN]`Z.b7pplTNZMpzb8V\ZV\_lVNb7[
x
x
s Lx
Q3LK K 211
R
2.2 k
V
v605 Hz
1 F
w905 VHz
GYyzG|.U\_lg`ThHZb7[f_ld`Z=
dOb7[fe !S$d6pvhMS$ThHg6SVjk_lT
v605 VHz
2.2 k
XC = 2.653 k
1 F
N|
x
LW
Total
2.0377 + j2.4569
3.1919 50.328o
2.9623 - j2.4569
3.8486 -39.6716o
5 + j0
5 0o
Volts
926.22 + j1.1168m
1.4509m 50.328o
926.22 + j1.1168m
1.4509m 50.328o
926.22 + j1.1168m
1.4509m 50.328o
Amps
0 - j2.653k
2.653k -90o
2.2k - j2.653k
3.446k -50.328o
Ohms
2.2k + j0
2.2k 0o
GXyz<|.UW_g`TNhMZ:bl[$_d`ZX=
dOb7[fe !S$d6pVN]`Z.hHSfThHg`S$Vjk_lT
2.2 k
5V
90 Hz
1 F
XC = 1.768 k
Total
3.0375 + j2.4415
3.8971 38.793o
1.9625 - j2.4415
3.1325 -51.207o
5 + j0
5 0o
Volts
1.3807m + j1.1098m
1.7714m 38.793o
1.3807m + j1.1098m
1.7714m 38.793o
1.3807m + j1.1098m
1.7714m 38.793o
Amps
0 - j1.768k
1.768k -90o
2.2k - j1.768k
2.823k -38.793o
Ohms
2.2k + j0
2.2k 0o
CugòyZMTNSfm~oy_U\Sfd`p~V\]`Zî_l[$VNb7pZ:x`T\_o6UblhMT\_zU\U,+b7d6x
L=
a X`Y,Z:pZHV
ER = [3.1919 V 50.328o (60 Hz)] + [3.8971 V 38.793o (90 Hz)]

V -39.6716 (60 Hz)] + [3.1325 V -51.207 (90 Hz)]
U\ZVN]`ZVY_il_[Vb7plZUbhHTN_UNUsZblh]hM_lmvoy_ld`Z!dVblT\Znb8Vx0S$yZ!T\Z!dVvjkTNZxzg`Z!d6hHSfZ!U!XKY,Znh!b7d`d6_7VhH_ld
EZ!h!b7=g6[3.8486
U\_l[fSfx`b7V\ZVN]`ZMmSfdzV\_
bUWSfd`pl[fZi_l[$VNb7pZ6
plg6T\ZbU.Y,ZhH_g`[rxSjY,ZY,ZMTNZblx6x0S$d6pwV\_plZHVN]`ZMT.VY_i_l[$VNblplZ!U._7j
x0S$yZ!T\Z!dzV^blmvo`[$S$V\gOx0Zb7d6xQ4P _lTo`]OblU\Z~bld`pl[fZb8VV\]`ZUNb7mvZ~jkT\ZLz
x g`ZMd6hMel{ a _lmvo`[fZHtdug`m|OZ!T^d`_7Vb8VNS$_d
pS$iZg6U
V\]6Zb7|6S$[fSVeVN_TNZMo`TNZ!U\ZMdzVYb4ilZMjk_lTNmb7mvo`[fS$V\g6x0Zk? oy_l[rb7T:mb7pld6SVNg6x0ZL
A b7d6xo`]6blU\Zbld`pl[fZOL? oO_[fblTb7d6pl[fZL5A Xy|`g0V
d`_lVjkT\ZLx g6ZMd6hMel{
]6b7VY,Z,h!b7dsV\ZM[f[ujkTN_lmV\]6SfU>bloò`[fSfh!b8V\Sf_ld_7j`VN]`ZUWg6oOZ!T\oy_U\SVNS$_d.VN]`ZM_T\Z!mQSfUCV\]Ob8VV\]`Z!T\Z,YSf[$[0|yZbpT\Zb8V\Z!T
YXyz<.| il_[Vb7pZ.x0T\_oòyZ!xnblhMT\_zU\U,VN]`Zh!b7o6bhHS$V\_lTVN]6b7dbOXyzGs| il_l[$VNblplZ{,g6UWVV\]`Z_loòy_U\SVNZ^SfUV\TNg`Z^jk_TV\]6Z
o
LWX
TNZ!U\SfUWV\_T U:il_l[$VNblplZx0TN_loE{]`SfU.SfUsY_TWVN]zenVN_d`_lV\ZlXCZ!U\oOZhHSrb7[f[$e
S$d[fS$p]zV._7jV\]`ZvjLbh5V.VN]6b8V^VN]`ZVY,_wUW_g`TNhMZ
il_[Vb7pZ!UblT\ZsZ zg6b7[{ V:SrUVN]`SrUuSfd6xw_ljg`d`Z gOb7[hHSfTNhMg`SV:T\ZUWoy_ldOUWZsV\_U\Sfpld6bl[fU_7jx0S$ZMTNS$d`pjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMeV\]6b7V
YSf[$[E|yZ^_lg6TUWoyZ!hMS Ohjk_0hHgOUS$dVN]`Z^d`ZHtuVh]6blo0V\Z!T!{
Znh!b7db7[rUW_b7o6o`[$eV\]`ZwU\gòyZMTNoO_zUWS$V\Sf_ldV\]`Z!_lTNZMmVN_V\]`Zbld6b7[fe0UWSrU~_7j:bhMS$ThHg`S$VoO_8Y,ZMTNZ!x|uebd`_ld
U\S$dug6U\_lSrx`b7[il_l[$VNblplZXÙWg6h]bUbU gOb7TNZ^Y,b4iZl{ j>Y,Z.ud`_8Y9V\]`Z 6_lg`TNSfZMTU\ZMTNS$ZU kmg`[$V\Sfo`[$ZUWSfd`Z 7hH_zUWSfd`Z^Yb4ilZ
Z zg`Sfi8b7[fZMdzV _7jV\]Ob8VYb4ilZX6Y,ZshMbldwT\Z!pblTNxS$V:blU_lTNS$pS$dOb8V\Sfd`pvjkTN_lmbU\ZMTNS$ZU AhH_d`d`Zh5V\ZxnUVNT\Sfd`p_ljKmsg`[$V\Sfo`[fZ
U\S$dug6U\_lSrx`b7[il_[Vb7plZUW_g`TNhMZ!Ub8VsVN]`Znb7oò`TN_lo6T\Srb8VNZb7mvo`[fSVNg6x0Z!U!X>jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHSfZ!U!XKb7d6xo`]6blU\ZU\]`S$jVNU!{ ZMZx0[$ZU\U
V\_U\b4eX6VN]`SrU:h!b7d|yZb[fbl|O_T\Sf_lgOUVNbUWjk_TU\_lmvZsYb4ilZMjk_lTNmvU Lb7d
blhMhMg`Tb8V\ZU zg6blT\Z Yb4ilZ `_g`TNS$Z!T uZ!T\SfZ!USfU
hH_d6U\Sfx0Z!T\ZxvV\_|OZZMtuo6T\ZU\U\Z!xv_g0VVN_sVN]`Z:d`S$dzVN]]6blT\mv_ld6SfhlX_T 6iZ:U\Sfd`ZYb4ilZU>Sfdb7[f[ HX0|`g0VSVSfU,oy_UNUWSf|`[fZl{
mvZMdzV\Sf_ld.V\]`SrUd`_7VCV\_UNhMblT\Zel_lgX|6g0VVN_Sfd0jk_lTNmel_lgs_7j0V\]6Zoy_7VNZMdzV\Srb7[uhH_m~o6[$ZMtuS$Ve:[$g`TNuS$d6p|yZM]`Sfd6xsU\ZMZ!mvS$d`p[$e
U\S$mvo`[fZ^Y,b4iZHjk_T\mU!{TNZ!bl[ [$S$jkZ^hHSfTNhMg`S$VYS$[f[ETNZ!U\oO_d6x.gOUVVN]`Z.U\blmvZVN_|OZ!S$d6poO_8Y,ZMTNZ!x|zebvU zg6blT\ZYb4ilZ
blU~|yZMSfd`poO_8Y,ZMTNZ!x|zebld A~UWZ!T\SfZ!U~_ljUWSfd`ZnYb4ilZ!Us_7j:_ux6x mg`[$V\Sfo`[$ZjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHSfZ!U~b7d6xcx0SfmvS$d`SrU\]`S$d6p
b7mvo`[fS$V\g6x0ZUM{]`SrU]6bU|yZMZMdwud`_8YdV\_V\Tb7d6U\[fb7V\Z^SfdzV\_g`d`ZMt0oOZh5V\ZxwhHSfTNhMg`S$VT\ZUW_d6b7d6hMZ!U!XuV\Tb7d6UWjk_lTNmvZMTbld6x
Sfd6x0g6hHV\_lThH_T\Z_8iZMTN]`Z!b7V\Sfd`p}x0g`ZV\_Zx`x0ehHg`TNTNZMdzVNU!XZM[fZ!h5VNT\_mb7pld6ZHV\Srhnd`_SfU\Z_8ilZ!T|`TN_bxTb7d6plZ!U_7j^V\]6Z
jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHevUWoyZ!hHV\TNg`mnXzbld6x~V\]`Z[$SflZ{CZ!h]6d`SfhMSfbld6Ubld6xvZMd6plSfd`ZMZ!TNU>d6ZMZ!xV\_.|yZmblx`Zb4Y,blT\Z_ljyVN]`Zoy_7VNZMdzV\Srb7[
ZHZ!hHVNU_ljCd`_d AUWSfdug6UW_Sfx6b7[Y,b4iZHjk_T\mU,S$dTNZ!blhHV\SfilZ^hHSfThHg`S$VNU!{
blT\mv_d`Sfh!Ub7TNZûd`_8YdnV\_mb7d`S$jkZ!UWVV\]6ZMSfTZMyZh5VNUSfdnV\]`Zsjk_lTNm_lj>ZM[fZ!h5VNT\_mb7pld6ZHV\SrhTblx0Srb8VNS$_dnbUY,ZM[f[{
zVNg6x0SfZ!U>]6b4iZ|OZ!ZMdoyZMT\jk_lTNm~Zxs_d~V\]`Zoy_7VNZMdzV\Srb7[`]Ob !blTNx6U_7jg6UWSfd`poy_lT\VNb7|6[$ZhM_lmvo`g0VNZMTU>b7|y_b7Txo6blUNUWZ!d`plZ!T
b7SfThHTb8jV!XhHS$V\Sfd`pVN]`ZjLbh5VV\]6b7VhM_lmvo`g0VNZMTU ,]`Sfpl]jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHeU zg6b7TNZ Y,b4iZ lhH[f_0h }il_[Vb7plZ
UWSfpld6bl[fUb7TNZ
hMblo6b7|6[$Z:_7jpZMd`Z!TNb7V\Sfd`psTblx`S$_~Y,b4iZ!UKV\]6b7VhM_lg`[rxS$dzV\Z!TWjkZ!T\Z:YS$V\]V\]`Z_loyZMTb8VNS$_d_7jCV\]`Z^blS$ThHTb8jV UZM[fZ!hHV\TN_ld`Srh
d6b4iuSfpb8VNS$_dZ zg`S$o6m~Z!dzV!{ V UE|6bxZMd`_g`pl]VN]6b8VEVeuo`SrhMbl[lmvSrhHTN_lo`TN_0hHZ!UNU\_lThH[f_0hU\S$pd6b7[ljkT\Z g6ZMd6hMS$ZUEb7TNZ>YSVN]`Sfd
V\]6ZTb7d`pZ_ljb7SfTNhMTNb7jVTblx0Sf_^jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHe|6bld6xÙ!X|`g`VY,_lTU\ZelZMVSrUVN]`ZjLblh5V,V\]Ob8V,V\]`Z:]6b7TNmv_ld`Srhmg`[$V\Sfo`[$ZU,_7j
V\]6_U\Zjkg`d6x`blm~Z!dzVNb7[jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZUU\o6b7dwb7dnZ!ilZMdn[rb7TNplZ!T,Tb7d6plZlXOx0g`ZV\_V\]`ZjLbh5VVN]6b8VhM[$_0hU\Sfpld6bl[Eil_[Vb7plZU
b7TNZÛ zg6blT\Z Yb4ilZS$dwU\]6b7oyZ^b7d6xd`_lVU\Sfd`Z Y,b4iZl{
K[fZ!hHV\TN_lmb7pd`ZHVNSfh 7Z!mvSfUNUWSf_ldOU :_7jVN]`SfUKd6b8VNg`T\ZhMb7dv|yZbo`TN_l|`[fZMmS$dSfd6x0gOUVNT\Srb7[6bloò`[fSfh!b8VNS$_d6UMX7V\_u_6XzYSVN]
]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!Ubl|O_g`d6x0Sfd`pS$dcilZ!T\e[rb7TNplZ zg6bldzV\S$V\SfZ!Uvx0g`ZV\_ kd6_ld`[fS$d6Z!b7T sZM[fZ!h5VNT\_d`SrhhM_ldzV\TN_l[,_7j:m~_lV\_T~bld6x
ZM[fZ!hHV\TNSfh>jkg`T\dOblhHZ>oy_8Y,ZMT{]`Z>jkg`dOx`b7mvZMdzVb7[loy_8Y,ZMTE[fS$d6Z>jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMemb4e_ld`[fe|yZ
lX4|`g`VEV\]`_zUWZ]6b7TNmv_ld`Srh
jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHevmsg`[$V\Sfo`[fZ!UV\]6ZM_lTNZHVNSfh!b7[f[$evZMtzVNZMd6xS$dzVN_sSfd 6d`S$V\Z![$e]6S$p]jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMeTNbld`plZUM{E_8YjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHevoy_8YZ!T
[fS$d`Zil_[Vb7plZb7d6xhMg`TNT\Z!dV~x0_uZ!U\d VvTblx0Srb8VNZS$dzVN_
U\o6blhMZilZ!T\eYZ![$[blUZM[fZ!hHV\TN_lmb7pd`ZHVNSfhvZ!d`ZMTNpleX|`g0Vv]`S$p]
jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHSfZ!Ux0_O{
[rU\_6X6h!b7o6bhHS$V\SfilZ.b7dOxSfd6x0gOh5V\SfilZ lhH_gò`[fS$d6p hMblg6U\Z!x|uehH[f_U\Z o`TN_4t0S$mvS$VehH_ldOx0g6h5VN_lTUSrUg6U\g6b7[f[femv_lTNZ
U\ZMilZ!T\Zwb7V]`Sfpl]cjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZUM{ uSfpld6bl[YSfT\Sfd`p}d`Zb7TN|zeoO_8Y,ZMTYSfTNS$d`p}YSf[f[V\Z!d6xcV\_ 7o`Srhgò ]6b7TNmv_ld`Srh
SfdVNZMT\jkZMTNZMd6hMZ~jkT\_mV\]6ZoO_8Y,ZMT^YSfTNS$d`pVN_bjLb7T.pT\Zb8V\Z!TZHtuV\Z!dV^VN]6b7do`g6T\ZU\S$d6Z Y,b4iZSfdzV\ZMT\jkZMTNZMdOhHZl{]`SfU
o`TN_l|`[fZMmhMbldmb7d`S$jkZ!UWVS$VNU\ZM[$jKSfdS$dOx0g6UWV\TNeY]`Z!d_l[rxwmv_7VN_lT:hH_ldzVNT\_[fUblT\ZsT\Z!o`[fbhHZxYS$V\]
d`ZMY^XU\_l[fSfx AUWVNb8VNZ
ZM[fZ!hHV\TN_ld`Srhmv_7VN_lThM_ldzV\TN_l[rUo`TN_8izSrx0Sfd`pplTNZ!b7V\ZMT>Z!d`ZMTNpleZH/hHSfZMdOhHel{ ug6x6x0ZMd`[feV\]`Z!T\Zmb4e|OZY,ZMSfTxZ![$Zh5VNT\SrhMbl[
d`_SfU\Z|yZMSfd`p.Sfm~o6T\ZU\U\Z!xvgòy_ldUWSfpld6bl[`YSfT\Sfd`p^VN]6b8V,d`ZMiZMTKg6U\Z!x~VN_s|yZV\]6ZMTNZlXz|OZhMb7gOUWZVN]`Z_[fxhM_ldzV\TN_l[rU>d`Z!ilZ!T
plZ!d`ZMTb8VNZ!x]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!X`b7dOxVN]`_U\Z^]`Sfpl] jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHe]6blT\mv_d`Sfh:i_l[$VNb7pZ!Ub7dOxhMg`TNT\Z!dVU,V\Z!d6xV\_Sfd6x0g6hHV\SfilZ![$e
b7dOxhMblo6blhMSVNS$iZM[fe lhM_lgò`[fZ s|OZMVWVNZMTV\_~d`Zb7TN|zehM_ld6x0gOh5V\_TNUV\]Ob7dnb7due
ÛWSfpldOb7[rUKjkTN_lmqVN]`Z:_l[rxhM_ldzV\TN_l[rU
g6U\Z!xV\_O{
x
x
Lx
Lx
x
Lx
-F
x
x
Lx
/
x
Lx
)F
H
'?
9|
C
x J
A
x
{?
S
1J 41
E?
.F
F
A H
Lx
93 21 {Q T 1
x
?
Lx
Lx
2A
`YytzG|
'C
H x
RC
x
x s fF HF
Lx
x
)YXy.zG|
Lx
dueTNZMpg`[fblT kTNZMoyZ!b8VNS$d6p 5X4d`_d AUWSfdug6UW_Sfx6b7[4Y,b4iZHjk_T\mSrUZ g6S$i8b7[fZMdzVVN_bo6b7T\V\SrhHg`[rb7TEU\ZMTNSfZ!U_ljuU\S$d6Z 8hM_U\S$d6Z

Y,b4iZ!U_lj,x0S$ZMTNZMdzVjkT\Z g6ZMd6hMS$ZUMXo`]OblU\Z!U!XEb7d6xb7mvo`[fSVNg6x0ZUMXEo6[$g6Ub
a _7U\ZHVil_l[$VNblplZSjd`Z!hMZ!UNU\blT\e{
]`Zmb7V\]`Z!mvb7V\SrhMbl[>o`T\_0hMZ!UNUjk_Tx`ZHV\Z!T\mvSfd`Sfd`pV\]`ZU\S$dug6U\_lSrx`b7[Yb4ilZMjk_lTNmZ g6S$i8b7[fZMdzVjk_lT^bldzewYb4ilZ
jk_lTNm2SfUh!b7[f[$Zx 0 LH
8 5{
,;
Lx
LWX
g`[$V\Sfo`[$ZjkTNZxzg`Z!d6hHeil_l[$VNblplZ:UW_g`TNhMZ!U,hMbld|yZÛWSfmsg`[rb8VNZ!xjk_lTbld6b7[fe0UWSrU|uehM_ld`d6Z!h5VNS$d6pvU\ZMiZMTb7[UWSfd`p[$Z
jkT\ZLx g6ZMd6hMei_l[$VNb7pZUW_g`ThHZ!US$dUWZ!T\SfZ!U!{d6b7[fe0UWSrUK_ljEil_[Vb7plZUKb7dOxhHg`TNT\Z!dzVNUKSrU,blhMhM_lmvo`[fSfU\]`Zxv|ze~g6U\S$d6p
V\]`ZUWg6oOZ!T\oy_U\SVNS$_dsVN]`ZM_T\Z!mn{ :t<8= UWgòyZMTNSfm~oy_U\Z!xsil_[Vb7plZUCbld6xshMg`TNT\Z!dVU_7jOx0S$ZMTNZMdzVjkT\ZL
x g6ZMd6hMS$ZU
%5
|OZblx6x0Z!xnVN_lpZHV\]6ZMT:S$dhH_m~o6[$ZMtndug`m|OZ!T:jk_lTNmXU\S$dOhHZvhH_lmvo`[fZHtdug`m|OZ!TNU_ld6[$ebhMhH_g`dzVjk_T
b7mvo`[fSVNg6x0Z.b7dOxo`]OblU\ZU\]`S$jV!X`d6_7VjkTNZz
x g`ZMdOhHe
z b7TNmv_ld`SrhMUhMbldhMblg6U\Zo`TN_l|`[fZMmU|ueS$mvo`TNZ!UNUWSfd`pg`duY,bldVNZ!x?7F d`_SfU\ZF>A i_l[$VNb7pZU\S$pd6b7[rUg6oO_dd`Zb7TN|ze

hHSfTNhMg`SVUM{>]`ZUWZ:g`duYb7dzV\ZxUWSfpldOb7[rUmb4ehH_m~Z:|ueY,b4ev_ljChMblo6blhMSVNS$iZhH_gò`[fS$d6p6XuS$dOx0g6h5VNS$iZ^hH_lg6o`[$Sfd`pOX
ZM[fZ!h5VNT\_mb7pld6ZHV\SrhTNbx0Sfb7V\Sf_ldEXu_Tb~hM_lm|`S$dOb8V\Sf_ldV\]6ZMTNZM_7j{
Yy

= :
!
, s @~,
x
V.SrUÛW_m~ZMV\SfmvZ!U^x0ZUWSfTNbl|`[fZsVN_w]6b4ilZvhHSfTNhMg`S$VNU^hMblo6b7|6[$Zv_7jUWZ![$Zh5VNS$iZM[fe 6[$V\ZMTNSfd`pn_ld`Z~jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHe_T:Tb7d6plZ~_7j

jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHSfZ!U~_lg0Vv_7jbmvS$t_7j:x0SZMTNZMdzVvjkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHSfZ!U~S$dcbhHSfTNhMg`SV{hHSfTNhMg`S$Vvx0ZUWSfpld6Z!x}VN_oOZ!TWjk_T\mVN]`SfU
jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHeU\ZM[fZ!h5VNS$_dSrU:h!b7[f[$ZxbK AHM\H0 X_lTU\S$mvo`[feb AH5{.hH_m~mv_dd`Z!Z!xwjk_T O[VNZMT^hHSfTNhMg`S$VNU:SfU
Sfdw]`S$p] oOZ!TWjk_T\mb7dOhHZUVNZMTNZM_U\euUWV\Z!mUMX`Y]6ZMTNZhMZMT\VNblS$dnTb7d`pZ!U_7j>b7gOx0S$_vjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHSfZ!Ud`ZMZxVN_|OZb7mvo`[fS 6Zx
_lTU\gòò`TNZ!UNU\Z!xjk_T~|yZ!UWVUW_g`d6x gOb7[fSVebld6xoy_8YZ!TZM/hHSfZMd6hMel{}K_gmb4e}|yZjLblm~Sf[fSfblT~YS$V\]Q " 7$#H 5X
Y]`Srh]b7[f[$_8YV\]`Zb7mvo`[fSVNg6x0Z!U_7jEU\ZMilZ!TNbl[ujkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMesTb7d`pZ!UVN_.|OZblx4g6UWV\Zx~V\_.U\g`S$VKV\]`Z[$SrUWV\ZMd6ZMT UVblUWV\Zbld6x
blhM_lg6UWV\Srhô`TN_loyZMT\V\SfZ!U_7j>VN]`Zs[fSrUVNZMd`Sfd`pblT\Zb`{K_gmb4enb7[rUW_|yZjLb7mvS$[fSrb7TYS$V\]HN M88H y I7\ 5XY]`Srh]
|`[f_0hchMZMT\VNb7SfdTb7d`pZ!U_lj^jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZUjkTN_lmT\Zblh]`Sfd`pU\oyZ!b7ZMTUM{VYZ!ZHVNZMT
L]`Sfpl] jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMecU\oyZ!b7ZMT5
SrUSfd`ZM/hMS$Z!dzVnb7VTNZMo`TN_0x0g6hMS$d`p[$_8Y jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHeUWSfpldOb7[rUU\g6h]bUx`T\g`m|yZ!b7VNU!XU\_cbhHTN_UNUW_8iZMThMS$ThHg6SVnSfU
hH_d`d`Zh5V\Zx|yZHVY,ZMZ!dVN]`ZVYZ!ZHV\Z!Tb7d6xV\]`ZwUWV\Z!T\Z!_ U_g0V\o6g0VvV\ZMTNmvS$dOb7[rUsVN_|`[$_0h}[f_8Y jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe}U\S$pd6b7[rU!X
_ld6[$ewo6bU\U\Sfd`p]`Sfpl] jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHewU\S$pd6b7[rUVN_VN]`ZUWoyZ!bllZMT UhH_d`d`Zh5V\Sf_ldV\Z!T\mvSfd6b7[rUM{^]`SrU:plSfilZU|yZHV\V\ZMT.blg6x0Sf_
U\euUWV\Z!mZM/hMS$Z!d6hHe~b7d6xsV\]ug6UK|OZMVWV\Z!ToyZMT\jk_lTNmb7d6hMZl{ _lV\]vZ zg6bl[$S MZ!TNUb7dOx~hMT\_zU\U\_8ilZ!TCd6ZHVY,_lTNuUblT\ZZHt`blm~o6[$ZU
_7j 6[$V\Z!TNU!X`x0Z!U\Sfpld`ZxVN_blhMhM_lmvo`[fSfU\] O[VNZMTNS$d`p_ljhMZMT\VNb7SfdjkT\Z g6ZMd6hMS$ZUM{
d6_7V\]6ZMTo`TblhHV\SrhMbl[b7oò6[$SrhMb7V\Sf_ldw_7j 6[$V\Z!ThMS$ThHg`S$VNUSfUS$dnVN]`ZhH_d6x0S$V\Sf_ld`Sfd`p~_ljd6_ld AUWSfdug6U\_lSrx`b7[Ei_l[$VNblplZ
Yb4ilZHjk_T\mUSfdoy_8Y,ZMThMS$ThHg6SVUM{u_lmvZ~ZM[fZ!h5VNT\_d`Srh.x0ZMiuSrhHZUblT\ZsU\ZMdOUWS$V\SfilZsV\_VN]`Z~o`T\ZUWZ!d6hHZs_7j]6blT\mv_d`Sfh!USfd
V\]6Zoy_8YZ!TsUWg6oò`[fe
i_l[$VNb7pZlXb7d6x}U\_TNZ zg`SfT\Zoy_8YZ!TshH_d6x0S$V\Sf_ld`Sfd`pnjk_Tso`TN_loyZMT._oOZ!TNb7V\Sf_ldE{ jbwx0SrUWV\_lT\V\Zx
U\S$d`Z Yb4ilZil_[Vb7plZ:|yZM]6b4iZ!U,[$SflZbvUWZ!T\SfZ!U,_ljC]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh:Yb4ilZHjk_T\mUblx`x0ZxV\_~V\]`Z:jkg`dOx`b7mvZMdzVb7[jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHelX
V\]6ZMdSVsU\]`_g`[fx
|yZ~oy_UNU\S$|`[fZ~V\_whH_d6UWV\TNg6h5V.b 6[$V\ZMT.hMS$ThHg6SV^VN]6b8V^_ld6[$ebl[$[f_8YUV\]`Zvjkg6d6x`b7mvZ!dVb7[>Yb4ilZMjk_lTNm
jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHeVN_o6blUNUV\]`TN_lg`p]EX0|`[f_0hzSfd`pb7[f[Kk]6S$p]`ZMT jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe`]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!UM{
Z^YS$[f[|yZ.UVNg6x0euSfd`pvV\]`Zx0Z!U\S$pdn_7j>UWZ!ilZMTb7[Z![$Z!mvZMdzVNblT\e O[VNZMThMS$ThHg`S$VNUS$dV\]6SfU[$ZU\U\_ldE{_TNZ!x0gOhHZV\]6Z
[f_blx_7jmb8VN]_dV\]6ZTNZ!bx0ZMTX YS$[f[mvbllZZHtuV\Z!d6UWSfilZg6U\Z_lj0 \a blU,b7db7d6bl[$e0U\SfUKV\_u_l[X`x0SrUWo`[rb4euS$d6p _ux`Z
o`[f_7VU:b7mvo`[fSVNg6x0ZilZ!TNU\g6UjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMe`>jk_TVN]`Zi8b7TNS$_g6UuSfd6xÙ,_7j 6[$V\ZMTU!{ Zb7T,S$dmvS$d6xEXuV\]`_g`pl]EXzVN]6b8VV\]6Z!U\Z
hHSfThHg`S$VNUhMb7d|OZ~b7d6bl[$e MZx_8ilZMTUWZ!ilZMTb7[oO_S$dzVNU_7jjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHen|ueTNZMoyZ!b7V\ZxwUWZ!T\SfZ!U oOb7Tb7[f[$Z![Eb7d6bl[$e0U\SfU!X6mg6h]
[fS$Z.V\]6Zso`TNZMiuSf_lg6UZHt`b7mvo`[fZ.YS$V\]VY,_U\_lg`ThHZU.L bld6x
HXSj>VN]`ZUWV\g6x`ZMdzV:SrUYS$[f[$Sfd`pVN_SfduilZ!UWV:b[$_lV
_7jV\SfmvZ^Y_T\uSfd`pvb7d6xT\Z Y,_lTNuS$d6phHSfThHg`S$VhMb7[rhHg6[fb7V\Sf_ld6U,jk_TZ!blh]jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHel{
x
x
Lx
x
x
N|
Lx
x
Lx
B x
)
x
%
x
4
L
x |
Lx
<
H Lx
B x
4 @
x
x
x
y fXyzG|
x
H
}K AHCSfUb7dv a hMS$ThHg`S$VV\]6b7VUWZ!o6b7Tb8VNZ!UU\_lmvZ,jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMS$ZUjkT\_m_7VN]`ZMTUS$dvYS$V\]`SfdmvSt0Zx jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe
UWSfpld6bl[fU!{
Lx
N x
!z
% \i]%^Q0!]%^
g6x0Sf_ " 47$#H@b7d6xM\ @M88HyI7\ b7TNZVY,_~YZ![$[ud`_8Ydnb7o6o`[$SrhMb7V\Sf_ld6U,_ljn6
[$V\Z!ThHSfTNhMg`S$VNU!{
ql^y$9KSfUsbpTNblo`]
o6[$_lVWV\Sfd`pnYb4ilZHjk_T\mblm~o6[$S$V\g6x`Z_lTo`]6bUWZv_ld_ld6Zvb7t0SfUb7dOxjkTNZz
x g`Z!d6hHew_d

V\]`Z^_lV\]`Z!T!{
>y?,J~@%'
B ~
H Lx
B Lx
e~x`Z 6d`S$V\Sf_ldXub.[$_8Y o6blUNU 6[$V\Z!TSrUb.hMS$ThHg6SV_lyZ!T\Sfd`p.ZblU\eso6bU\UNb7pZV\_.[f_8Y jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMeU\S$pd6b7[rUKb7dOxx0S/hMg`[V

o bU\UNb7pZsVN_]`Sfpl] jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMeU\S$pd6b7[rUM{]`ZMTNZb7TNZvVY_n|6bUWSrhvuS$d6x6U^_7jhHSfTNhMg`S$VNU.h!b7o6bl|`[$Z_ljbhMhM_lmvo`[fSfU\]`Sfd`p
6
V\]6SfU_|0Z!hHV\SfilZX`b7d6xmb7duei8b7TNSfb7V\Sf_ld6U,_ljZblh]_ld`Z

Inductive low-pass filter
L
3H
V1
1V
R
load
1 k
x
]`ZS$d6x`g6h5VN_lT US$mvoyZ!x`bld6hHZS$dOhHTNZ!blU\Z!UsYSVN]Sfd6hHTNZ!bUWSfd`pnjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe{]`SrU]`S$p]Sfm~oyZ!x6b7d6hMZSfdU\ZMTNS$ZU
V\Z!d6xÙVN_w|`[f_uh]`S$p] jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMeUWSfpldOb7[rUjkTN_lmplZHV\V\Sfd`pnV\_nVN]`Z[f_blxE{v]6SfU.h!b7d|OZx`ZMmv_ld6UWV\Tb8VNZ!x

YSVN]}b
0 \a cbld6b7[fe0UWSrU
H Lx

L 5 u NQ
NL
d !
N
1
X
S N
S N
1 D
N H NN
HQ N
%
HQ
b
X HQ N
N HQ NN
S N HQ NN
HQ N
HN HQ S
HN HQ S
N HQ N

È7\ `C!]%^
H

N H s

N H NN
~
N H

HN H NN

H s

N H N
H
H NN
N H
N
Q HH 45 X4 L H 4X
0 `
Capacitive low-pass filter

1
R1
1V
V1
500
C1
7 F
Rload
1 k
x
]`Zsh!b7o6bhHS$V\_T US$mvoyZ!x`bld6hHZx0Z!hMT\ZblU\Z!UYS$V\]wSfd6hHTNZ!bUWSfd`pvjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe{]6SfU[$_8YSfm~oyZ!x6b7d6hMZ.S$dwoOb7Tb7[f[$Z![
YS$V\]VN]`Z[f_bxTNZ!U\SrUVb7d6hMZV\ZMdOxÙKVN_sU\]`_lT\V_lg`V]`Sfpl] jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMeU\S$pd6b7[rU!Xx0TN_loò6S$d`psm~_zUV_7jV\]`Zil_[Vb7plZpZHVU

blhMT\_zU\UU\ZMTNS$ZU,T\ZUWSrUVN_lT+ 8{

H Lx
H u N
! NN NL
4
d !
N
1
X
S S N S NQ S N
1
N HQ s %
N HQ S N
N HQ S

HQ S

S N HQ Ss
L HQ
%
N HQ N
!X
% \i]%^Q0!]%^
H HQ N
HQ
HQ sN
N
HQ NN
%
X HQ N
H

H

H NN
N
X H s N

N H N

H N
HN H
N H N
NQ HH 45 X4 L H 4X
]`ZS$d6x`g6h5VNS$iZs[f_8YB o6bU\Ut6
[VNZMT:SfUV\]6Zso`Sfd`d6bhH[fZs_7jU\Sfm~o6[$SrhHS$VelXYS$V\]_d`[$en_d`ZhM_lmvoO_d`ZMdzVhM_lmvo`TNSfU\Sfd`p
V\]6ZE6
[$V\Z!T!{]6ZshMblo6blhMSVNS$iZ.ilZ!TNU\S$_dn_7jV\]`SrU<6 [VNZMT:SfUd`_7VV\]6b7Vmg6h]wmv_lTNZshH_m~o6[$ZMtXOYSVN]_ld6[$ewbTNZ!U\SfUWV\_T
b7dOxh!b7o6bhHS$V\_T^d`ZMZx0Z!x
jk_lTs_loyZMTb8V\Sf_ld{)
z _8Y,ZMilZ!T!XCx0Z!U\o`S$V\ZVN]`ZMSfT.Sfd6hHTNZ!bUWZx
hM_lmvo`[fZHt0SVeXCh!b7o6bhHS$V\SfilZ#6 [$V\ZMT
x0ZUWSfpld6U:b7TNZ.pZMd`Z!TNbl[$[feo6T\ZMjkZMTNT\Zxw_8ilZ!TS$dOx0g6h5VNS$iZ|yZ!h!b7g6U\Zh!b7o6bhHS$V\_TNUV\ZMdOxwV\_|OZv7o6g`T\Z!TNT\Zblh5VNS$iZshH_m#
oy_ld`Z!dVU>VN]6b7dSfd6x0g6hHV\_TNUKbld6xV\]`Z!T\ZMjk_lTNZb7TNZmv_lTNZo`T\Zx0Srh5VNbl|`[fZS$dvVN]`ZMSfT|yZM]6b4iuSf_lT{ ev7o`g`TNZ! mvZ!bldvV\]6b7V
hMblo6blhMSVN_lTU,ZHt0]`Sf|`SV[$S$VWVN[$Z.TNZ!U\SrUVNS$iZ:ZMyZh5VUV\]6bldnS$d6x`g6h5VN_lTUMX`mblzSfd`pvVN]`ZMmb7[fm~_zUVELyX
y T\ZblhHV\SfilZl{ dOx0g6h2
V\_TNU!X_ldV\]6Z_7VN]`ZMT]6b7dOxXVezo6Sfh!b7[f[$eZHt0]`Sf|`S$VUWSfpld6S O
h!b7dzVx0SrUNUWSfo6b8VNS$iZkTNZ!U\SfUWV\_T [fS$Z:ZHZ!hHVNU!X|O_lV\]Sfd}V\]6Z
[f_ld`p[$Z!d`p7VN]6U,_7jEYSfT\Z:g6U\Z!xVN_smb7ZVN]`ZMmnX`b7dOxSfdV\]6Zmb7pd`ZHVNSfh[$_zU\U\Z!U_7jV\]`ZhH_T\Zmb7V\ZMTNSrb7[{ a blo6blhMSVN_lTU
b7[rU\_VNZMd6xV\_no6blTWVNSfhMS$o6b7V\Z~[$ZU\USfdlhH_gò`[fS$d6pZHZ!h5VUYSVN]
_lV\]`Z!T.hH_m~oy_ld6ZMdzVNUvkpZMd`Z!TNb7V\Zvb7d6x 4_lT:TNZ!hHZ!S$iZ
SfdVNZMT\jkZMTNZMd6hMZjkT\_m_lV\]`Z!ThM_lmvoO_d`ZMdzVUiuSfbmg0V\gOb7[Z![$Zh5VNT\Srh^_lTmvblpld`ZMV\Srh 6ZM[rxÙVN]6b7dwSfd6x0g6hHV\_TNU!XObld6xwb7TNZ
[fZ!UNUZHt0oOZ!d6U\S$iZl{
_8Y,ZMiZMTXyV\]`ZSfd6x0g6hHV\SfilZv[f_8Y o6bU\U 6[$V\Z!T^SfU_ljV\Z!d
o`TNZHjkZ!T\TNZ!x
Sfd a
a oO_8Y,ZMTÛ\gòò`[fSfZ!UVN_ O[VNZMT^_lg`V
V\]6Z. a lT\Sfoò`[fZ!Y,b4iZHjk_T\m2hMT\Zb8V\ZxY]6ZMdn a SrUhH_duilZMT\V\ZxLT\Zh5V\S 6Zx6,S$dzVN_
a X6oOblUNUWSfd`p~_ld`[feV\]6Zô`g`TNZ
a hM_lmvoy_ld`Z!dV{]6Zo`T\Sfmb7TNe.TNZ!blU\_ldjk_lTVN]`SrUKSrUV\]`ZTNZ zg`SfTNZMmvZMdzVK_7j[f_8Y 6[$V\Z!TKT\ZUWSrUWVNb7dOhHZ,jk_lT>VN]`Z_g0V\o`g`V
_7j,UWg6h]boy_8Y,ZMTU\gòò6[$e{shMb7oOblhHS$V\SfilZ[$_8Y o6bU\U 6[VNZMTTNZ zg`SfT\ZUbldZHtuV\TbT\ZUWSrUVb7d6hMZsSfd
U\ZMTNS$ZUYS$V\]
V\]6Z
U\_lg`ThHZXEY]`ZMTNZ!bUV\]`ZSfd6x0g6hHV\SfilZ[f_8Y oOblUNU O[VNZMTsx0_uZUd`_7V{ d
VN]`Zx0ZUWSfpld_7jb]`S$p] AhHg`TNT\Z!dzV^hMS$ThHg6SV^[fS$Z
b
a oy_8YZ!TUWg6oò`[feY]`Z!T\Z^blx6x0SVNS$_d6b7[EU\ZMTNSfZ!UTNZ!U\SfUWVNbld6hHZSrUg`d6x0ZUWSfTb7|`[fZlXuVN]`Z^S$dOx0g6h5VNS$iZ^[$_8Y o6bU\U 6[$V\Z!TSfU
V\]6Z|OZMVWV\Z!Tsx0ZUWSfpldh]`_lSrhHZ{d
VN]`Z_7VN]`ZMT^]Ob7d6xXCSj[f_8YY,ZMSfpl]zV.b7d6xhH_m~oOblh5V.U\S !Zb7TNZ]6S$p]`ZMTô`TNSf_lTNSVNS$ZU
V\]Ob7d}[f_8YSfdVNZMTNd6b7[UWgò6o`[$eTNZ!U\SfUWVNbld6hHZvSfdbnoO_8Y,ZMT.U\gòò`[fe
x`Z!U\S$pdEXVN]`Zh!b7o6bhHS$V\SfilZv[$_8Y o6bU\U 6[$V\Z!T.mvS$p]zV
mb7Z:mv_T\ZÛ\ZMd6U\Zl{
[f[[$_8Y o6bU\U 6[$V\ZMTUb7TNZTb8VNZ!x
b8V^bhMZMT\VNb7SfdcM A \ " 6 y 8{s]6b7V^SfU!XV\]`Z~jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHebl|O_8iZsY]`Srh]
V\]6Z_lg0VNo`g0VKi_l[$VNb7pZ,jLb7[f[fU>|yZM[f_8Y `{ _7jyV\]`ZSfdò`g`Vil_[Vb7plZ{C]`SrUKhMg0V\_loyZMThHZMdzVb7plZ_lj `{ SrU>d`_lVKT\Zb7[f[$e
b7TN|`S$V\Tb7TNelX6bl[$[V\]`_g`pl]wS$Vmb4eUWZ!ZMmUW_b7V 6TUVpl[rb7d6hMZl{ dbU\S$mvo`[fZsh!b7o6bhHS$V\SfilZ 8T\ZUWSrUWV\SfilZ[$_8Y o6bU\U 6[$V\Z!T!X
S$VSrU^V\]6ZjkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHeb8VsY]`Srh]h!b7o6bhHS$V\SfilZTNZ!blhHVNbld6hHZSfd_l]6mvUsZ zg6bl[fU^TNZ!U\SrUVb7d6hMZS$d}_]`mUM{ dbUWSfmvo`[fZ
hMblo6blhMSVNS$iZ[f_8Y o6blUNU 6[VNZMTsL_ld`ZTNZ!U\SfUWV\_T!Xu_d`Z^hMb7oOblhHS$V\_THXuV\]`Z.hMg0V\_ljkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHeSrUplSfilZ!dbU
B >
B Y,ZblT\TNSfilZ

b8V~bhHg0VN_7cjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMe
_lj 0{
l{ 8_ Y,ZMilZ!T!XCY]`ZMdYZ[f_u_lb8VsVN]`Zo`[f_7V~plZ!d`ZMTb8VNZ!x|ueVN]`Z0 \a
Lx
t N9,zG| z
È7\
0 `
!]%^
`C
9y
x
!
U\S$mg`[fb7V\Sf_ldEX4Y,Z,U\ZMZV\]`Z,[f_blxi_l[$VNblplZKY,ZM[f[|yZM[f_8Y `{ _7j0V\]6Z,U\_lg`ThHZil_[Vb7plZ i_l[$VEZMilZ!dsb8VbjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe

blU:[f_8YbU
lXC|OZ![$_8YQVN]`ZhMbl[fhMg`[rb8V\ZxhMg0V\_loO_S$dzV{ ]6b7V UYT\_d`pz9]`Zvo`TN_l|`[fZMm]`ZMTNZSrU:V\]Ob8V^V\]6Z
[f_blxnTNZ!U\SrUVb7d6hMZ._7j s b7yZh5VUVN]`ZsjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHenTNZ!U\oO_d6U\Z._7j>VN]`Z O[VNZMTXyU\lZ!YS$d`pSV^x0_8YdwjkTN_lmY]6b7VV\]6Z
jk_lTNmsg6[fbV\_[fx
g6U^S$V.Y,_lg`[rx|yZl{ S$V\]6_lg0V.VN]6b8V^[f_bxTNZ!U\SfUWVNbld6hHZvSfd
o6[fbhHZlX0 \a o`TN_0x0g6hMZ!U^b
_ux`Z~o6[$_lV
Y]`_zUWZdug`ms|yZMTUmb7Z:mv_T\ZÛ\ZMd6U\Z
iyz<|
< !

x
H u N
! NN NL
4
S) d
4H #"
N
1
X
S N
D NN
S N
1 D N
N HQ N
HQ
LN HQ N
L HQ N
N HQ NN
N HQ N
HQ
N HQ N
%
H HQ s
H HQ s N
N HQ N
N HQ

N HQ N

HQ N
N HQ N

N HQ N
%
X HQ

HQ

X HQ NN
S N HQ NN
N S H 4 HzHH S 4XXH%$
N S H 4 Hz H H 4 S 4XXH%$
- Q 4 P 5 S & S N N'"
[$V\ZMT.hMS$ThHg6SVUMXES$V^SfU^bl[$Yb4e0USfmvoO_TWVb7dzVV\_nd`_7VNZsVN]6b8VVN]`ZvT\ZUWoy_ld6U\Z~_7jVN]`Z#6[$V\ZMT
]`Z!dx0Zb7[fS$d6pYS$V\]6
x0Z!oOZ!d6xÙ_ldcV\]`Z@6
[$V\ZMTL UhH_mvoO_d`ZMdzVi8b7[fg`ZU V\]6ZSfm~oyZ!x6b7d6hMZ_7jV\]6Z[f_blxE{ j.bhMg0V\_l9jkTNZzx g`Z!d6hHe
Zz
x g6b7V\Sf_ldjLblS$[rUVN_plSfilZhM_ld6U\Sfx`ZMTb8V\Sf_ldcVN_[$_zblxcSfm~oyZ!x6b7d6hMZlXS$VblUNU\g`mvZ!Ud6_[$_zblxb7dOxYS$[f[jLblS$[V\_pS$iZ
blh!hHg`Tb8VNZTNZ!U\g`[$VNU,jk_TbvT\Zb7[ [fSjkZ>6
[$V\Z!ThH_d6x0g6hHV\Sfd`pvoO_8Y,ZMTVN_vb~[f_bx{
!
% \i]%^Q0!]%^

H
B .
B x
U\_lg`ThHZV\_[f_bxXbld6x
H x
d6x0g6hHV\SfilZ^[f_8YBo6bU\U`6[$V\Z!TNUS$d6U\ZMT\Vb7dnSfd6x0g6hHV\_TS$dU\ZMTNSfZ!UYS$V\]V\]`Zs[$_zblx6h!b7o6bhHS$V\SfilZ[f_8YBo6bU\U`6[$V\Z!TNU
S$d6U\ZMT\V.bT\ZUWSrUVN_lTSfdU\ZMTNSfZ!U^b7dOxbnh!b7o6bhHS$V\_lTSfdo6b7Tb7[f[$Z![YSVN]V\]`Z[f_bx{]`Zvjk_lTNmvZMTR6
[$V\Z!Tsx0Z!U\Sfpld
V\TNS$ZU,V\_7|`[f_0h0.VN]`Z^g`duY,bldzV\Z!xjkTNZz
x g`ZMdOhHeU\S$pd6b7[Y]6S$[fZV\]`Z^[rb8V\V\Z!TV\TNS$ZU,V\_U\]`_lT\VSV_g0V!{
[$V\ZMTSrUVN]6b8VjkTNZzx g`Z!d6hHeb7VY]`Srh]VN]`Z^_lg`V\o`g0VsL[$_zblx6,i_l[$VNblplZ
]`ZHHA N " 6vyjk_Tbv[$_8YB o6blUNU`6
Zz
x g6b7[rU>9`y { _ljVN]`Z.Sfdò`g0VvLU\_lg`ThHZ4,il_[Vb7plZ{|y_8ilZ.V\]`ZshMg0V\_ljkTNZzx g`Z!d6hHeX`V\]6Z._lg0VNo`g0Vi_l[$VNblplZSfU
[$_8Y,ZMT,V\]Ob7d5`
y { _7jVN]`Z^Sfdò`g0VXOb7dOxiuSrU\b9 iZMTU\b6{
( =)y?,J~
@5 ~ '
;
]`S$p]H o6blUNUJ6
[$V\Z!T UsVNblU\SfUg6UWVsVN]`Z_oòy_U\SVNZ_7jb[$_8YB o6bU\UE6 [VNZMT*vV\_
_7ZMT~Z!blU\eo6blUNU\blplZ_ljb]`Sfpl]
jkTNZxzg`ZMdOhHeU\S$pd6b7[b7d6xx0S$/hMg`[$Vo6blUNU\blplZVN_~b[f_8YB jkTNZz
x g`Z!d6hHeU\S$pd6b7[{>U,_ld`Z:mvS$p]zV,ZMtuoyZ!hHV!XuVN]`ZS$d6x`g6h5VNS$iZ
b7dOxhMblo6blhMSVNS$iZiZMTUWSf_ld6U_7jEVN]`Z]`Sfpl]H o6blUNUS6
[VNZMTb7TNZKgOUVV\]6Z_oòO_zUWS$V\Z:_7jV\]`Z!S$TTNZ!U\oOZh5V\SfilZ:[f_8YB o6bU\UD6 [$V\ZMT
[f_8Y o6blUNU 6[VNZMTbl[$[f_8YUjk_lTvZ!bUWeoOblUNU\blplZ_lj[f_8Y jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHeU\Sfpld6bl[fUjkTN_lm
x0S/hMg`[VoOblUNU\blplZ:_7jC]6S$p] jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHeUWSfpld6bl[fU!{
x0ZUWSfpld6U
Capacitive high-pass filter
+0.5 F
1V
V1
C1
Rload
1 k
0
L
Lx
B Lx
H u Q X
4 S 9 NL
d !
N
1
X
1 N N N N HN
N H s
HQ
]`ZhMblo6blhMSVN_lT
U Sfm~oyZ!x6b7d6hMZ~Sfd6hMT\ZblU\Z!U:YSVN]x`Z!hHTNZ!bUWSfd`pjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMel{v]`SrU]`S$p]
SfmvoOZx`b7dOhHZvS$dU\ZMTNS$ZU
V\Z!d6xÙVN_v|`[$_0h[f_8Y jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMeUWSfpld6bl[fU,jkTN_lmplZHV\V\Sfd`p~V\_[f_bx{
-, 7\ `C!]%^
HQ NN
b
X HQ
N HQ NN
S N HQ
HQ NN
HN HQ N
HN HQ
N HQ NN
H s
N H N
N H NN
N H
HN H
H N
N H N
H
H SsN
N H S N
NQHH L5 X4 L H 4X
!N
0GF0
Inductive high-pass filter

1
R1
200
1V
V1
L
100 mH
R
1 k
load
Lx
]`ZS$d6x`g6h5VN_lT US$mvoyZ!x`bld6hHZvx0Z!hMT\ZblU\Z!UYS$V\]x0Z!hMT\ZblU\S$d6pjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMel{:]`SfU[f_8YSfmvoOZx`b7dOhHZ~S$doOb7Tb7[f[$Z![
V\Z!d6xÙV\_UW]`_TWV_g0V[f_8Y jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMeU\S$pd6b7[rUjkTN_lmplZMVWV\Sfd`pV\_VN]`Zs[f_bxnT\ZUWSrUVN_lT{U:bhH_d6U\Z zg`ZMdOhHZlXOmv_UWV

_7jV\]6Zîl_l[$VNblplZ:plZMVNUx0TN_loòyZ!xblhMT\_zU\UU\ZMTNS$ZU,T\ZUWSrUVN_lT+ 8{
B Lx

L 5 . z N
! N NL
N 3
d !
N
1
X
1 N NN NN
x
NN NN
!
% \i]%^Q0!]%^
N H s
HQ
HQ N
b
X HQ N
N HQ N
S N HQ N

HQ N
HN HQ
HN HQ N
N HQ
H N
N H N
N H
N H NN
HN H N
H NN
N H
H NN
H
N H S
NQHH L5 X4 L H 4X
Lx
]`SrUV\SfmvZlXV\]`ZhMb7oOblhHS$V\SfilZx`Z!U\S$pd~SrU>VN]`ZU\S$mvo`[fZ!UWV!XT\Z zg`S$TNSfd`p^_ld`[fes_d`ZhH_mvoO_d`ZMdzVbl|O_8iZbld6x~|OZ!el_d6x
V\]6Z[f_blxE{d6xXKb7pzb7SfdEXEVN]`ZTNZ!bh5VNS$iZo`g`TNSVe_7jhMblo6blhMSVN_lTU_8ilZ!T^S$d6x`g6h5VN_lTU^V\Z!d6xÙ.V\_wjLb4i_lT^VN]`ZMSfTsg6U\ZSfd
6[$V\Z!T.x0Z!U\S$pdEXEZUWoyZ!hMSfbl[$[fewYSVN]]`S$p] o6blUNU 6[VNZMTUY]`ZMTNZ~]`S$p]jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHSfZ!U^hM_lmvmv_ld`[fehMblg6U\Z~Sfd6x0gOh5V\_TNUVN_
|yZM]6b4iZUWV\Tb7d6plZM[fex0g`ZVN_~V\]`Z.U\uS$dnZHZ!hHVb7d6xZM[fZ!hHV\TN_lmb7pd`ZHVNSfh:hH_T\Z[f_UNUWZUM{
UYSVN][f_8Y o6bU\U O[VNZMTUMXO]`S$p] o6blUNU 6[$V\Z!TNU]6b4ilZ.bTb8VNZ!xM \ " 6 8Xb7|y_8ilZ^Y]6Sfh]nVN]`Zs_g0V\o`g`V
il_[Vb7pZSfd6hHTNZ!bUWZUbl|O_8iZ `{ _ljV\]6ZS$dò6g0V.il_[Vb7plZ{g6UWV^bUS$d
V\]6ZhMblU\Z~_7jVN]`ZhMblo6blhMSVNS$iZ[f_8Y o6blUNU
6[$V\Z!ThHSfTNhMg`S$V!XuV\]6Z.hMb7oOblhHS$V\SfilZ]`Sfpl] o6bU\U 6[$V\Z!T UhHg`V\_7jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMehMbld|yZ^jk_lg6d6xYS$V\]nVN]`Z.UNb7mvZ:jk_lTNmsg`[rb
H >
B -
H B
9y
`
fcutoff =
x
H / t -
Lx
1
2RC
0
dVN]`ZZMt`b7mvo`[fZhHSfThHg`S$V!XzV\]6ZMTNZSrUd`_T\ZUWSrUWVNb7dOhHZ_lV\]`Z!TVN]6b7dVN]`Z:[$_zblxTNZ!U\SfUWV\_T!XzUW_sV\]6b7VSrUV\]`Zi4bl[$g6Zjk_T
+S$dVN]`Zjk_lTNmsg`[rb`{
-U\Sfd`pbnUWV\Z!T\Z!_U\euUWV\Z!mblUbo`TblhHV\SrhMb7[ZHt`blm~o6[$ZXbh!b7o6bhHS$V\_ThM_ld`d6Z!h5VNZ!xS$dUWZ!T\SfZ!U:YS$V\]V\]6ZVY,ZMZMV\Z!T
VNT\Z!|`[fZÛ\oOZb7ZMTYS$[f[U\ZMTNilZvblUsb]6S$p] oOblUNU 6[VNZMTXCSfmvoO_zUWSfd`pwbn]`Sfpl]Sfm~oyZ!x6b7d6hMZvV\_w[f_8Y jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe|OblUNU
U\S$pd6b7[rUMXEV\]`Z!T\Z!|zeo`T\Z!ilZ!dVNS$d6pVN]6b8V.oy_8YZ!T:jkT\_m|OZ!S$d6pwY,bUVNZ!x
_ldbU\oyZ!b7ZMTSfd`ZH/hHSfZMdzV^jk_T^T\Z!o`T\_0x0gOhHSfd`p
U\g6h]UW_g`d6xÙ!{ d[fS$ZjLblU\]`Sf_ldEX>bld}S$d6x`g6h5VN_lThM_ld`d6Z!h5VNZ!x}SfdU\ZMTNS$ZU^YS$V\]}VN]`ZY,_u_7jkZMTk|6bU\U.U\oOZb7ZMT.YSf[$[
U\ZMTNilZbUbs[$_8Y o6blUNU O[VNZMT,jk_lTV\]`Z:[f_8YjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHSfZ!UV\]Ob8Vo6b7T\V\SrhHg`[rb7T,UWoyZ!bllZ!TSrUx`Z!U\S$pd`Z!xvVN_TNZMo6T\_0x0g6hMZl{ d
V\]6SfU.U\Sfm~o6[$ZvZHt`blm~o6[$ZhHSfThHg`S$V!XVN]`ZmvSfx`TNbld`plZvUWoyZ!bllZ!T:SrU.U\g`|0Zh5V\ZxVN_V\]`Zvjkg`[f[U\oOZh5VNT\g`m_7j,jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMS$ZU
jkTN_lmV\]6ZvUWV\Z!T\Z!_ U_g0V\o6g0V!{
_lTNZsZ![fbl|O_TNb7V\Z O[VNZMT^d`ZMVY_T\0UblT\ZvU\_lmvZHVNS$mvZ!U:g6U\Z!xEX|`g0VV\]`SrUÛ\]`_lg`[rxpS$iZ
el_gV\]6ZpZMd`Z!TNbl[6Srx0Z!b6{[fU\_s|yZ!blTSfdmvSfd6xVN]6b8V mq_d`[fevU\]`_8YSfd`p.e_lg_d`Zh]6bld`d`Z![LZMS$V\]`Z!T,[fZHjV_lT,TNS$p]V5
_ld~VN]`SfUUVNZMTNZM_ÛWe0UWV\Z!m{TNZ!b7[ÙWV\Z!T\Z!_Y_g`[fx~]6b4iZUWS$tU\oOZb7lZ!TNU C:Y,_u_7jkZMTU!Xl:m~Srx0Tb7d`pZ!U!Xlb7dOx~VY,ZMZMV\ZMTU!{
H i
B '
4
x
B x
Lx
21 4 345 \
0G0
!]%^
`
low-pass
Woofer
Midrange
Stereo
high-pass
6Tweeter
7 _T|yZHV\V\ZMT:oyZMT\jk_lTNmvbld6hHZêZHVXOY,Z.mvS$p]zV[fS$Z^V\_]6b4ilZ.U\_lmvZ.uSfd6xw_7j98O[VNZMThMS$ThHg6SVhMb7oOb7|`[fZ._7j>o6bU\U\Sfd`p
jkTNZ :zg`ZMdOhHSfZ!UV\]6b7V:b7TNZ.|yZHVY,ZMZ!d[$_8Y2L|6blUNUb7dOxn]`S$p]VNT\Z!|`[fZV\_VN]`Z~m~Srx0Tb7d`pZsU\oOZb7lZ!TU\_V\]Ob8Vd6_ld`Z_7j
V\]6Zs[f_8Y#;_lT]`Sfpl]!;jkT\Z*:zg`ZMd6hMeU\S$pd6b7[CoO_8Y,ZMTSfUY,bUVNZ!xn_dbU\oOZb7lZ!TSfd6hMblo6b7|`[fZ._ljKZ-
< hHSfZMdzV\[feT\Z!o`T\_0x0gOhHSfd`p
V\]6_U\ZvU\_lg6d6xÙ!{ ]6b7VY,ZvY_g`[rx|yZ~[f_u_luSfd`pjk_T^SfUh!b7[f[$Zx
b>=@? yBfA 0? @46
8 [$V\Z!T!XEY]6Sfh]SfU:VN]`Z~V\_o`Sfh~_ljV\]6Z
d`ZMtzVU\Z!hHV\Sf_ldE{
H
!; 48
!; :
#; *:
8 [$V\ZMTU>Sfd6U\ZMT\Vb:h!b7o6bhHS$V\_T>S$dU\ZMTNS$ZUYSVN]VN]`Z[f_bxFElSfd6x0g6hHV\SfilZ]`Sfpl]0;o6bU\UG86[$V\Z!TNU
a b7o6bhHS$V\SfilZ,]`S$p]!;o6blUNUD6
S$d6U\ZMT\V^bTNZ!U\SfUWV\_TSfdUWZ!T\SfZ!Ub7dOxb7dSfd6x0g6hHV\_lTSfd
oOb7Tb7[f[$Z![YS$V\]
V\]6Z~[f_bx{s]`Z~jk_T\mvZMTH6
8 [$V\Z!T.x0Z!U\Sfpld
V\TNS$ZU,V\_7|`[f_0h0.VN]`Z^g`duY,bldzV\Z!xjkTNZ z
: g`ZMdOhHeU\S$pd6b7[Y]6S$[fZV\]`Z^[rb8V\V\Z!TV\TNS$ZU,V\_U\]`_lT\VSV_g0V!{
]`Z~M!I/KJNMML 6vy
jk_lTb.]`Sfpl]0; o6bU\UN68 [$V\ZMTSrUKVN]6b8V,jkTNZ z: g`ZMdOhHeb8V,Y]`Sfh]V\]`Z_lg0VNo`g0V^k[f_bx6Ki_l[$VNblplZ
Z :zg6b7[rUOB`
P {QO
_ljVN]`Z.Sfdò`g0VvLU\_lg`ThHZ4,il_[Vb7plZ{|y_8ilZ.V\]`ZshMg0V\_ljkTNZ z: g`Z!d6hHeX`V\]6Z._lg0VNo`g0Vi_l[$VNblplZSfU
plTNZ!b8VNZMTV\]6bldROS`
P {QO
_7jVN]`Z^Sfdò`g0VXOb7dOxiuSrU\bB; iZMTU\b6{
]6S$p] oOblUNU O[VNZMTsbl[$[f_8YUjk_lT^Z!bUWewoOblUNU\blplZ~_7j]6S$p] jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe

UWSfpld6bl[fUjkTN_lmU\_lg6TNhMZsVN_[f_bxXbld6x
x0S hMg`[VoOblUNU\blplZ:_7jC[f_8Y jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMeUWSfpld6bl[fU!{
C<
TVUXWZY[\ZU^]D]R_D`9]
a8
]`Z!T\Zvb7TNZ~bloò`[fSfh!b8VNS$_d6U:Y]`ZMTNZ~bo6blTWVNSfhMg`[fblT|Ob7d6xX_lTÛWo6T\ZblxX_TjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHSfZ!U:d`Z!Z!xV\_n|OZ 6[$V\Z!T\ZxwjkTN_lm

bYSrx0Z!TTb7d`pZ._7jKmvS$tuZxU\S$pd6b7[rUM{ Sf[$V\ZMThHSfThHg`S$VNU:hMbldw|OZvx0Z!U\Sfpld`ZxV\_bhMhM_lmvo`[fSfU\]nV\]`SrUVNbUW|uenhM_lm|`S$d
Sfd`pVN]`Zo6T\_oOZ!TWVNS$ZUs_lj[$_8Y o6blUNUsbld6x}]`Sfpl] o6bU\USfdVN_
b
UWSfd`pl[fZ O[VNZMT{]6ZTNZ!U\g`[VvSrUh!b7[f[$Zxb
f
6[$V\Z!T!{ a TNZ!b7V\Sfd`pb~|6b7d6xò6blUNU 6[$V\Z!TjkT\_mbv[f_8Y o6bU\Ubld6x]`S$p] o6blUNU 6[VNZMTh!b7dn|yZ^S$[f[$gOUVNTNb7V\Z!xg6U\Sfd`p|`[f_uh
x0Srb7pTNblmvU
#;
Signal
input
#8
0;
#;
Low-pass filter
blocks frequencies
that are too high
b8
!; d8
High-pass filter
blocks frequencies
that are too low
eSignal
output
0;
2=@? SA c? @
ih \i]%^Q0!]%^
g OBP
j8
]6b7VZMmvZ!T\pZ!UjkTN_lmV\]6ZU\ZMTNS$ZUhH_ms|`Sfd6b7V\Sf_ldw_7j>VN]`Z!U\Z.VY,_ 6[$V\Z!T:hMS$ThHg6SVUSrUbhHSfTNhMg`SVV\]6b7VYSf[$[_ld6[$e

7b [f[f_8Yo6bU\UNb7pZ_lj,VN]`_U\Z~jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZUV\]Ob8VblT\Zvd`Z!SVN]`ZMT^VN_u_w]`S$p]d`_lTVN_z_w[f_8Y^{ UWSfd`pwTNZ!b7[hH_lmvoy_ld`Z!dzVNU!X
]`Z!T\ZSrUY]6b8VbVeuo`SrhMb7[EUNh]`Z!mvb7V\Srh:m~Sfpl]zV[f_u_l[fS$Z
*:

)k
Capacitive band-pass filter

Low-pass
lfilter
section
nR
Source
mV
o200
1V
pC
High-pass
lfilter
section
pC
3
1 F
o2.5 F
nR
load
1 k
qrs0rcq!tuvt*w0xycrB`z scrc{ {.|t}u0x~

w2rcq{t*z
~2
qc.%/B
q
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z
s}urcq.wN@,
/xzb
| ~0x
wNM, '!c %/v*c v N/0 v %vcv
/ !! 'cv
/ !! %-cv
!v !! %0cv
/ !! %cv
/0!! %v cv
%/ !! %cv
%/ !! %cv
%!!! %cv
%/ !! %cv
%/ !! %cv
21 4 345 \
0 0
!]%^
gOg
`
%*!! %cv
%/!! %cv
%/ !! %0cv
%/ !! %cv
%/0!! %cv
'*!! %-cv

'/ !! %cv

@
'/ !! 'v cv

i
'/ !! '0cv

%/ !! 'cv
Qr w!!}u0r!x2scxr{vtu t*zz0r~~0|~0x cxBzvqS~0rBz!0x

#Bc ; 8c B a -c M M /0jc ! ! # M c^
Bc0 0
- 0 ) /R!SB Ndd X [ Rbcc 8cH c
c ! )/ - 0 H
Inductive band-pass filter
Source
High-pass
lfilter
section
nR
1
L
Low-pass
lfilter
section
L
2
nR
load
0 HM M0 !; M - B8c M ^ Rc M d0 #; M4

j B Nca! M c ) 'S # 8cCM ! *:c c N ^
M0 a -000 #; #B 0; 8c -c# jB Bc M
8c F c ! c ^ cB ; M 8cH #
M 0K M0 =*N) B M : 0 - 9 . ! < 0 > . 8c
Z c MB X M M0 M *:c c 0 ' M0a #; M4c !; M
c a !@0c -M #Bc M0 -0 / jB
M B 0 4 c j 90 M0B M ; cB M : 0 c 0
)0 0 b K c)0M 0 'c / M0) > 8CM
BS aP0B F 0 0 c /c /M R H M
ih \i]%^Q0!]%^
g Ol
0 0 c %M08CM / [ a M 0 vc d cc % MMB
M : 0 -
0 0 -M !0 4 Bc ; F ! M 8 -04c M 0 M^ M
c^ M ; cc ^ !M M - c /M^ M M 0*
.)[-
. M=@? y B fA 0?S @Hj8 CMMX : 0 c!- M M ! ^ / MB : 0 Bc0- M ^ D0
'Mc ; ; MM 8cCM [ j @ 0 #; M 8cCM M0 c !; M 8c !
0 2! c
- /MM ! 0 B c /!M c c B0 0 Mc 0b0 # .
M0
TVUXWZY[]Da\ R_i`9]
B SR c =@ ? SA/ ~ J/ ?S I0 =@B?0 S A @- I bi M)0 SI@ 8c S 0 c ' 80CMc a/ 0 M 0X dB* :c jc
0 #; Xc !; M 8c v bM0 Bc ; - !M a )'
-0 #0 8c # v Z 0 c [

passes low frequencies

Low-pass filter
Signal
output
Signal
input
High-pass filter
frequencies
d M 0passes
j high
48CM c ! !#/ - 0 H
"Twin-T" band-stop filter
R1
pC
pC
source
R2
pC
nR
nR
load
!C 21# 345#Gid4
g OB
0j #; M 8cCM X 0 iB. - 8 0 0b 0;
8c 0 'B%c )2
i- 8 0 d 0 M
M B0 H-a 0 4 ; 8c vcb M c X0 0 -
S 0 ) 0 c
Component value ratios for
the "Twin-T" band-stop filter
nR
= R2 = 2(R3)
pC = C = (0.5)C
0 - # M0H*:c c j M M0 B 0 bM : 0 c N
c
2
fnotch =
1
4R3C3
0 0M M/ cBc ; 0 0Bc 8cCM % M j a0 0'c /

u Ft zuycrzb{Su0s|t}u0x~
w2rcq{t*z
~2
qc.
~0
q
~0
q
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z
s}urcq.wN@,
/xzb
| ~0x
wNM, / c %*c / c % c v
%/ !! %0cv
i
%/ !! 'vcv

%/ !! %cv
'/ !! %0cv
'/ !! %cv
%!v !! cv
%*!! -cv
%/ !! %-c
%!!! %c
D
%*!! -c @
%/0!! 'c

%/ !! %c
g O
ih
/ v !! - cv
/ !! 0cv
*!! cv
/ !! %cv
/ !! %cv

/ !! %vcv

!!! %cv

/ !! %cv
Hi% ! Did4
.)[-
. M=M? B A@I b^8 CMM : 0 !c- bi ! !# M i: 0 B c - M / ^ 0 H a M =@?a!S A/# " "J ?SI$0" =M? B0A @ I
BI@8c
'dc ; 8CM j^M0B # ;j % Bc c 0-;0 8c CM#; M 8c N M v M 0 i - 8 0 0 ;B 8c 0
0 c ; M0 cB ; 0
0H*:c c j / [ c] SI@*:c c
` ],+WZUXW.-0/R_1-D`29]
M08c c '
-c M 0 3"I0 - B c !
H0 MB X 0 0 0 -0c c 54 Bc> D c
M c !c 0 [ ^-!0 [ 00acBc ; c[cBc ; )8c -
4 a0 0B M Bc 5 4 0
6 07^
0c 4M0 /cB M : 0 c 8 0 0 M d X b M
0c M0 Bc ; # Bc ; [8c
70 cB ; M 8CM 0 c M B M H aM 4 ^c
9 4 j /c 0 j c )B[ 0 0M
%'&)(
Series resonant band-pass filter
mV
:L
lfilter
1
1H
1V
pC
3
1 F
nR
load
1 k
0
!<; d>= =aDi%

g O@?
4 c M cc 0Bc !@[c B cM : 0 c-
/ 0 0^
{x~tBxc{~0xc{Bzcrz!u2ycrz`s0rc{{.|t}Bu0x~
w2rcq{t*z
}2
qc.
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z
s}urcq.wN@,
/xbz
| ~0x
wNM, %/c N/v 0 v %vcv / !!
%/ !! %v cv
%/ !! 'cv
M
%*!! 'cv
%*!! %cv
%/ !! %cv
/ !! % cv
*!! %vcv
/ !! %vcv

/0!! %0cv

0!! %cv
i
/ !! %cv
/ !! %cv
/ !! %cv
i
/ !! %vcv

/ !! %-cv

%/ !! %cv

%*!! %0cv

%/ !! %cv
%/ !! %cv
%/ !! %cv
A Qr w!!}u07r B!x2scxr{2ru~0x0{zcrzu| ~0x cxzvqS%-D

CE
0c 4 Rc ) ) 0 0Kc / M c M
cc FG cH Bc M : 0 c- ' '0 b C B 4 BF- 4M0 cBc ; 8c 'j 4
c H cFc XM 8c ! c0 c- 0 4 M cc
c[M c ^*:c c cB M - M c 0 c 0[ M
0 M0) *: 0 c I H ' D! M S 0 XM0[ M K JL" B0 bc
MM D0 '! 0 0 D08CM
0 M0 ^ D /cB cc ; M 8cCM 0 # Bc)- N 4 -0c ;
j ! c # M : 0 c b V / 0 M0^ N
g OPO
ih
Hi% ! Did4
Parallel resonant band-pass filter
mV
1V
0
nR
lfilter
2
500
:L
pC
10
F
100
mH
Rload
1 k
0
04 Bc # 0c ' /cB 0 0 / 0 -' M0H

0j k c S /cB M : 0 c ' 0 0 4
cBc c 0a !M0 c c[ 0 0a ' M
scr~!r!}} x!}~0xc{z0rz!uycrzbscrc{{|t}u0x~
w2rcq{t*z
~2
}.S R
qc.
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z
s}urcq.wN@,
/xbz
| ~0x
wNM, %*c /0 v %-cv
!
%/ !! %c

%/ !! %v c

%*!! -cv
M
%*!! v cv

%/ !! cv
/ !! %cv
*!! %0cv
/ !! %cv
/0!! 'cv
0!! %cv
/ !! %cv

/ !! %0cv

/ !! %cv
/ !! '0cv
/ !! %cv
%/ !! %cv
%*!! %vcv
!<; d>= a= Di%
g OO
%/ !! %0cv
%/ !! %0cv
%/ !! %cv
A Qr w!!}u07r B!x2scxr{2ru~0x0{zcrzu| ~0x cxzvqS%-DCE

T X jM0) #; M^Bc 0; 8CM c M 0 / Bc Bc
/ 0Z- X R /M Mb B *:c c /cB - Xc S
0 0! / 0 % C B M0 M c H d 0 0/ a
C B c 0 / B -0 M0 00! M08c
0 c 9 Bc ; 8c - 9 M^ 00 jBc 0 0c
- M 0 0 % ! *:c c 0 0 d FM : 0 c- d B #
c M 0 . c 0 M M0[ 0! d 2 .aS
S - Z Bc)-

0 S - BK ; M c c S c c c !
- 0 M0 jB M0 0[ 8c b!M c M ^ ! U
c
0 M0*
T d B 9c F4 /cB - Mi XM '*: 0 c j
/ B Bc d Bj / #c ^ @ *: 0 c M b^ B0 0^cc ;
8c B d B M !0 M a M0 H ^
M cc 7D '
F [ #0 #S
g OPV
ih
Hi% ! Did4
Series resonant band-stop filter

1
mV
R1
500
L1
1V
pC
100 mH
Rload
1 k
10 F
0 M0 4 .-0c M 0 M cc S 9 0c / i !9M0 /

0 0 / c 0M 0 M M0^
{x~tBxc{~0xc{Bzcrz!u2ycrz`{u0s|t}Bu0x~
w2rcq{t*z
~2
}.S R
qc.
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z
s}urcq.wN@,
/xbz
| ~0x
wNM, / c c /c v
/!!
%/ !! %vcv
%/0!! %v cv
%/ !! %0v cv
%/ !! % cv
/ !! cv
*v !! cv
/ !! - cv
/ !! %c
/ !! %c
!!! %c
/0!! c
@
/ !! %c
D
/ !! %c
/ !! 'c
/ !! %c
/ !! %c
%/0!! cv
%*!! -cv
!<; d>= a= Di%
g OB
%/!! v cv
%/ !! 0cv
W uYq X| ~0x 0xzvqSD

Z A\[ ~0xc{Bzcrz!u|~0x cxBzvqS*%*D
CE
' - a Hc^ v /cB cBc ; )8c
Parallel resonant band-stop filter
pC
10 F
mV
:L
1V
100 mH
nR
load
1 k
0X0 ]4 0M 0 cBc /cB M : 0 c M0M !@0

c / i M0b K ^ X*: 0 c d ^c M0b K B 0
M : 0 -
scr~!r!}} x!}~0xc{z0rz!uycrbz {Su0s|t}u0x~
w2rcq{t*z
}2S R
qc2
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z
s}urcq.wN@,
/xzb
| ~0x
wNM, % c / c %c v !
/ !! %0cv
/ !! %cv
*!! %v cv
*!! %cv
/ !! % cv
/ !! %cv
/!! %cv
/ !! %0cv
!v !! %-cv
!!! %cv
g VP
ih
Hi% ! Did4
/ !! %0cv
/ !! cv

/ !! '0cv
/ !! %0cv
/ !! %cv
/ !! %v cv
/0!! %0cv
/ !! %vcv
/0!! %vcv
%/ !! %cv
W uYq X| ~0x 0xzvqSD

Z A\[ ~0xc{Bzcrz!u|~0x cxBzvqS*%*D
CE
^ c BF0 M0 B c / jB 0 /
c M _ M ` #/ 0 B 0 0 c [M : 0 c 0 0 Bc0# Mb ^
Z M0 0 M M 8c
0 #M c G8c c 0 c0i M ^0 0 00 cM0 ;
c Bc - c X 9cM M M c - Z c c M
!0 ZM0X8c
0 ) 8 !M ac ^M : 0 c- d /cB
M / M0^ B` aS0 )M : 0 c
! M 00 #; MiBc 0; 8c i9 iM
M M/0 c c0 Bc 4 #; MNB !; M 8CM c ! 0d a
/ a a / % #; M4 !; M 8cCM M c b R -000
c ^ -M0 H
Capacitive/inductive low-pass filter
filter
1
L1
100 mH
mV
1V
pC
L2
100 mH
1 F
nR
load
1 k
0 c 0 !@[ ) Z*: 0 c c 0 Z ! )
M : 0 - ' ! Z 0 -M0# b *: 0 c c M )0^
8 M i H 4!X M B ac c 4 M c UH '
c M c /0 M % cM -0cb 'M -0c - 9ca 0
>Z Z /cB 0 > Z / B M : 0 c cc '
> M iB M 0 aM c 0 G 4-
0 d F'B ^Bc> j
0 cS HM : 0 c b Bc
0
!<; d>= a= Di%
gVg
}0q} s0rc{{|tB}u0x~
w2rcq{t*z
}2S R
qc.
} S R
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z
s}urcq.wN@,
/xzb
| ~0x
wNM, / c v %*c /!! %-!
/ !! !
!!! !
/0!! -!
%!v !! !
%/ !! v !
%/ !! !
%/0!! !
'/!! %!

'/ !! %v!
D
%/ !! %-!
%/ !! %!

%/ !! !
%/ !! !
%*!! %cv
%/ !! %cv
%*!! %-cv
%/ !! %cv
%/ !! 'cv

%/ !! %cv
K
/ !! %-cv
0c j #; M 8c0 c ! j cc ; M 8c4 M B[ ;

0 c ?@ePOH b7fd 0 - c B)c c 8c - M / B00 /cB
jM j M 0 C B c j c F M
4
0j g 0 c c !M0! H M0X [- 0 M0 0!
c D C B f /M a #M g M U 4 Bcb N /cBc M0a
b M)0 M Z 0Bc Z 0 / 0 0 ! c*

M M0 MB Bc #B B jM 0 0[
# C B c M0 0 0MM 0 M
[ C B
} 7x B!x`z 5h
i h[wN@,
5 h[wN@,
g Ve
Z5hKtw)
ih
Hi% ! Did4
| ~0x
wNM,
b B cv
%-cv
!
%-!
M B %-cv
!
%-!
!v
ZB c
%-c
c
%-c
/ !! ! G Z
!!! ! Z

@
/0!! -!
Z
Z
K
%!v !! !
Z

K
%/ !! v !

Z

%/ !! !
j Z
%/0!! !
Z
'/!! %!
Z

'/ !! %v!
Z
i
%/ !! %-!
l k
%/ !! %!
\ Z%

%/ !! !
Z
m
%/ !! !
Z
%*!! %cv
Z
%/ !! %cv
n Z

%*!! %-cv
Z
%/ !! %cv
Zd
%/ !! 'cv
Z
%/ !! %cv
Z
K
/ !! %-cv
Z
0M 0 d c Bc M0 / 0 0M 0 b [ c
MB a*:c c R0 acj K ''d 0 8CM^ 0 S
0^ #; c d ! 0 M jc^ 0
o MM c c /cB #; M 8c [j K0 - [Bcc [ M
M : 0 Mj [ 8 c % aPo ' 0c0 8c '0H p
00 X
0 0 o- M / 0 N8CM M d
/ HM B ' ) q
0 B 'i 9 M0 c8c - /c b 9Bc 0#M : 0 c- c-
ao^ /M M 8c d
MM 0 j!B ao^ d 0c0b8cCM

o^ H b/j B 9 ) !; M : 0 c C B c^8c 4c
: a i H M M0 Bc c0H 5 r 7 Hc
ijB0 cb8c
M c ^*:c c M MK ^ o - c
M : 0 c K b %/ M0M
0 B B 4 V- b /c M 0Z 00 C B
M0 0 X BFGZc ; / 0 C B c 0 c0 %*: 0 c X
c*:c c D0 /M B Z c # j M 0! 70
0 ; ; M0-; ! ' 000 M 000 OPH b d OPH b k 0 ' E?BPH bj 0 -
cj ' M : 0 c 08c X N g e sP H bt g PnP H bj 0 d S
M c 9 0M- 04 XM # /cB 9 j^ 8CM N- 0
! <; d>= =aDi%

g V

0H 0'u'2c /# c M0 C B 00! cso^> 8CM M
L o2B v g eBPH bSi B c 0 S!0^ 00 j M0 ! ; M : 0 c
00! aPo-
x
mV
:L
:L
3H
12 V
mV
AC/DC power supply filter
2H
pC
9500
F
nR
load
1 k
1V
120 Hz
0
rc7q z)qsccx~{*ss}|t}u0x~
w2rcq{t*z
w0 q
}.
qc.
}
~c} dr
1 q.w0
/rcq}ct z
s!~t*z!f
u q2wN\
s!~t*z!urcq2wN\
/xbz
w0
wN
/ !!
/ !! { [ w0}u0r7B0xru}rd|Z w0}u{
| ~0x
wN
/ !!
%Fc } [ w0}u0r7B0xru}rd|Zd~RGt q~0w0!}Bu{
0 g e o ^M0b c >Pc g eKr9 -X 0 g / 0
Z M M0^ F M - c S d CD j a Mb d c00 j8c*
0 M 0 !%M c N % X 0c c / F 0; 8cCM c
4Bc 0 0 Bc c / M M : 0 c- H M'D M0
GM0^ /cB # 08c F bS ! / /c 8 B 0
M0^ /cB #M : 0 0c M0 0! c8cCM c B0 4M c F 0 N f
.)[-
ih
H i% ! Did4
cB c c; #c0cB c ; i [ 8C M - cM 0ca0 c B c 0B / 0 B Xj M X 4 0
!0 c^ M M M : 0 -
g V@
%'&1
fresonant =
o2
U 2i
st
:LC
/ 0 : @ M 0 B 0 c0 8cCMM vM - [ ! < -[ M 0 S0 c/) 9 8c c

j M0 j ^ Bc M : 0 c K c j0M ! >Xc 0
M 0 ] Xd c 0 M- cc c0c M 0i M * N D N0M
0 0 c 0 c c 4 D8CM M /M j M Bc0) c d
iM0 u'- c / 0 !0 H8c 4 jBc c -8c - 00
0 Z/ 00 ^ c F #M0 000b # #0^ 0 c
d / 0 j/ ' 0 M d c c c 04
'c j >M0 B0 R M d! jc ^B c - 8 0M B> M j ;
c!0 - -c ! B. B F a -M cR M c 2K M
0 b0 /a 0 0 M a : c% a Bc M 0 % a d jM04
u'. c - / 0 0 j 0 a / fi -80
c M GX u'c 0M a M %%Bj c c!0X- !
X M N0 Bac b # 0 - / 0 ciN M# 0 B0^c /M
j
UX_WZY n -DUXW ` UXWZYZU^], +\`29U-i+W

') M 0 jB - 8c 0 ! R 0M ; M 0- . M
B B M 2 0 / B0 ) 0MM )M0
-c ' . Bc B B M#0 0 c 0 M0 -c
X !c a N0 S!0 M jB - Bc a Nc jB - 8c
'&
current
current
coiled wire
field
magnetic
generated by
current through
coil
00 j M48 0M4 BZ
#c c B c c M : N
L=
N2A
l
Where,
L = Inductance of coil in Henrys
Number of turns in wire coil (straight wire = 1)
= Permeability of core material (absolute, not relative)
A = Area of coil in square meters
l = Average length of coil in meters
N =
/0 c b 00>jB - 8c

4 0 M 0 c
0 Z 0 K cM HbjB0 K NM
c c [ H0 ! [ bM0 Bc Z jB - 8c Z M 0 M[c ! c
Z )jB B cM MB jB0 BcZ MB 0 M 4
; c 0 M'0 c
c c 0M [ c^ 0 LH ) M0 M
g V7?
ih id i = !'#d4

g V7O
; c C B ^0 ! a M 0M 0 S %
0 Bc M / M0 M > 00>jB - 8c 0 ! c

M cK 0> 0MM a'M[ ~ c\ 20ZM0 4 0 M0 c d b 0
c B B M0X 'M Zc -8 0 [c c 000 c 0
!I$c?S9"J!cI?@- c M c # I?0J-Sj- c
v B # ! HM
Transformer
0a [c - H a / ! 0 0 R M0 BS 0 B i
M 0M B - -a j X Bc dM d M
j M cM M ' !^0 0 c c i c^ X 0 0
c >M0 * 0b c 0 0 c c c )
4000M i 0[j !M Bc c0 Bc c c
c - 4c- Rb B ^ 40 M 0)c)
0c d
c '
>j=K> =i
!#d% D>=
g VO
^ N M B 0MX - c /; - [S 0 c 0 0 M0 -
M 0 M BZ 0 ' # -
K 0 00 -c -ajB - 8c D M j
I? cJ-9 c d M0 c M0% ^ IS% M0
8c ^ v - c c jB - 8 - B B00 M 0
M0M 0j B Z M0^ 'M Z- c Bc M
0j cM > #
B c c - % M a JL"J!"J\S M c 0 ! ;
c 0 0 M 0M# M J%P s c - M 0 'M Xc M c
% M0> 1 "j?S1 4 c00 c d - % M0X@@ !?S1 c!0 X
ih id
i =!'#d4
g V7V
ac 0M c cnu'F -/ c 0Kcac j M cR cc M c ;
0# GM0 / c M c B B ! ac 0 - < j 8c
- 00 c# ) #cH cb M0 B 0 u'2 M 0 0 0j
4
g PPP -< - 0 F 0 )c
M vjB - c -HM0 )c H M j 00 0 M-< Hc
B d 0 c [
(for SPICE to measure current)
nR
bogus
mV
mV
10 V
:L
:L
0V
100 H
i1
Rload
1 k
100 H
0
u~0rBzv{B|!~Rvx~
w2rcq{!t*z
~ yc@ B v{c. *x! ~0x Ft*~0xd u0{rut {B| rFt~ |@.- [
~ yc@ B v{ xv tuu0
}.
}
} }%
XFt {}ct*z0xu!x!}}0{7- [ uXcruuX0xuct*z`vqu0~{
wvt0rcq
}rz`} r~0xRvr7B zcxuvt qr!} }S}0t*z!0xd!Ku07B0xuXcx~
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z.
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L tw@
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L twvt!7
/xbz
| ~0x
wN@`
tFw7
%/ !!
/ !! N/0 ~v3t Rr~Ft*bz t*z B
| ~0x
wN@i M
tFwvt07
%/ !!
%/ !! N/0 xcqB`z !r~2Ft*`z t z B
) a 2 c B 2 !cn jS@ H4 M - 0 C B Xc
cM S ' M0Z j 0 0M Z 4M c
3 c 0 B ?7 3 c Z-/ M [ ! d )M c
/c NB Bc 4 ' ! 0 0RSc / X M0 - a !
' *
c '
V
>j=K> =i = !#d% D>=
c' Nc' M c / H M 0M i 0 MB B '
M '0 0MM Nc M040 a c!0Xc M N % M c d
0 0 0 M -0 cX / B M0 0 M jB - 0c F7-
c B 0M M0 c a d0 0 B 0M %
0 b b M0H 'M 0 M -c 0 0 DB j '0 d
u' 0 c0 0 0 c ! c # i M
u~0rBzv{B|!~ Rvx~
w2rcq{!t*z
~ yc@ B v{c. *x!
~ yc@ B v{ xv
}.
}
} }%
wvt0rcq
W u0x} Qr ~!xc{!t {Su!rzvqxw0r!}Bcx | @ XPR{
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z.
/xbz
| ~0x
wN@`
tFw7
%/ !!
/ !! d/0
| ~0x
wN@i M
tFwvt07
%/ !!
%/0!! d/0
j 0)0 j M cM 0 cc M 0M > c c 0
0M 'M 00 j M i ! 0 0 c \ M
c c0 C B ' j 4 )0H0 0M , 4-
M B0 0
0 M B ' S 0 i / Bc
u~0rBzv{B|!~Rvx~
w2rcq{!t*z
~ yc@ B v{c. *x!
~ yc@ B v{ xv
}.
}
} }%
wvt0rcq
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z.
/xbz
i
id i = !'#d4
| ~0x
wN@`
tFw7
%/ !!
/ !! /v 0 v
| ~0x
wN@iM
tFwvt07
%/ !!
/ !! /0 v
^ 0# ) 0M #0 B ! X ' c j c' M0 #
0c j M 0MM N M # X c 0 MB ! 0 .M0 c0 #
' .M040 C B 7? C 9 S C N NM00 04 NM NN c
B /N ca c!0 [ c Bc 7 H M -Bc cM- MX
c X B 0B ) M0 X 0M N' 0 M0 /
M# Bc M0 0 B -' c j M BcZ -c0 c!0
' j 0 S BN
u~0rBzv{B|!~ Rvx~
w2rcq{!t*z
~ yc@ B v{c. *x!
~ yc@ B v{ xv
}.
XcxBz!~~0r7u Xcx~u Xcrz *
~
X0xz!~{
}
XcxBz!~~0r7u Xcx~u Xcrz *
~
X0xz!~{
} }%
wvt0rcq
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z.
/xbz
| ~0x
wN@`
tFw7
%/ !!
/ !! N/0 v
| ~0x
wN@i M
tFwvt07
%/ !!
%/ !! N/0 v
H ' 0 -0 M C B c@ j 0j MbS F ZM0X0 j 0Bc c
-c0 0M c M) M0X0 0MM ' 0 c c 0
X ^M - Bc b X c Z M0 0 > % Bc
/M c c M/ S q 0 Bc '# 0 BZ X cZ c - u'
0 Bc M0 > c B Bc 'd M M [Bc /0 ' Bc # d %
0 / Bc c@ 0 t F # 0 M 3
u~0rBzv{B|!~ Rvx~
w2rcq{!t*z
~ yc@ B v{c. *x!
~ yc@ B v{ xv
}.
i%'3D
i%'6= i = !'#%
}
} }%
wvt0rcq
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z.
/xbz
| ~0x
wN@`
tFw7
%/ !!
/ !! N/0
| ~0x
wN@i M
tFwvt07
%/ !!
%/ !! N/0
d !cb Bc M0X0 Bc cc M C B M # b 0 S
!M0Z0 j M Bc2 -0 M 0M 0 0 cc j M 0M
ePVc ? [0 c0 0M c N a ac ) ja 0M
c0 j M0 -0 M q Mc c M0c j M) c!0c cM
M XM c 0B ^ Zc@[ 0M B Dc 0MM
c jM0H0 j M c!0a' 0 ' c!0
B cb0 %M04M c d
M0 -c0 Mj c!0bBc
^ Bc F 0 j M c^ -c0 M4 c!0 0 jB0 GS
Bj 0M j - N v c!0 b / % M M c 0 B 9 M 0 d
c j Mb [ -0 M 4/ M0 M ZcX 'M 0 M 0 M M0X0
d c 0 Bc 'cM c ! H B00 -
B % Bc c 0-! c c 1 / 4 M
b / B ! 0 i C B 9B 09j i % d X M
0 c M0 a ' 0 )cb# M c
Nc/ 0 c c- 0 c
B G '# M0^0 j M M0 -c0 - jB - H- 00 c
.)[-
$ `S09 !"J! c M0^@ 0 MH 00MM j B0 # G c cj c % M 0 00 F
. c M -c0 [-B C B j M0 - Z c M c* N M 0 9 cc H -'0M >

F d ' ^ M - c0 0 c c
d c

Z0 # B'c M c 4 a 0 B@ @ 7S1 9JL"J ! "J\B 05 v1 ". B1 JL"JP"J 0# d Xc
'&1
-iK nN-iKt+0-,2Ln,P+2 2L
d
c ^/ c cG !M c 0MNM0dc j M c c0 !c d
c Bc B0 00 j MS C B Bc 0M G D M
e
id i =!'#d4
Bc 0MM -' M00 j M BcK -0 M / H Bc ' vH0
c 0 #M c H0 c B 4M0Z c!0j 0 jS ' -M 0
MM 0 c c
u~0rBzv{B|!~Rvx~
w2rcq{!t*z
~ yc@B v{c. *x!
~ yc@ B v{ xv
}.
}
} }%
wvt0rcq
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z.
/xbz
| ~0x
wN@`
tFw7
%/ !!
/ !! N/0 ~v1t Rvr~Ft `z t*z B
| ~0x
wN@i M
tFwvt07
%/ !!
%/ c N/0 xcqB`z !r~ Ft*`z t*z B
K 0 -c0 Z 0c . B M0Rc j M
6 @ Oe C ' G
C - 4M0 -c0 M 0M # 00 j a #
6 @ Oe .
@? dH 40 a M ' B Jw
M B 0M S GM N
i
Primary
winding
Secondary
winding
10:1 primary:secondary voltage ratio
dprimary:secondary
) j0 Kcurrent
0 ratio
ic ' 0 0 !
1:10
C B c> 0MM - c M0j B ^j j c ! c aM c/
M ' c 4 B B 0 0 2c 0M 0
! ` jM ZM c d a M 0 d j0 c 0>
c [ 0 b c
c Bc b0 0)# C B ) MM 2
B M bBc M ! c/ 4 M c 9 c N
i%'3D = i%'6= i =!'#%

c j Mj b c0 M -0 Mb c!0 0 c M B c j Mb !c 0 c)'
1llSXM c d B B / X!' Nc 0 M N 1!JL
B *
b 4 j'M c 0 "9 X M0 Fc Bc 9 %c@ 0
' 0 0 -c0 a !c B c Bc / 0 c0 c!0 ' `
/ c 0 / X c N ) 0 c R4[ M ! BM M H '
' M M0 c K 9 ! 3 - Bc 4M M M Hc
c! 9 !c[c c c - 0 0 4 C B BK 0M
M c > p
c@ 0M ZM b 0 c c
/ B -M B BcR 0M 4 c00 0 S [ 3 - H
K @S' ) ) M/ C B 0M f
c a M c M 2 M b0 M
cac j M c00c c -0 M ^ R M0j d
c MR 0 0) H c c ^0) 0M a !c
M00 j ^ c!0jH M ! 0 0 c0 ^ c!0a F 0 iBc
P /
0^ d C B 4 c!0 0M- 0j/ 0^ '# B ^ M B n H 0
H c7 P c c.
P 0 0 c # 0 0 v04 M H i H
Zd
F-!0 M /^ M 4 !M*
0 dM C B Bc[ 0MM - 0 F X 0 M 0 M c c 0 0 !
jB 0 R M d S G [ ^ H 0M c M c b
B N B00 v Pc@% ' / M - 0 b !M0! a '%
0 M0]Jv-$PdNP0-1$" 0 0cB [ 4 B00
M K F - >c' c ^M c ^- B 0jdj d
B 3 - c ! c^ 0 j Mj M0 -c0 M # D0
0'0 /c Bc 0 iD a 0 M Dc CM c 9-/ M N F M
c 0 v - %M c B C B aS 0M i - a 0 0
c[ a - 0K K aS - 0 c/ 0 c- 0
9
0
A motor/generator set
Power
in
Power
out
Shaft
coupling
Motor
Generator
j GZ ^ 0 - 00 Z c
0 ! aM0 Bc> cM cj c 'c a M
Hc M M - ca >- c0 0
3 - - b j0 S #3 - c j 0 B0 ^ j M 00 %
a - H ZS M S0 B0 id BcRc Bc
@
id i =!'#d4
g 0 c-0 a Bc / jc Bc c 0 H BcFG M B -
d C B Bc[ 0M [3 - - M 0S 0 0 c
0M ! M ! c D M '#' B 4 B M
F B M 0 c aS - 0 M c -M
Bc 'S 00 c B M 0 S a
- B c 0M 0 B00 - aS c c d
KB0 0 D RM0 j )^ / o^ M M s aS B!
c M 0 ZM 0 c # M0 D3 - c B) B0
M M t a / 0b 0 0[0 - B
S 0M0
d 000 G M0!M B M DB0 0
M0 ' 0jM jB B ) M0 N a c
/ 0jB j 0 'M b )0 d
0 0 j d M
4 0 #c # c ' Bc d c Z - MM c -'
c[M c
c M0Z Kc c Z VM0Z0 j M c Y G 7
d M c B M B 0 -c0 M c j7@7 H @ H !c %M0 0M
C B 0 ' 0 c!0 M c Bc 0 d c C B c
M^ 0M M B 0 0 c aM0a Zc M cR c 0 MB - j
c Bc NM0 % - 00 c^ d c \ 0 B -M 9S c
c B Nc - N M c- !N 9c vc c% - d B B0 0
b 0 c Bc 0 0 ' H c B c / c M0a3 `SM G0
- vM0 c
i
L = N2A
l
Where,
L = Inductance of coil in Henrys

N =
Number of turns in wire coil (straight wire = 1)
= Permeability of core material (absolute, not relative)

A = Area of coil in square meters
l = Average length of coil in meters
! c [ 0 ' c# c # M0^ F ' Bc
c Bc S@` < 0 - G0 4 SF c
#- B 0 -
b M S
!H ! M0 ' cK d 0 j cK cc M c
cM jSF cS ' )M % M0M '0 C B Bcb 0M % Bc j c
c^ a G c!0 c c# -' 0 j M BcZ c0
7
Step-down transformer
many turns
high voltage
low current
few turns
low voltage
high current
load
i%'3D = i%'6= i =!'#%

?
0 F0 aS F ! - !M0 ij Bc %Bc H i M
B0 B 0S 0 # [c 0 [0 MB
0
Torque reduction geartrain

LARGE
GEAR
(many teeth)
high torque
low speed
SMALL
GEAR
(few teeth)
low torque
high speed
/j M ! ' Bc 4 Z- e b Oc C H

c^ c 0 0 0
M0 B^ M ! B G ' ! ! 00M ^ B i 0

M0 /j FM c BS 0/ c Bc00j
.)[-
MBHc 0 c U Ma0 H 0 `4 !0 M0 D 0 j cc M
7 O
i
id i = !'#d4
N
N
N
secondary
Voltage transformation ratio =
primary
Current transformation ratio =
primary
secondary
N = number of turns in winding
Where,
. Bc B * M c 2 c C MB C 0B j M. 02 j Mcb0 ) -[c 0 4 1 ! ZlS
) l P JL Bc *
0-a0 B cM c j Bc 4 [ Bc H aS D M0 0 j Z
Lsecondary
Lprimary
-i2 3,+ -i+
'&)
- # BMc0 B 0 / 0/ S - - -M' jZ!C -M0 DN ci " ScBc$" 0 M .0 BB0 o^

- 00 - ' Bc c' M !#M0 ! M ' M 0 c B M
c0 9 H B0 0 u' 0 N M 0K Fb-0
dc 0a o^ -' ) Bc) c 0 jc
BZc! c / 0
(for SPICE to measure current)
mV
10 V
mV
Rbogus
:L
:L
0V
10 kH
i1
Rload
1 k
100 H
mV
o250 V
%Gi R/# D>=
w2rcq{!t*z
~ yc@ B v{c. *x!
w0f
q
}.
}
} }%
wvt0rcq
~c} dr
/rcq}ct z.
/xzb
{ [ w0!}u!7r B0xc{~!x |!x~0xBzvqdx .u0|B ~0z`Vzcd!x,h
7 %/ @ %/ @ N/
! %/ @ %/
} [ w0!}u!7r B0xci{ h
| ~0x
wN@`
tFw7
%/ !!
/ !! N/0 ~v1t Rvr~Ft z`t*zB
| ~0x
wN@i M
tFwvt07
%/ !!
%/ c N/0 xcqB`z !r~ Ft*`z t*zB
u'K 0 e7? C , o^ 0 0 0 0 cc M 9 a
[ F ! R XM0M 0 c0 - 6b Ko^ C B # 0!
^Bc e Bc 0M c b '# 0 j M j -c0 M jc M0 MB
- 0 c K C B - c ^ M @SaP`j C B
b a M B M0 - M- c M0 -a c
0M c M c -a ! B ^0 0M M c 0j0
- 9 ! 0 0 -c0 / c 0 - Fi 0 c /M
c C B . o c* - c 2 K! S 0 c Nc c
B # 0 [ M M0^0 j M - v0 MB
0 00 c cMX -' - !
B j 0M H 0 c Bc Bc 4 "S< P"P 01
-Sj@' 0G
@ c M c # M
.)[-
0 Z - c0 [ dB c 0 a ' [4 B 4 )B c 0 cSH X MM0! -00i c ^ -@0 1 ")MB
"-B< $"
B0c 0 j! Z M c "S-B< $" _ M c - B @ ! M0 0 B 0MM
7 V
'&
i
id i = !'#d4
,
c M c H M M ' '0j0 aM c 3

' M0X0 BcZ c0 - /0b 0 u' - B 0 - ' 0 c
#0^0 Bc -c0 M - cZ M0^0 M c 0

} x7B!xz`5h
i h[wN@
~vt3Rvr~ w0!}u0r@B0x
5h[wN@L xcqz`r~w0}u0r7B0x
uv3t Rx
wNM
B

M B

%/ !! %!
/ c %!
%/ c %!
%/ c %!

'/ c %!
k
%/ c %0!
Bd
%/ c %!

%/ c '!
i
%/ c 0!
%/ c %!!! V
/ c %/ !! V
B
*c %/ !! V S
/ c %/ !! Vl k
/ c %/ !! 2
!c %/ !! V
/ c %/ !! V
i
/ c %!!! V

/ c 0!
/ c '!
/ c %!

%/ c %0v !
k
%*c %!
k
%/ c %!
B
%/ c %!
%!c %!
%/ c !c V
%/ c %/ !! V

%/ c %/ !! V

%/ c %/ !! V B
%/ c %/!! B
%/ c %/ !! Vl k
! u j=
} x7B!xz`5h
i hKtw@ ~t3Rvr~q*!~~0xzu
5hKtwvt!7 x0qz`!r~q!~ ~0xz!u
uv3t Rx
tw@
B . %c / c
c N/0
M B .c %/ c
%c /0
%/ !! %!
/ c %/ c V
%/ c %/ c V

%/ c %/ c V
R
'/ c / c
%/ c %/ c V
%/ c %/ c V
R
%/ c %/c V
d

%/ c %/ c V
%/ c vc
/ c 'c
*c %v c

/ c %c
i
d
/ c %0c
!c %c

/ c %c
/ c %-c
/ c '/ c V
/ c '*c V

/ c %/0c V

%/ c %/ v c V
@
%*c /c
%/ c %/ v c V
%/ c %/0c V

%!c '/0c V

%/ c / c V
k'
%/ c %0c
%/ c %v c
%/ c %v c

%/ c %v c
i
d
%/ c %0c
i
d
0 > 0 ^ M c> 0M ^ XM0j Bc ^ c!0 M c

0 # j 0 / Z jj/ 0 0 ' ! b 0 . 0 Z
JG "Md Ju' 0 [0 M c Z ' c 0MM0^0 0 HM c
0
!* F Bc H0 0a K jB - 0 Fc
c N!N
% - Mj j ci c F'd # B 0j
B dH 0 0 0 0 j cb ja- ' - c
e 7
i
V 4 !M 0
+
d C B B[ 0M
-
+
or
c
id i = !'#d4
???
+
%% 0 c M c jB ! 0M - 40b X F

j 0X c0 X 0 0 c % 0%@`$" ca%0 M 0X M
B! 0 - - M c!0 a B # c!0`
0M c i - ca M 0 j '0 B B 0 M0 M c
40 j M cZ -0 Mb c!0 ^ M0 !B B ! a
BS ! - #! /M F! 0'0 s H cK@ ' M4 M c
c!0 M M0 cM ! 9 00 Mc 9 c!0 0 ` H
BK M0M #0MH0^ 7 j 0a! 0 )c ^0
0 / d0 FM0 ! % % 0 b 0% F0H0 j Bc) -0 M c!0
M B C B > M cj0 j M c!0 jc
MB M0 cc M !c ^ c 0 M0%0 G 0 4 4 cc M
b M
^ c M0H cF NM0 0 c!0) 90 Bc ! P j 0 M0c
V -' c j M BcZ -c0 H

^ - c M0 ! - ) Z Z i Z c!0j M c
M04 c00) 9 Z B M HM0X0 ^M c Z 0 C 0 G [ b!)
c^ c00b0 c M
C j=j=
>=4D .D
D>=
e `
.)[-
0Bc 0 X M 0cM 9 b B Bc 0 M d c j M c -c0 - 4
0M. 0^ #McP !`0S3j "P G c jc 0 c! 0' Bc ' !c# 0 [ c
'&

nd +G/ 2L-i+n
c M M 0 jc ! # M c d > ! M

d 0v 0 d [a0 0 j M Bc0 -c0 M - !# Bc %!N

4 j j H a - D !c dc # M c
load #1
load #2
H M0 c - 4 M bZjB - X M cj 0c 07 00

c -c* cHM c D c00 M0 'c[ H ' M a0 B
0 c H D 0 M00 X 0 0 - M
M c c S 0 Z c!0c ) -c0 !c)
-c0 K c00Ra F ! c c M0 F0 a M c
-jjS 0 4 ' 000 - jd M M 0c0a
b0M
c B d p
O e ) B )0
0 M
c M ) C 0c v0 j C B @ C 4 dc) 0M
- c 0C M jBc M M M Bc ! - H
/ V B0 0
N -' -c0 M 40 / Bc )
B [ 0 0 c cc Mj c00b 0 0^ 4 0a 0 H
ee
i
id i = !'#d4
load #1
load #2
9c 0^ #M Bj -0 j # c!0X -' M0

0 0M0 0 M0b c!0 c aS C B jB0 M jM c Z0 j iM c
0 M0 c ) % c!0 B) -!0 0 ! M c
B 0 0X
multi-pole
switch
load
' MM 0 M0 -c ! c!0 0c dH c 0 M BS B M c 0

!0b- S Z 0 c^ 0 M B -! -0 Mb c!0cc b-0
) 0 c 0^ S S cb c00 )0 Z ic
c!0ccca Z MZ M N
Variable transformer
load
^ - 00 R NM0 S B XM c H R- ! DM R -

- RM0bM . - X 0 7? F
^Bc| @O F
0 ) Bc d ) M M !
0 0a 0 C B B X 0 -c0 [ c00[ c[ c B Z c
e
C j=j= > =4D .D D>=
0 j C B 7 e 0 S B 3 d - 0 S / 0 c
C B v Z /M M ' MH - - M /0ja B M f
S0 - M9 4 0 B % c d F B c
! 0 0 ^Bc c!0 ^ M B ^
Z !! d M j -a!0 B0 H 0S M
9Bc M0 c- 0 S - 0 c D 0
M c d 0 M c 0< ) cM ! j j0 c4M c %
c b 0 '
0b ' ) Bc c!0 j B M0XS S F c!0
MK M % d M0
- jB H c 0 M/ X
M R 0 c R Bc 4 )0 a c!0 c H
M/ 0B M0^M 0C c [ PP 0 -B
Autotransformer
load
0 ! B M .S j / ja C B M0 c M ! !

B # 0 [/ 0 M
Autotransformer
load
0 M c c 0c 9 j 0c c M 0 9M aa
0 c j Z0 j / ` Bc ^ 0 b M0X c
id i =!'#d4
c j M aB -c0 Mj c!0 jj X M0 ) M ! - c Mc
-c0 c!0R0 M B!0~6 07 c /0I 6B @0 7
! -0 M !B ) B # M j M M 0
D 0 B 07 0 dHM M0 c0 -
M
C B ! M M 00 0^c j M
e
i
"boosting"
120 V
30 V
150 V
M0 B @07K- c H4M M0 -0 M -

M
C B ! M M c^0 j M C B
"bucking"
120 V
30 V
90 V
0[0 !SB B ! B M0 0K @0 2

B 0 !ccFjB0) c B M [ ! 0MM BK M 0
0\ M c # 0a c j M Bc -c0 Mj c!0
4 'M c M c S ! B D c!09 Ba ' 0 0 S S cD
c! c 0 j - S M ) !0Z- 0a c!0[
B b 0 c 0^ /M 0 [ 00 c ) H )
c 0 S1 "6

The "Variac"
variable autotransformer
load
j
S c [ 00 ' ' GS d dM0H M 0 -! M
# .G D>=
e?
0bB H j Z 0 I - 0 d ^ Bc
- / 0 0
.)[-
cBc00 * B S 0 0 0 M Z0M BB>c a 0 0 0 j M d c0 M0B c c M
/0B c !#cac ! b0 Bc j 0 9 M c M Z j [ )
c4!0Bcc! j B 0%- B ) #j [ 0j0 Sc!!0j0 B Sj 0 ' c ' cHM M0c!0 0 !M
- c j c M 0jc c d M0 M 0 Hc '
. [M !c Bc ! a / 0 ! 0 S0! )0 - /v [0 M ! ) B
. S1 "6 4S B ! B *
< ;
'&)(

+ i- 2L t -L3+
d M Sb M 0 '> /c Bc M [d c ! M c C B! M 0! 0! * B 0 B c S Sc

S Z00 cR c0 c!0Zc Bc B0[ M0 F0 H0a
c c!0 M c c 0 M 0 Bc jB - 0c 0D -'
c^0 j M Bc -c0 j c!0 0 # '#M c 00 0 HM0 Bc
c ~ 4b-c B 0 C B c 4 ^0 -c0 M
S M / M H S c ' cM
0 0 F 2' '9M c Bc%c cc M C B S B0
v a cM iN M0# B
SS H @!< $" B 0 0# 0
c `
Regulation percentage =
Eno-load - Efull-load
Efull-load
(100%)
@ !#"F%$'&(!*)+-,/.&1023 ) ,4!5,-6.378.9,/.&:,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;@3A+-02&B;>!*,/3)CD!*,E$F!5GH3$$I0J&?;>$K3A+>+3L&

.&$'&,>.H"*<Y,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;Z7T 3)CN[OY!*\T3)CF#; ;>+,u/ ]_^D,>;>!#)+<=#;>$K&B;Z+3$!*,/3#)
!#+`!#)1&?GH!#$'0 &ab&,
+7$'0!*;>&,>.&F#,/0H,c# ,>!*C&
63 ,/.%!_'
\
!#":c#&?;8+/+`! e @nd
!#"DV !+/+/$'3)C
,/.2!5,,/.& e 7.9
!#"E63 eL2&;5 <= b!"F'
7)"H3 ,/3#) N &(7?!*b3 <YM#63 f,>.!5,Z;7?#)+,>!#),0;>3$'!#;/M
c#W,8!*C&6Q!#+S
N @g
c# ,>+h]
+/&B7)"!#;/MD7?;>;/&B),(NPOQ.3+F02&B;>!*,/3)C0J#3),E63 LJ&:"H&?,/&?;>$'3 )&B"R0;>3 $F!#;/3 MSLTMU,/.&63 )2"H3 )CU63 ;>&+/3 B&
i jkl
sutv vTvwHxHv r
i jkl
sutv vTvwHxHv r
m[n8o >p
y t y sTzwHxHv v
m[n8o >p
y t o# wHxHv v
q n/m
q r
z w{ v o
y t y sT
q n/m qr
t sT w{ vTz

@XPRTd
|*}H~T}H~R q ~ r?
|*}H~T}H~R q ~
z vTv
@X@R Td
iidTiZ=!_#d
eO
=$'#;>&7?;>;/&B),1NZ569 &?,

+_,>!*\&
Z#,/3A7&.56,>.&`#H,>0H,Zc#W,8!*C&"H&(7;>&B!#+/&B+_!#+,>.&` !#"@C&,8+.&B!cT3 &B;
,/.2!5,+>!*$'&,>;>!#)+<=#;>$K&B;73;>7?3W,g!#)"0!7&F! !#":;/&(+3A+X,8!*)7?&

#<_&?GT,/;>&?$'&?M.3C#.$F!*C#)3W,>"H&F!#7?;/ +/+,/.&
.*) !#"FK7)"H3 ,/3#)N
+/&B7)"!#;/MF63)"H3)CK,/@+/3 $
A!5,/&!
~Tj * i j kj
m r9r v
r v H
q(
j } rr z r k { r z
j } z p v y k r z
Jr zv r vTv
@B
@B
pr vTv
Jr zvut T
y yTy
m qr o v
o
j
p9y k r z

t RqBr sTv9sTv
t Hj (
q ~
t Hj q( ~

t k
m[n z
v q /
n m r
m[n8o /p q /
n m qHr
i jkl
m[n z
sutv vTvwHxHv r
r tv vTvwHxHv r
i jkl
m[n8o >p
y t y y vwHxHv v
sutv vTvwHxHv r
q n/m r
z[ts p o w{ v
q n/m qr
r t rTr vw{ r z
|*}H~ }H~R q ~
SR
n T ~ %9 T
T2a#6_&+&B&,/.2!5,u;[#,/0H,V+/&B7?#)"!#;/MFYc# ,>!*C&+0!#)+u!g;>!#)C#&Q*<bN @`c#W,8+[!5,=cT3 ;/,/2!* MF) !#"
PV c## ,>+!5,,/.&023 ) ,_6&"H&B7?3"H&("',/K7?!# !5 <=J !#"fN
]_!*A7!*,/3)Cgc#W,8!*C&Z;/&BC#A!5,>3 )'63W,>.@,/.&B+/&
C;/&(+?aH6_&`C#&?,
y
9.990 V - 9.348 V
Regulation percentage =
(100%)
y
!*)2"@N
9.990 V
Regulation percentage = 6.4264 %
)7?3"H&B) ,>!*M#a(,/.3A+Y6A"`L2&Q7)+3A"H&B;/&("`;>!*,/.&B;0J ;V #;i*

T+/&7J ;>&?CA!5,/3#)`<=;Y!0256_&?;,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;(N
56_&?;>3 )C1!+/3$K0 &;>&B+/3+,/3c#& !#"S 3\#&E,/.3+Ba_!C H"D0256_&?;K,/;8!*)2+X<=;/$'&?;'+/.#A"S&GH.3L3W,-!1;>&?C#!*,/3#)
0J&?;87&?) ,8!*C#&#< &(+/+Z,/.!#) N )"H7,/3c#&g!"+Q,>&?)",>-7;>&B!*,/&g!@7?#)"3W,>3 )4*<6;>+/&c#W,8!*C&;>&?CA!5,/3#)a
+/
,>.3A+Z!*)!# MH+/3+_63 ,/.0;>&?M@;>&B+/3+,/3c#&`!"+_6_!+!#
L2&(+X, 7B!#+/&K
7)"H3 ,/3#)bN
OQ.&B;/&!*;>&g+/#$'&g!*00 3A7?!*,/3#)+BaH.56_&?c#&B;BaH6.&?;>&02T#;;>&?CA!5,/3#)3A+!#7,/!# M-"H&(+3;>&B"fN ^ )&g+278.7B!#+/&
3A+3 )"3+>78.!*;>C#&`3 C. ,/3)Ca6.&?;>&g!F+X,>&?0 0,/;8!*)2+X<=;/$'&?;3A+;>& 3;/&("E,/F3)3W,>3!# MC#&?)&?;8!5,/&!'.3C#.4c# ,>!#C#&
= )&B7&(+/+>!*;>MF,>*
3C#)3 ,/&SK
,/.&gA!*$'0+) a,/.&B),/.&c## ,>!#C#&3+&GH0J&B7,>&B",>@"H;/0*:)7&`,>.&gA!*$'04L2&BC#3)+Q,>
"H;8!67?;/;>&?) ,(N[OQ.3+Z3+LJ&B7B!*+/&g"H3A+/78.2!*;>C#&!#$K02+
c# ,>!#C#&;/& 3 ;>&?$'&?) ,8+_,/&?)2"-,>FL2&$78. 56_&?;Z!*<,/&B;Z!

7;/;>&?) ,.!#+`LJ&?&B)%&B+,>!*L 3A+.&B":,/.;>#C.:,>.&F!*;87K0!5,>.bN' ):,>.3A+g7?!+&a!+X,>&?0 0,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;`63 ,/.%02T;
c#W,8!*C&;>&?C!*,/3#)+ 7?&B+)3A7&B M@<=#;Q,/.&`,>!#+/\@#<7?#)"H3 ,/3#)3 )C'0J56&B;_,/',/.&!#$K0N
hZ)*,/.&?;!*003A7?!5,>3 )3A+E3)7?;>;/&B),7),>;/<=;h]!*;876_&?A"H&?;8+?a6.378.!*;>&:)#,/.3)C$K;/&:,/.!#)
+,/&?0
"H56),>;>!#)+<=#;>$K&B;>++00 MT3)C-56 c## ,>!#C#&aH.3 C. 7;>;/&B) ,0256_&?;Z<=#;,/.&

6&B"H3)C@0;/H7&(+/+BNh.3 C.
n+X,>;/3\T3 )C7,>.&g!*;87.=C&,,>3 )CK3 ,+,>!*;/,/&("àHLH,Z 3\#&,>.&g"H3A+/78.!#;/C&A!*$'0ba!#)
c#W,8!*C&3A+"H&B+/3;/&("@,>'!+/+/3A+X,3)
.G D >=
b
N
,;/&
!*;87'"HT&B+/)
cb
eZ ?
3 ;>&F!#+$
78.%c#W,8!*C#&
,/+/+,>!#3 )%3 ,>+/&? <Q)7&',>.&-!#3 ;.!+LJ&?&?).&B!5,>&B"1,/,>.&@0J#3) ,g*<
3#)3 B!*,/3#)bNgOQ.T+Baf!E"H&(7;>&B!+&

*<+/&B7?#)"!#;/Mc#W,8!*C&g)"H&B;`.3 C.:!"7;>;>&?) ,6_#"4LJ&F!@C H",/.3)CN
T$K&!*;87F6_&?A"H&?;K"H&B+/3 C)+

0;/5cT3A"H&-!#;>7@7?;>;/&B),K!#"X+,/$'&B),'LTM%$K&(!*)+
*<!$K5c5!#L &E3 ;>#)U7?#;>&@3)U,/.&
5cT3 )C,/.&`3;/)-+/ C'!6Q!M
,/;8!*)2+X<=;/$'&?;(aT7;8!*)\&B"F3)-;_H,Q*<b,>.&`63 )"3 )C'!#+>+/&?$L M'LTM',/.&`02&B;>!*,/#;(N
<=;>#$,/.&63)"H3)C+Y;>&B"H27&B+,/.&Q+,/;>&?)C*,/.*<$F!*C)&,>37_703 )CLJ&,X6_&?&?),/.&Q63)"H3)C+Ba56.3A78.

"H3$'3 )3+/.&B+
)
!"-+/&B7)"!#;/MFc# ,>!*C& P
$F!*\&B+_<=;02T#;>&?;Qc# ,>!*C&;>&?CA!5,/3#)N
Z&?GH02 +3 ,/3#)'#)',>;>!#)+<=#;>$K&B;;/&BC#A!5,>3 )K7?#A"'LJ&7?!# &B"'7$'0 &?,/&Z63 ,/.#H,u$'&B),>3 )'*<b!*)')T+/!*
?/5/?!` *'? N'@&B;/;>#;>&B+/#)2!*)7?&'3A+!E0.&?)$'&?))!+/+/H73A!5,/&("63 ,/.,/.&

|=6.&B;/&E,/.&7;/&E3+'+/
+,/;>#)C M$F!*C#)&,/3c?
b &(",/.!*,E<=;,>.&?;3 )27;>&B!#+/&B+@3 )63 )"3 )C7;>;>&?) ,-;>&B+/W,8+-3)3W,/,/&1;-)S3 )27;>&B!#+/&3)
$F!*C)&,>37gHG`
N
.3 &L2&B3 )CE+$K&B6.!5,"3 7W,Z,>-"H&(+/7?;/3L2&63W,>.#H,C##3)CF"H&B&?043),>@&?&B7,/;>#$F!*C)&,>37,>.&?;/Ma,/.&
"H&Bc 3A7&F7B!* &("1!
LJ&?.!cT3#;K*<Z3;/)S7;/&(+g6.3&E02&B;>!*,/3)C:)&(!*;'!0J#3) ,K#<$F!*C#)&,/3A7+/!*,/;8!5,>3 )
<=&?;>;>#;>&B+/#)!#),_,/;8!*)2+X<=;/$'&?;3A+Z!'0J56&B;,/;8!*)2+X<=;/$'&?;&B)C#3)&B&?;>&B"-,/@02&B;>!*,/&`3 )!F7?#)"3W,>3 )4*<02&B;>+/3+,/&B) ,

Ng
=0;/3$F!*;>MK63)"H3)C'7;>;>&?) ,)[.!c#& 3 ,,> &&&B7,_)@,/.&
7;/&+/!*,/;8!5,>3 )bNOQ.!5,Q3A+?aH3 ,>+_3;/)E7;/&3+ +X,>H&B"F<= K*<e$F!#C#)&?,/3A73 )&B+_*< 2HG@<=#;!
!#;/C&0J#;/,/3#)E*<
,/.&h]R7?MH7&+/g,/.2!5,Qc!#;/3A!5,>3 )+3 )+00 M'c# ,>!*C&
$F!*C)&,>37
&?A"+X,>;/&B)C*,>.3)4,/.&K7;/&a6.3A78.$'&B!#)+,>.&K+/&B7?#)"!*;>M-63)"H3)C-H,/0,>+!F)&B!#;/M7#)2+X,8!*) ,
c#W,8!*C&Q"&B+/03W,>&Z+3C#)3
n=0;/3$F!*;>Mg63 )2"H3 )CYc#W,8!*C&#Ne#;>$F!* Ma#7;/&+>!5,/;>!*,/3#)
7B!*) ,c5!*;>3!*,/3#)+3)F+00 M
3)U!,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;;>&B+/ ,>+g3)U"H3A+X,>#;/,/3#)#<_,>.&-+/3 )&?6Q!c#&F+.2!*0J&#a!*)",>.&F<=&B;/;>#;>&B+/#)!#) ,,>;>!#)+<=#;>$K&B;3+

)&?G7&?0,/3#)bNOe:7$L!*,g,/.3+K+3A"H&@&?J&(7,(ae<=&B;/;>#;>&B+/#)2!*) ,`,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+.!c#&@!#)U!*HGH3 3A!*;>M1+/&B7?#)"!*;>M
63)"H3)C`0!*;8!* &B &("63 ,/.K#)&_#;$'#;>&_7B!*0!73 ,/;>+Ba(<=#;>$K3)C`!;>&B+/#)2!*) ,Y7?3 ;873 ,,/)&B",/,/.&Q0J56&B;Y+/00 M
<=;>&
&?)27M#NQOQ.3A+ *,>!*)\E73;873 , F+/&?;>c#&(+Z!#+Z!
!*)2"0;>5cT3"H&(+,>.&K!""H&("4L2&B)&
W,>&?;Z,>F;/& X&B7,.!*;>$'#)3A7?+7;>&B!5,>&B"LTM@,>.&
7?#;>&`+>!5,>;8!5,/3#)a
,`#<u+X,>#;>3 )C-&?)&?;>C#M3 ):,/.&

<=#;>$*<uh]P +/7?3 A!5,/3#)2+?aJ6.3A78.:3A+!c5!*3A!*L&
V$K3 3A+&(7)"+

6;,>.*<
<=#;++,>!#3 )3 )CFH,/0H,63)"H3)C@c# ,>!*C&<=#;ZL;>3&<02&B;/3H"+#<3)0,c#W,8!*C#&+>+

,/3$'&#aLH,7&B;,8!*3) M-L2&?,,/&B;,/.2!*))*,>.3)C N
Ferroresonant transformer
AC power
output
AC power
input
Resonant LC circuit
)'!#""H3 ,/3#)K,>L H78\T3 )C.2!*;>$K)3A7?+7;>&B!*,/&B"

LTMg,>.&Z+/!*,/;8!5,>&B"
7#;>&#a*,/.3A+;>&B+/#)!#),73;873 ,[!*A+
#,>`.!#;/$'#)37<=;>&
W,>&?;8+
&?)273&B+C&?)&B;>!*,/&B"
LTM))3 )&(!*;Z+63 ,>78.3)CT !#"+3)',/.&Z+&(7#)2"!*;>Mg63)"H3)Cg73;>7?3 ,
!*)2"E!#) M-.!*;>$'#)3A7?+Q0;>&B+/&?) ,3)-,>.&g+;87&`c#W,8!*C#&aT0;/5cT3A"H3)CK7&B!#)0J56_&?;Q,/K,>.& !#"fN
&B;/;>#;>&B+/#)2!*) ,,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+[*&?;Q+/&?c#&B;>!#<=&(!5,/;/&(+u+/&<=J3)Eh]R0256_&?;_7#)2"H3W,>3 )3)C7)+X,8!*) ,H,

W,>&?;>3 )CL2&?,X6&B&?),>.&_0256_&?;Y+;>7?&
0H,c#W,8!*C&[C#3c#&B)g+L2+X,8!*) ,/3A!* c5!*;>3!*,/3#)+3 )g3)0,c# ,>!#C#&#a(.!#;/$'#)37
!*)2",>.&!#"ba!*)2",>.&Z!*L3 3W,XM,/g#;/3A"H&_,/.;>#C#.L;>3 &?<f +/+/&B+Y3)F0256_&?;LTM\&?&B03 )C`!`;>&B+/&?;>c#&_*<&?)&?;>C#Mg3)

3 ,>+;>&B+/#)!#) ,,8!*)\-7?3 ;873W,(N[OQ.&B+/&,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+_!#;/&`!*A+/K.3 C. M@,/#&?;8!*) ,Q*<&G7&(+/+/3c#& !#"H3)CF!*)"-,/;8!*)
+/3 &B),`=$'#$'&B),8!*;>Mc#W,8!*C&+;/C&B+BNYOQ.&BMF!*;>&+/g,/ &B;>!#) ,Ba 3 )-<V!#7,(a ,/.!*,_+/#$'&$F!M'L2&L;>3 &?M'0!*;8!*&?&B"
63 ,/.)+/M )278.;/)3?&B"-h]R0J56&B;_+/#;87&(+?aT!*563 )CK!K !#"',>KLJ&+63 ,>78.&B"F<=;>#$)&`+;>7?&#<e0J56&B;u,>
!*)*,/.&?;3)!'#$'!#\#&
LJ&<=;/& L;>&B!#\H<V!#+/.3 )E63 ,/.4)K3) ,/&B;/;>0H,>3 )E#<e0J56&B;#)E,/.&g+/&B7?#)"!#;/M@+/3A"H&#
TZH_Q

)<=#;/,/)!*,/&B MaH,/.&(+&
"H&?cT3A7&B+Z.!c#&`&
!# M-)*,/&B6;,>.TM-"H3A+/!"Hc5!*) ,>!#C#&B+BY,/.&BME6Q!#+,/&!F*,Z#<Y&B)&?;>C#M
V"&,/D.TMH+,/&?;>&B+/3A+-+>+&(+-3),>.&+/!*,/;8!5,>&B"7?#;>&(aC#&B)&?;8!5,>3 )C

!*;>&3 ) ,/ &B;>!#) ,
*<<=;/&
+/$'!# Q&B)C#3)&
P )
.&B!5,3)9,>.&10;/H7&(+/+Ba!#)"
&?)7?Mc5!*;>3!*,/3#)+Ba[6.3A78.D$'&B!#)+
,/.&BMD"H)b ,F6_#;>\%c#&?;>M6_&?_6.&?)0256_&?;>&B"LTM
"H;>3 c&?)UC&?)&B;>!*,/;>+.2!c 3)C102T#;F+/02&B&B"D;/&BC#A!5,>3 )bN# ,>!#C#&B+

0;>H"H7&("U3)U,>.&;/&(+)!*) ,
63)"H3)CT*7?!*02!#73 ,/;e7?3 ;873 ,,/&B)"g,>LJ&Qc#&B;/M`.3C#.ba#)&B7?&B+>+3 ,>!*,/3)C&?GT0J&?)2+3c#&Q7?!#0!#7?3W,>#;8+e!#)"g0;>&B+/&?) ,>3 )C,/.&
+/&?;>c 3A7&,/&(78.)3A73A!*)-63 ,/.c#&B;/MF"!#)C#&B;/+6;/\T3)Cc# ,>!*C&B+BNYT$'&!#0037B!5,/3#)2+?a ,/.#C.baT$'!MF0;/3#;>3W,>3 B&
,/.&
<=&B;/;>#;>&B+/#)2!*) ,,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;( +!#"c!#) ,>!*C&B+5c#&?;3 ,>+`"H3A+/!"Hc5!*) ,>!#C#&B+BNgT&?$'3A7)"H7,/#;7?3 ;873 ,>+&?GT3A+,,>
#7?#)"3W,>3 )Eh]d0256_&?;`!#+!#)1!#W,>&?;>)!5,>3 c&,>E<=&B;/;>#;>&B+/#)2!*) ,"H&Bc 3A7&(+?aLH,)#)&'7B!*)7#$'0J&,>&K63 ,/.,>.3+
,/;8!*)2+X<=;/$'&?;Q3),/&?;>$F+Q*<+.&?&?;+/3 $'03A73 ,XM#N
D-E
#l 1/PHcV
25
3A+-,/.&$'&B!#+/;>&*<g.566_&?`!0256_&?;-,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;7?!*)$F!#3 ) ,>!#3 )7#)2+X,8!*) ,
+&(7#)2"!*;>Mc## ,>!#C#&KC#3c#&B)!47?#)+,>!#),0;>3$'!#;/M4c# ,>!#C#&'!*)"63A"H&'c!#;/3A!*)27&'3 )%!"17?;/;>&?) ,(N'OQ.&

56_&?;,>.&0J&?;87&B),8!*C&`7+/&?;u,/gB&?;> a#,/.&$K;/&+X,8!*L&Q,/.&+&(7)"!*;>Mgc# ,>!*C&Z!*)"K,>.&ZLJ&,/,/&?;,/.&
;/&BC#A!5,>3 )-3 ,Z63 b0;>5cT3"H&N
?/5>?!
,>;>!#)+<=#;>$K&B;3A+!E+/02&(73A!*e,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;`"H&B+/3C#)&(",/;/&BC#A!5,>&c# ,>!*C&!5,!-+,>!#L&
&Bc#&?b"&B+/03W,>&`63"H&c5!#;/3A!5,>3 )E3)3 )0H,Zc#W,8!*C#&N
'&
_ n]*
0
nt ? n
_&B7B!*+/&g,>;>!#)+X<=;/$'&B;>+7?!#)1+,/&?01c#W,8!*C#&K!*)"17;>;>&?) ,,>"3W&?;>&?) ,` &Bc#&?A+Bab!*)":L2&(7?!*2+&K0256_&?;3A+,>;>!#)+

<=&?;>;>&B"&
3 c5!*&?) ,> MLJ&,X6_&?&B)D0;>3 $F!#;/M!*)2"D+/&B7)"!#;/M63 )2"H3 )C+Ba[,/.&?MU7?!#)DLJ&E2+&(",/%#7?#)Tc#&B;,8,/.&
3$K0J&B"!*)7?&*<!' !#"-,/@!'"H3 J&B;/&B), &Bc#&?N[OQ.!*,Z!+X,Z0.;>!+&"H&(+&B;/c&B+Q+$'&&GH0A!*)!*,/3#)ba+/' &?,B +3 )Tc&B+
,/3C!*,/&`6.!*,Z3W,Z$'&B!#)+BN
OQ.&
0;>02 +&
*<u!@!"=+/!# MZ3A+Z,>E"H+$'&,/.3 )CE0;>T"7,>3 c&63 ,/.,>.&K0256_&?;3W,`"H3+>+/3 0!*,/&(+?N)
,/.&7B!#+/&-*<!;>&B+/3+,/3c#&E.&B!*,/3)C1&B &B$'&?) ,Ba,>.&0;>!7,>37B!*_0;>02 +&-<=#;
,/.&0256_&?;'"H3A+/+/30!5,>&B"U3A+,/.&B!*,
+/#$'&,>.3 )CE0N
b !#"+`!#;/&
&?)C3 )&B&?;>&B",/4+/!*<=&?M"H3A+/+/3 02!5,/&'!7&?;/,>!#3 )1$F!5GH3 $
$!*$') ,#<0J56&B;BaLH,
,X6_!#"+[*<e&
S@76_!*,,_;/&(+3A+X,>3 c&
!*J0J56&B;u;8!5,/3)CK!*;>&Z)*,Q)&(7&B+>+>!*;>3 M
3A"H&B),>37B!*Nu]#)+/3"&?;[,>.&B+/&,X6
.&(!5,/3)C'&?&?$'&B),8+?
I=4A
250 V
I=8A
125 V
Rload
62.5
Pload = 1000 W
15.625
Pload = 1000 W
S@@Q6Q!5,/,>+e*<0J56&B;BaL,,/.&?Mg"H+!*,Y"H3 &?;>&?) ,ec# ,>!*C&u!*)2"g7;>;>&?) ,

# c#W,8+!#)"@!#$K02+>N +/3 )C.$ +!6P,>E"H&?,/&?;>$'3 )&g,/.&
_*,>..&B!*,/&?;8+Y"H3+>+/3 0!*,/&&G!#7,/M
&?c#&B+
=&B3W,>.&?;
Rload
# 'c## ,>+!*)"-!*$'0+Ba2;
BHu
Y ZH_QZu-u ? Z Q
C#;/&(+#<_ N
!*)" N #
a;>&B+/02&(7,/3c#&B MN1<,/.&(+&!*;>&Eh]!#"+?a6_&-$'3C#. ,
;>&<=&B;,>,/.&?3;K00J+/3W,>3 )%,/%7;>;/&B) ,3 )D,/&B;/$F+
*<
)&(7&B+>+>!*;>M;>&B+/3A+X,8!*)7?&
#<,>.&B+/&'.&B!*,/3)C&?&?$'&?) ,>+F^_5a6_&'!#;/;>3c#&'!5,
3$K0J&B"!*)7?&;8!5,>.&?;
,/.2!*)0!#3 )S;/&(+3A+,>!*)27&#a!* ,/.C#.S3 )S,/.3A+F7?!+&-,/.!*,B +F!*_,/.&BMJ ;>&7?#$'0J+/&B"U#<
=)
;>&B!#7,>!#)7&N:OQ.&
# c## ,
.&B!5,>&?;
6"UL2&+/!#3",>:LJ&!4.3 C.&?;
3 $'0J&B"!#)7&E !#"%,>.!*),>.&
.&(!5,/&B;BN
c# ,
~ c#W,
0256_&?;K+MH+,/&?$a6_&
#<u3 $'0J&B"!#)7&=;>&B+/3A+X,8!*)7?&(aJ,>.&F7;>;/&B) ,6_#A"4#) M
a!#)"F,>.&`0256_&?;Q"H3A+/+/30!5,>3 )-6_#A"@) MFLJ& # g
6Q!5,,8+`V_X^ # G a
<Z6_&-"H&B+/3;/&("%,/1#0J&?;8!5,/&@,/.&
# c## ,.&(!5,>&?;&B &B$'&?) ,K"H3;>&B7,> M%)D!
6_#A"&B)"01L2&B3 )C"H3A+>!*00J#3) ,/&B"bN3W,>. N

LJ&
!*$'0+`V/^_5
#;_#)&
# * N
2!*;/,/&?;*<3 ,>+_;8!5,>&B"@0J56_&?;(NYOQ.&3$K0J&B"!*)7?&#<b,/.&`.&(!5,>&?;Q!*)"@,/.&c#W,8!*C#&*<b;+;>7?&6_#A"
LJ&$K3A+/$'!*,>78.&("fa!*)2"E6_&7")b ,ZLH,>!#3 )E,/.&`<= e;>!*,/&("-0J56&B;"H3+>+/3 0!*,/3#)E<=;/$,/.&.&B!*,/&?;(N
hZ.#0J&3A+Z)#, +X,(a,>.#C#.bNQ3 ,/.1!F+,/&B0
'
&?&?$'&B),Z)-,>.&
125 V
04,/;8!*)2+X<=;/$'&?;(a6_&7A"#0J&?;8!5,/&`,>.&
c# ,0256_&?;Z+/MH+X,>&?$3 \&,/.3A+?
I=8A
'c# ,.&B!*,/&B;
I=4A
Rload
62.5
250 V
1000 watts dissipation at the load resistor !
OQ.&g;8!5,>3 -*<,/.&,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;( +Z63 )"3 )C +Z0;>5cT3"&B+Q,>.&c# ,>!*C&g+X,>&?0
0 PJ
7;>;/&B) ,+X,>&?0
"H56)6_&
)&B&B"1<=#;`,>.&F*,>.&?;>63+/&K$K3A+/$'!*,>78.&(":!",>4#0J&?;8!5,>&
0;>#0J&?;>M#)1,/.3A+g+/MH+X,>&?$NFOe!#\#&F!7+/&
T#\:!*,
C;>&B+B # c#W,8+_!*,ZK!#$'0+?Nh+_<V!*;Z!#+_,>.&`0256_&?;+/00M-#\ )56Z+?a g3 ,B +0J56&B;/3)C

^_5Z!"!5,' c# ,>+BaJ)*,!E N d!"fgOQ.&Kc#W,8!*C#&K!*)"17;>;>&?) , C#;>&B+<=#;,/.&
0;>3 $F!#;/M'63)"H3)CF!*;>&3)"H3A7?!5,>3 c&#<5 N # R
!#"-3 $'0J&B"!#)7&aH)*,_,/.&!7,/2!*f N
*<,/.&`!#"-3W,8+&BW<XN
)*,/.&?;`6;>"+?af)#,#)M4.!#+`;+X,>&?0 01,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&B":c## ,>!#C#&K!*)"7;>;>&?) ,BafL,`3 ,g.!+
8 !+Q6&B N
,/;8!*)2+X<=;/$'&B" Z8@PJ
,/.&0;/3$F!*;>MF73;>7?3W,
OQ.&,>;>!#)+<=#;>$'!*,/3#)K;>!*,/3*<b3$'02&("!*)7?&Z3A+,/.&+
,/.&g+/!#$K&!+_,/.&63)"H3)CF3)"H7,>!*)27&`;>!*,/3
2!*;>&*<,/.&c## ,>!#C#&557;/;>&?) ,,/;8!*)+<=#;>$F!5,>3 )

;8!5,>3 2a

Nsecondary
Nprimary
Current transformation ratio =
Nprimary
Nsecondary
2
Nsecondary
Impedance transformation ratio =
Inductance ratio =
ZH_QZ
Nprimary
2
Nsecondary
Nprimary
Where,
N = number of turns in winding
OQ.3A+7?#)7?;8+[63 ,/.@;&?G!*$'0&Z*<f,>.&

,/4 N
+X,>&?0H0F,>;>!#)+X<=;/$'&B;u!*)"F,/.&3 $'0J&B"!#)7&;>!*,/3g*< N g
V!'2 ;8!5,>3 2aH6.378.3A+ +/ !#;/&("Nu$K0J&B"!*)7?&`,/;8!*)+<=#;>$F!5,/3#)3A+Z!'.3C#.M-+/&<=!*L33W,XM
*<e,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+?a <=;3W,!# 56Z+Q!

!"@,>@"H3A+/+/3 02!5,/&`3 ,>+Q<= b;8!5,>&B"E0256_&?;Q&Bc#&?)3 <e,>.&0256_&?;+/MH+X,>&?$3A+Q)#,
!5,Q,>.&0;>#0J&?;c#W,8!*C&,>@"H3 ;>&B7,/M-"HF+/N
&(7?!*J<=;/$#;Q+,/2"HM@*<Y)&,X6_#;>\F!*)!# MH+/3+,>.&KB

H5u?E ?-85/?
a6.3A78.+,>!*,/&(+
,/.2!5,,/.&$'!*GH3 $
$!*$') ,[*<20J56_&?;63 HLJ&Z"H3A+/+/3 02!5,/&("KL M
!!";>&B+/3A+X,8!*)7?&_6.&?)
,/.!*,[ !#"
;/&(+3A+X,8!*)7?&
3A+&B !#H,/`,>.&ZOQ.&?c&?)3)J*Z#;/,/)
;>&B+/3A+X,8!*)7?&_#<2,>.&Z)&?,X6;/\
+00 MT3)C`,/.&0256_&?;(NYTL+X,>3W,>H,/&,/.&6_#;8"
*3$'02&("!*)27&B-<=#;g#;/&(+3A+,>!*)27&B@3 ),/.2!5,g"H&2)3W,>3 )!#)"1M##1.!c#&
,/.&'h]dc#&B;>+/3 )*<,/.!*,OQ.&?;/&B$N<
6_&# ;/&,/;>MT3 )C%,/#L,>!*3),/.&B#;>&,>37B!*Z$F!5GH3$$
0256_&?;@"3+>+30!*,/3#)<=;/$
!%!"fa6_&4$2+X,@LJ&:!*L &,>
0;>#0J&?;> M$F!*,>78.U,>.&4!#"D3 $'0J&B"!#)7&4!#)"D+/#;87&%VOQ.&?c#&B)3)J5#;/,/#)Jg3$'02&("!*)7?&,/#C&,>.&?;(NDOQ.3A+'3+

C#&B)&?;8!*M$'#;>&F*<Z!47)7&B;/)%3)U+0J&B7?3!# 3?&("1&B &(7,>;/3A7F73;>7?3 ,>+g+/78.U!#+g;>!"H3 ,>;>!#)+$'3 ,,>&?;5!*) ,>&?))!!#)"
!*2"H3 F!#$K0 3&?;5+/0J&B!*\&?;Q+MH+,/&B$'+BN[b&?,B +_,>!#\#&!*)!*"3 F!*$'03&?;Z+/MH+X,>&?$
!#)"+&B&.5693 ,Z6;/\H+B
BHu
Y ZH_QZu-u ? Z Q
Audio amplifier

Speaker
Z=8
Speaker
Z=8
Thevenin/Norton

Z = 500
. . . equivalent to . . .

ZThevenin

EThevenin
500
a*,/.&!*$'03&?;7?!#)
)Mg"H&?3 c&?;Y<=0J56&B;e,>!!"-V+/0J&B!*\&?;
3 ,/.'!*)K3 ) ,/&B;/)2!*T3 $'0J&B"!#)7&Q#<

!*A+/
.!cT3)C
!*)
,/.&
'
*<Y3 $'0J&B"!#)7&NuT78.!!"@6_#A"-";/0-.3C#.&B;c#W,8!*C#&!*)"E"H;8!6 &(+/+Q7?;/;>&?) ,_,/.!#)
+0J&B!#\#&B;_"H3A+>+30!5,>3 )C,>.&+/!#$K&`!*$') ,Q#<0J56&B;BNY<Y!#)
F
!*$'032&?;Z!#++/.56)ba,/.&
8 8
KA8

+/02&(!*\&?;_6&B;/&7#))&B7,/&B""H3;/&(7,> M',>
6A"-;>&B+/ ,Z3 )c#&B;/M-02T#;gV 5602&(!*\E0256_&?;
0J&?;/<=#;>$'!#)7&Nh""H3W,>3 )!*M#aJ,/.&K!*$'032&?;6_#",>&?)"4,/E"3+>+30!*,/&$';/&,>.!*):3W,8+Z<V!#3 ;`+.2!*;>&*<[0J56&B;

3)E,>.&`<=#;>$#<Y.&(!5,Q,/;>MT3 )C
,>@"H;>3 c&,>.& 563 $'0J&B"!#)7&g+/0J&B!*\&?;(N
Oe$'!#\#&Y,/.3+e+MH+,/&?$6;/\L2&?,,/&B;Ba6_&[7?!#)+/&u!_,>;>!#)+X<=;/$'&B;2,>Z$F!5,878.,>.&B+/&$'3+/$F!5,878.&B"3$K0J&B"!*)7?&B+BN
T3)7&6& ;>&QC##3)C<=;>#$!`.3 C.F3 $'0J&B"!#)7&gV.3 C.Fc#W,8!*C#&a*56S7;/;>&?) ,8+/00 M
,/g!`56S3$'02&("!*)27&g=56
c#W,8!*C&#aT.3C#.47;>;>&?) ,8!#"ba 6_&# b)&?&("E,/'+/&g!K+,/&B0H"H56)-,>;>!#)+<=#;>$K&B;B
impedance
"matching"
transformer
Audio amplifier
Speaker
Z=8
Thevenin/Norton
Z = 500
impedance ratio = 500 : 8
winding ratio = 7.906 : 1
Oe@#LH,8!*3):!*)43$'02&("!*)27&g,>;>!#)+<=#;>$'!*,/3#)4;8!5,>3 @#< a6_&6_#A")&B&B"!-63 )"3 )CE;>!*,/3@&B !#b,>
,/.&K+> !*;>&;>T*,#< ,>.&F+/ !#;/&g;>T*,*< N #aJ#;TN
,/.&-+0J&B!#\#&B;g63 u!"1,/.&!*$'03&B;,/
N3W,>.+/78.:!@,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;3):0!7&#a
X+X,
,/.&-;/3C#. ,"H&BC#;>&?&#a"H;8!63 )C0J56_&?;!*,g,/.&E7#;>;>&B7,gc# ,>!#C#&
!*)2"-7;/;>&?) ,u&?c&?A+[,>K+>!5,>3+<=MK,/.&!5GH3$$56_&?;O;8!*)+<=&?;QOQ.&B#;>&?$!*)"@$'!#\#&<=#;,/.&$'+,_&F7?3 &B) ,
0J56&B;Q"&?3 c&?;>MF,/K,/.& !#"fN[OQ.&`+/&*<!

,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;Q3 ),>.3+7?!*02!#73 ,XMF3A+Z7?!# &B"
Z8 8
T
*N
hZ)TM#)&6..!+f;>3""&?)!Q$ ,/3 +0J&?&("`L37?MH7&[7?!*)`3) ,/3 ,/3c#&B M)"H&B;>+,>!#)",/.&0;/3)730&[*<T3$K0J&B"!*)7?&

$F!5,878.3 )CNeh.T$F!*) +&?C +e63 0;/H"H7?&Q$'!*GH3 $
$d0256_&?;6.&B)
+/03))3)C,/.&QL3A7MH7&7;8!*)\!*,!0!#;,>37
A!*;u+/0J&?&B"4!*LJ#H,_
,/
;>&?c# ,/3#)K02&B;u$'3 )TH,>&(NhL25c&#;[LJ&?56,/.!*,u;>*,>!*,/3#)!#+0J&?&("fa . $'!#)F &BC
$2+/7? &(+!#;/& &(+/+&@73&?) ,!5,_C#&?)&?;8!5,/3)Cg0J56_&?;(NYOQ.&0;>0J+/&*<,/.&L3A7MH7&# +#C#&(!*;8+/`3A+,/3$'02&("!*)27&

$F!5,878.,/.&
;>3"&?;( + &BC+,/E,/.&K;>3"H3)C7)"H3 ,/3#)++-,/.!*,,>.&?M1!*6_!MH++/03),>.&K7?;>!#)\4!5,,/.&K#0,/3$$

ZH_QZ
+/02&B&B"fN
<u,>.&';/3A"H&B;`!*,,>&?$'0H,>+,>+,>!#;,`$'5cT3 )C6.3 &K,>.&'L37?MH7&

3A++.3W<,>&B"13 ) ,/3 ,>+*,/#02@C#&(!*;(af.&K#;+.&
63 )"13 ,`c&?;>M"3@7W,`,/C#&?,$'5cT3)CNX+3 ,LJ&B7B!*+/&,>.&';/3A"H&B;3A+6&(!*\!Z2af3W,( +LJ&B7B!*+/&,>.&K.3 C.
+,/&?00;8!5,/3K*<,>.&`L3A7MH7&# +78.!*3)E!#)"+0;>H78\#&?,>+3 )E,/.!*,Q,/#0C#&(!*;Q0;>&B+/&?) ,>+Q!
$'3+/$F!5,>78.LJ&,X6_&?&?)E,/.&
7)"H3 ,/3#)+V #,>+Q#<e3)&?;/,/3A!
,/'5c#&B;>7?#$'&(u!*)"-,/.&B3 ;&?C +`=)&B&B"H3)CK,/F+/03 )4!*,
Z"
<=#;Q$F!5GH3$$
0J56&B;
H,/0,8N)U,>.&*,/.&?;'.!*)2"fa+/&?&B7,/3)C1!1C#&(!*;
,/.!*,'3A+
,/T 5663&?)!#L &E,/.&E;>3"&?;K,/C#&?,
$'5cT3 )CK3$K$'&("H3!*,/&B MaHLH, 3$'3W,Q,>.&,/#0+/02&B&B"F,>.&?M-63 fL2&!#L &,/F!*,,>!#3 )NhC!#3 )baT3A+_,/.&À!#78\'*<+0J&?&("
!*)K3)"H3A7?!5,>3 )#<26_&B!*\T)&(+/+Y3),>.&QL3A7MH73+,B +&?C+EZa#3W,( +LJ&B7B!*+/&_,/.&Q56&B;Y+/02&B&B"
;>!*,/3#<,>.&+&B &(7,/&("
C#&(!*;_7;>&B!5,>&B+!*)#,/.&B;[,XMT02&*<b$'3A+$F!5,878.@LJ&,X6_&?&?)-,/.&7)"H3 ,/3#)+=56 !#"[!*)"',>.&;/3A"H&?;( +[&?C+=+/3)C
0J56&B;3W<u+/03))3)C'<V!#+,/&B;,/.!#)
Z#:N2,3A+Z$278.E,>.&+>!*$'&63 ,/.4&?&B7,/;>37g0256_&?;Z+/#;87&(+!*)"!"+B
,/.&?;>&@$+,LJ&-!*)%3$'02&("!*)7?&@$F!5,878.%<=#;g$F!5GH3$$+/MT+,/&B$
0J&?;/<=#;>$
&@73&?)7?M#N)Uh]7?3 ;873W,8+?ae,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+
,>.&+/!#$K&-$'!*,>78.3)C:<=)7,>3 )S!+g,>.&+/0;>H78\#&,8+g!*)2"D78.!#3 )9*C&B!*;8+>#)S!L3A7MH7&@,>:$F!5,878.
*,>.&?;>63A+&`$'3+/$F!5,878.&B"+;87&B+Q!#)" !#"+BN
$'02&("!*)27&$'!*,>78.3)C
,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+u!#;/&)*,_<=)"!*$'&?) ,>!# M@"H3 J&B;/&B) ,_<=;>#$!#)TMK#,/.&B;_,XM 0J&`*<b,>;>!#)+
<=#;>$'&?;3)F7#)2+X,>;/7,/3#)'#;[!#00J&B!*;8!*)27&#Neh+$F!# H3$'02&("!*)7?&$F!5,>78.3 )C`,>;>!#)+<=#;>$K&B;Y<=#;u!#"H3*<=;/&(&?)7?M
!*00 3A7?!*,/3#)+Q3A++/.56)E)-,>.&;>3 C.,3),/.&`<= 563 )CK0.*,>#C#;8!*0.b
hZ)*,/.&?;[3$'02&("!*)7?&$F!5,>78.3 )C,>;>!#)+X<=;/$'&B;7B!*)'LJ&+&B&?)'#)K,>.3+[0;/3) ,/&("K7?3 ;873W,uLJ!#;>"ba*3 )K,>.&Z00J&?;

;>3 C.,Z7?#;>)&?;(a ,/',/.&3 $'$'&B"H3A!5,>&` &?<,*<Y;/&(+3A+X,>#;8+Q%$!*)"'&*N,Z3+QA!*LJ&?&B"O(&
BHu
*)
Y ZH_QZu-u ? Z Q
Oe;>!#)+X<=;/$'&B;>+Y7?!#)K!#+/LJ&+/&B"
3 )'&B &(7,/;>3A7?!*H3)+,/;>$'&?) ,>!*,/3#)'+MH+,/&B$'+BN+&Q,>,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+?!*L33W,XM
,/%+,/&?00S#;'+X,>&?0R"H56)Dc# ,>!*C&-!*)2"D7;/;>&?) ,Ba!*)"U,/.&&?&B7,/;>37B!*_3+/#A!5,>3 ),/.&?MU0;>5cT3"&#a,/.&?MU7?!#)
+/&?;>c#&!+!6Q!M'*<7?#))&(7,>3 )C
&?&B7,/;>37B!*3)+,/;>$'&?) ,>!*,/3#)F,>.3C#.c# ,>!*C&#a.3 C.-7;/;>&?) ,u0J56&B;_+/MH+X,>&?$F+BN
T002 +&
6&g6Q!*) ,>&B",/!#7B7;8!5,>&?M-$'&B!+;>&,>.&c# ,>!*C&*<u!4*)N F\T0J56&B;+/MT+,/&B$
!@c&?;>M7?#$'$'#)
.3C#.c#W,8!*C#&`+,>!*)2"!*;8"-3)3 )2"H+,/;>MH
high-voltage
power source
13.8 kV
load
+&B+/3 C)3 )Ca[3)+,>!*3 )C2au!*)2"U$F!*3) ,>!*3)3)C%!c#W,>$'&,/&B;F7?!*02!*L&E#<"H3;/&(7,> M$'&B!+;/3)CD*)a
c#W,8+
h]P6_#A"4LJ&')-&(!#+/ME,8!#+/\NÒQ.&K+>!5<=&?,XM.2!*B!#;>":!*#)&
*<uL;>3)C#3)C:*)N F\T7?#)"7,>#;8+3) ,/E,/.&KL!#78\
*<u!#)3)+X,>;/$K&B) ,0!#)&?Y6_#A"L2&'+/&?c#&B;/&N',56&Bc#&?;(aLTM+/3 )CE!F0;>&B7?3+/3#):+,/&B0H"56),/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;(a6_&

7?!#):;>&B"H27&g,>.&-)N @\T"H56)4,>!+/!*<=&&?c&?*<[c# ,>!*C&
!*,`!E7#)2+X,8!*) ,;8!5,>3 2a!#)"3A+/#A!5,/&
3W,<=;>#$
3)+X,>;/$K&B) ,7#))&B7,/3#)+Ba!#""3 )CF!#)!""H3 ,/3#)!#f &Bc#&?f#<+>!5<=&?,XMF,/K,>.&$'&,/&B;/3)CF+/MT+,/&B$
,/.&

ZH_QZ
Instrument application: the "Potential Transformer"
high-voltage
power source
load
13.8 kV
fuse
fuse
precision
step-down
ratio
PT
grounded for
safety
V
0-120 VAC voltmeter range
Z56R,>.&c## ,/$'&?,/&?;_;>&B!#"+u!g0;/&(73A+&<=;>!7,/3#)a ;u;8!5,>3 2a#<b,/.&`!#7,/!#J+/MH+X,>&?$c#W,8!*C&#a 3W,8+_+>7?!# &+&?,u,>
;>&B!#"K!#+Y,>.#C#.'3W,[6_&?;>&Q$'&B!#+/;>3 )C,>.&c#W,8!*C#&"H3;>&B7,> MNYOQ.&Q,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;\#&B&?0+Y,>.&3 )2+X,>;/$'&B),[c# ,>!#C#&
!5,K!4+/!*<=&F &Bc#&?_!*)"&B &(7,/;>3A7?!*M:3A+!*,/&B+g3W,g<=;>#$
,/.&-0256_&?;+/MH+X,>&?$a+,>.&?;>&@3A+):"H3;>&B7,K7#))&B7,/3#)
LJ&,X6_&?&?),>.&g0J56&B; 3)&(+!*)2"-,>.&g3)+,/;>$'&?) ,#;3)+,/;>$'&?) ,63;/3)C2Nu.&B)4+&("3 ),>.3A+7?!#0!#7?3W,XMaH,/.&

,/;8!*)2+X<=;/$'&?;Q3A+7?!# &B"!
.
_ /5F a2#;Z+/3 $'0M
g N
*,>&?) ,/3A!*,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+[!*;>&"H&(+3C#)&B"',>0;>5cT3"H&!#+!#7?7?;8!5,/&!gc#W,8!*C&+X,>&?0H"H56)F;8!5,>3 K!#+[0J+>+/3 L&#N

OeE!*3A"43)0;>&B7?3+/&c# ,>!*C&g;>&?C#!*,/3#)ba2 !#"H3)C-3A+\#&?0,,/!@$'3)3 $
$,/.&c#W,>$'&,/&B;3A+$'!"H&g,>-.!c&
.3C#.@3)0,_3$'02&("!*)7?&+/
!+,/K"H;8!6R!+u3 ,,/&7?;>;/&B),<=;/$,>.&ùOR!#+02 +/+/3L &Nh+M##@7B!*)-+/&?&a !g<=+/&
.!+[LJ&?&?)7))&B7,/&("F3 )E+&B;/3&B+u63W,>.F,/.&uO+0;>3 $F!*;>M63)"H3)C2a<=;+>!5<=&?,XM'!#)"'&B!+&*<"H3A+/7?#))&B7,>3 )Cg,/.&
uO<=;/$,/.&g73;>7?3W,(N
h+X,8!*)"!#;>"1+&(7)"!*;>Mc#W,8!*C#&<=#;!uOd3A+'
c#W,8+`h]a2<=;<= ;>!*,/&B"10J56&B;3 )&Kc# ,>!#C#&#NgOQ.&
+,>!*)2"!*;8"c#W,>$'&,/&B;e;8!*)C#&[,>!7?7?#$'0!*)TM`!O3+_ c# ,>+Ba<= +/7B!*&#NeO+63 ,/.'72+X,>#$63 )2"H3 )C;8!5,>3 +

7?!#):LJ&'$'!#)TH<V!#7,/;>&B":,/+3W,g!*)TM!#0037B!5,/3#)N
OQ.3A+ &B)"+`3 ,>+/&? <6_&?,/3 )"+X,>;/M1+X,8!*)"!#;>"3 (!5,/3#):*<
,/.&!#7,/!#c#W,>$'&,/&B;Z3)+X,>;/$K&B) ,>+,>.&?$F+/&?c#&(+?aJ+3)7&g,/.&OP63 LJ&
+/3 B&B"E,/E+X,>&?0,/.&
+/MT+,/&B$
c# ,>!#C#&
"H56)E,/',>.3++,>!#)"!#;>"E3 )2+X,>;/$'&B),Z&?c&?N
0 563)C@,>.&@+/!#$'&
3 )&K#<u,>.3 )\ 3)C2ab6&'7?!#)12+&F!-,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;,/4+X,>&?0%"H56)17?;>;/&B),,/.;/C#.!
0J56&B;3 )&K+/@,>.!5,`6&K!*;>&
!#L &,/+/!*<=&?M4!*)":&B!#+/3 M$'&B!+;>&g.3C#.+MH+,/&B$7;>;/&B) ,>+Z63 ,/.13 )&GH02&B)+/3 c&
!*$'$'&,>&?;8+?N[<7;8+&a +/78.@!,>;>!#)+<=#;>$K&B;[6_#A"FLJ&7))&(7,/&("F3)-+&B;/3&B+u63W,>.F,/.&0J56&B;[3 )&aT 3\#&,/.3A+?
BHu
Y ZH_QZu-u ? Z Q
grounded for 0-5 A ammeter range

safety
A
Instrument application: the "Current Transformer"
CT
load
13.8 kV
fuse
PT
fuse
precision
step-down
ratio
grounded for
safety
V
0-120 VAC voltmeter range
1%23546387.93;:<7!=>?4@387!4 "AB=DC9ECF354-H
G IH!2:<JKH!4L=?M4NO357!4QP SRTR5U V !R .W XRTY@UR Z2[\P ]=DC^9_CF354-H
G I`!G
X ^357!4hGV2:i4[">=?J!4'M`![8[54-J3*jlk'`.=384
H 4-La=DM4
/:<=357b[84-C5Gc4-MT3"352^L2>389d4(N:<7!=DM7e=DCf:<7.93#=DC"J.44-H!4-H;352;Cg384G 5
S
2m384JnNfoiA<C9[54@p!`.=>3q9C^HS2J`S3/IC57.9Gc4-HKHS4-L=?M4-C387![52`!d7K:<7!=DM7r357!4bGV2:i4[]>?=J.4bM2J.HS`.M352[]=DC[8`!JnNO357.4
Gc2:#4-[i>?=?J!4]=3CF4->mf9MT35=?J!d@9C<96C5=J.d>?4 s35`![8JtG.[5=?u@9[8v@:<=J.H!=J!dVj#oiA<C<>?=w4'387!=DC%M9Jtpc4]u@9HS4382@7!=J.d42Gc4JnN
9>?>?2:<=J!d;=?J.CF4-[F38=2Jt9[52`!J.Hb9qGc2:#4-[xM2J.H!`.MT382[x:<=387!2`!3(HS=?CF35`.[5p!=?J!dq357!4M2J.H!`.MT382[<93%9>?>sjAx7.4h=?J.HS`VCg38[5v
CF389JVH!9[H6CF4*M2JVH!9[8v^M`.[5[84Ja3lm/2[i9ôiAy=?C#9][89J!d4x2m 352 9u;GVC"z(o'
j {=wZ
4 "A<C-NoiA<C#M9J6pc4(u@9H!4%:<=387
M`VCg382u|:<=J.H!=J!db[8935=?2Ci352e!3'9>?u62CF3'9Jv}9G!G!>?=DM938=2JnQ
j #4*M9`.CF4387!4=?
[ m/`!>>O>2a9
H @C54-M2J.H.9[8vbM`![8[84Ja3%=?C
C
9u6G.C-NVoiA~[938=2aCx9[84h`VCF`.9>>?vbHS4*C5M[5=?pc4-Ht=J}354-[5u@C<2m{m/`!>?> s>?29HbG![8=?u69[5vt9u6G.Ci352 9u;GVCNS>?=w4h357!=D?
600 : 5 ratio (for measuring up to 600 A line current)
100 : 5 ratio (for measuring up to 100 A line current)

1k : 5 ratio (for measuring up to 1000 A line current)
i4-M-9`.C54;oiA<Ch9[84^HS4-C5=?dJ!4*H352tpV4;GV2:i4[8=?J!db9u6u64384[CNc:<7!=DM79[54>?2:QI=u6Gc4-H!9J.M4q>2a9H!C-Nc9J.H387!4v
9[84_:i2`!J.H~9C@L2>389d4ECg384GHI`!G38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8C-N#357!4-vC57!2`!>?HJ.4L4-[-N UUR pc4\2GV4-[89354-Hy:<=357~9J2Gc4JH
M=?[M`!=354*H@CF4*M2JVH!9[8v^:<=?J.HS=?J!d.j0.9=>?`![84<352^7!44*H;357!=DC":x9[8J!=?J!d]:<=?>>V[54*CF`!>3"=?J6357!4]oiAyG![52SHS`VM=?J!d438[54-u;4->v
7!=?d7yCF4*M2JVH!9[8vL2>389d4-C-NlH!9J.d4[82`VC]352B4 a`!=?G!u64Ja3@9J.HGV4-[8C52J!J.4>x9>?=w4jA{2\mZ9M=>?=39384tu@9=?Ja354-J.9J.M4
2mi9u6u64354-['=?J.CF35[8`!u64Ja38935=?2JnNnC57!2[F/3 IM=[M`!=35=?J!dbC5:<=38M7!4*C'9[54q2m354-J\=?J.CF389>?>?4-HE=?J\GV9[9>?>4->O:<=357\357!4eoi`
A C
C54-M2J.H!9[5v@:<=?J.HS=?J!d.N!3526pV4M>2aCF4*Hb:<7.4J!4-L4[x387!49u6u64384[<=DCx[54-u62L4-Hem/2[%C54[8L=?M4#
(''
power conductor
HiQZ(
'
current
CT
ground connection
(for safety)
close switch BEFORE

disconnecting ammeter!
0-5 A meter movement range
A 7!2`!d7=3_u@9vC544-uCg38[89J!d4\352 . U V ZX J C57!2[53M=?[M`!=3}9QGV2:i4[C5vCF354-uM2u6Gc2J!4-Ja3-Nh=3=?C
x
Gc4[5m/4-MT38>vtG![82Gc4[%9JVHEa`!=354]J!4*M4*C5C89[8v@:<7!4J}:i2[8wa=?J!d;:<=387_M`![8[54-Ja3i38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8C-j
z%J.2357.4[xw=J.Ht2mCFGc4-M=?9>35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*NaC544-Jb2m354J}=?J}[9H!=#
2 m/[8B4 a`!4-J.Mv6M=?[8M`!=38C-NS=?Ci387!4@ RXR5U 38[89J.C
m/2[8u64[*j#AO[5`.4352@=38C%JV9u64Nc9J_9=?[(M2[54h38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[<7.9C<=38C(:<=JVHS=J.dC<:<[9G!Gc4-H9[52`!J.H96J!2J.u69dJ!435=DM
m/2[8uNS`.C5`.9>?>vt9q7.2>?>2:38`!pc4]2mC52u64u@9384[8=?9>jlAx7!4]HS4-d[8442mM2`.G!>=?J!4
d /uq`S35`V9>=?J.HS`.M389JVM(4 ipc43g:i44-J
:<=?J.HS=?J!dCx=?J_CF`.M7}9q35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[x=?Cxu@9Jav638=u64*C<>4*C5Ci387.9Jt357V93%2m9J}B4 a`!=?L9>?4Ja3<=[82H
J M2[54(35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*N
p!`S3h357.4q`!JVHS4-C5=[9p.>4^M7V9[9MT384[8=?CF35=DMC%2m#9em/4[8[52u69dJ!435=DM]M2[5
4 /4-H.HSv_M`![8[54-Ja3'>?2C8CF4*CNc7vCF354-[54*CF=DC-NcC8938`![8*
9
35=?2J{NV438Mj _9[54^M2u6G!>?4384>?vt4->=?u6=J.9354*H
j I3h=?C'=J\7!=dH
7 sm/[5(4 `.4J.Mvt9G.G!>=DM935=?2J.C%357.93(387!4-C54^4c4*MT38C'2mf=?[82J
M2[54*Cx9[84hu62aCg3<G![82p!>?4u@935=DMj
X NSJV9u64-H@9m354[#357.
'J!4%J.2389p!>?4%4!9u6G!>?4%2m{9=?
[ M2[54i35[9JVCgm/2[5u64["=?C"357!4 .U W }P 5
4 4-[5p!=D9J@4->4*MT38[5=DM9>
d4-J!=?`.C%1%=?w2>?96AO4-C5>?9.N.:<7!2@:x9C<9>?C52;357!4^=JL4-Ja352[<2m357!4][823935=?J!d@u@9dJ!438=?MhV4>DH_z(ou62382[*N!Gc2>?vaG.7.9C54
z(oBGc2:#4-[;C5vSCg384u@C-N"9J.Hu@9JvK4>?4u64Ja38C;2m([89HS=?2E354*M7!J!2>2dvjAx7!4AO4-C5>?9Ko#2=?>i=DC69\[84-C52JV9Ja3-Nl7!=?d7
m/[8B4 a`!4JVMvbCF354-H
G s`.Gb38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[i`VCF4*He382;G.[52SHS`.M47!=d7tL2>389d4-C"357V93(9[84h[54->?935=?L4>?v@7.9[5u6>?4-C8C"38267a`.u69J
pc4=?J!d@
C /357!E
4 C5wa=?Jr44-MT83 2mx7!=?dH
7 sm/[5(4 a`!4J.Mv\9>354-[5JV935=?J!d_M`.[5[84Ja3G![84-M>`.H!=J!d4->4*MT35[8=DM@CF7!2SMwNO9>387!2`.d7
M9G.9p.>4E2m]G![52SHS`VM=?J!dC5wa=?Jp!`![8J.8C T
j 'J.4E2mAO4-C5>?
9 CtHS[54*9u@C@:x9Ce3524-u;G.>2vy7!=DCbM2=>(354*M7!J!2>?2dv382
HS=DCg38[5=?p!`S384t4->4*MT38[5=DMbGc2:i4[;:<=387!2`S36387!4tJ.44-Hm/2[6:<=?[54*CN"C5=?u;G.>vp![829H!M9Cg38=J.dE=36=?J387!4bm/2[5u2m([9HS=?2
:x9L4-Cx:<7.=?M7EM2`!>DHpV4^[54*M4=?L4*H9J.H_M2J.HS`VMT354*H}352e>?29H!C<pv}u;4*9J.C(2mf9Ja384J!J.9CjxAx7!4pV9C5=?MC8M7!4-u6935=DM
m/2[%96AO4-C5>?9eo#2=>>?22wSCx>=?w4h387!=?BC
discharge terminal
"Tesla Coil"
Ax7!4M-9G.9M=352[<=?J_G.9[89>>?4>:<=357387!4]35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[( CxG![5=?u@9[8ve:<=?J.HS=?J!d@m/2[8u@Cx357.4]389J!wtM=[M`!=3(J!4-4-HS4*H
Yg
HiQZu'
'
'"
?%Y Q
'

m/2[h[84-C52J.9J.M4jAx7.4qC54-M2J.H!9[5v:<=?J.HS=?J!dt=DC':#2`!J.HE=?JM>2aCF4qG![82=?u6=3gv}382b387!4qG.[5=?u@9[8vN`.C5`.9>?>v_9[52`!J.H
357.46C89u64qJ!2J!u@9dJ!435=DMm/2[5u
j 4-L4-[89>O2GS35=?2J.C'4S=DCg3hm/2
[ 4!M=35=?J!
d e357!46G![8=?u69[5v_M=[M`!=3-N387!4@CF=?u6G!>?4-CF3
pc4=?J!de9;7!=dH
7 IL2>389d4N>?2Q
: m/[8B4 a`!4-J.Mvez(o~C52`![M49J.HC5G.9[8w@d9b
G
HIGH voltage!
HIGH frequency!
spark gap
high voltage
low frequency
=357b4*9M7bMvSM>?4(Gc4-9w@2m357!4h7!=?dH
7 IL2>39d4(z(oyCF2`![M4N357.4hM`![5[84Ja3i:<=>?>ag`!u6G}9M[82C8C357!4C5G.9[8w6d9G{N
p [8=4?.ve4-J!4[8d==?J!d;357!439J!wtM=?[8M`!=3*jfAx7!4389J!wbM=[M`!=3-N!35`!J!4*Htm/2[(9;[84-C52J.9J3im/[84Ba`!4JVMv@mZ9[<=J4!M4-C8Cx2m
!
357.4qz(oC52`![M4N.:<=?>>2C8M=?>>D9384]m/2['u@9Jv}MvSM>?4-C%pc4m/2[54357!4qJ!43hMvSM>?4^Gc4-9w}2ml387!4qC52`.[8M4N.:<7.4JE=3':<=?>>
[84-M4-=L4h9J!2387!4Z
[ w=?MH
w ^3526w4-4G}357!42aC5M=>?>?935=?2J.Cxd2=?J!d.jAx7!4C54-M2J.H!9[5v@2m{387!4A{4*CF>D9eo#2=?>n:<=?>>2`S35G!`!3(9
mZ9=?[8>v_M2J.CF389Ja3h7!=d7\L2>389d4q93'L4-[5v7!=?d7\m/[5(4 a`!4J.M=4*CN`.C5`.9>>?v_G![82H!`.M=?J!dt9tCFGV9[8wH!=?C8M7.9[8d4^=Ja352t357.4
C5`![5[82`.J.HS=?J!d;9=[%93x357!4HS=DC8M7.9[8d4'354-[5u6=?J.9>sj
(''
HiQZ(
'
AO4-C5>?96o#2=?>?C".J.Ht9G!G!>?=DM938=2JeG![8=u@9[5=?>v@9C"J!2L4>3gv;H!4L=?M4-C-NSCF7!2:<=?J!dq`!Gb=?Jb7!=?d7}C5M7.2a2>VC8M=?4J.M4(mZ9=[C-N
p.9CF4-u;4-Ja3x:i2[8wSCF7.2G.C-NS9J.Hb357!4]2SM-M9C5=?2J.9>c>?2:~p.`.HSd43(C5M=4-J.M4?cMT35=?2Jtu62La=?4j
2mZ9[-N(:#
4 L4\4SG!>?2[84-Hy387!4E38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[t9Cb9H!4L=?M4Em/2[tM2JL4[535=?J!dH!=4[84Ja3t>?4L4>DCb2mL2>39d4N
M`.[5[84Ja3-N9J.H;4L4J6=?u;Gc4-H.9J.M4xm/[52u2J.4%M=?[8M`!=3l3829J!2357!4-[-j1%2:Q:#
4 >?>S39w4%9>?22w^93f=3i9Cl9]M2u6G!>4354->v
X 2L4-[i9;uq`.M7t>D9[8d4-[
HS=c4-[54-Ja3xw=?J.H}2mHS4L=DM#
4 l2J!4'357.93(9>?>2:%Cx96CFu@9>>4->4*MT35[8=DM9>C5=dJ.9>c382;4S4[53 X . R55
Y J iUR j
a`.9Ja38=3gve2m4->4*MT38[5=DM9>cGc2:i4[*Y
j J}387!=?C%u;2SHS4N.9q35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[<9M38C<9C<9
J
Ax7!4eHS4-L=?M@
4 u[84m/4[8[8=J!d382_=?CqM9>>?4-HK9K?W SR U XR5UtR5U XR N2[C5=?u;G.>vQ?W SR UtR5U XR j_z(M
35`V9>?>vNc=3=?ChJ!23'[84-9>?>?v9e35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[h93h9>>sNp!`S3][9357.4['9tCFGc4-M=?9>Ow=?J.HE2m"=?J.HS`.M352[h:<7!2aCF4q=J.H!`.MT39J.M4
M9JpV4_L9[8=?4-Hypv357.4\9G!G.>=DM935=?2Jy2m]9+oM`.[5[84Ja36357![82`.d79CF4*M2J.H:<=?J.HS=?J!d:i2`.J.HQ9[52`!J.HQ357.4
C89u64^=?[52J\M2[54
j {=w4357.4^m/4-[5[82[84-C52J.9Ja3<35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*N!357.4;C8938`![89p!>?4[54*9M352['[54->=?4-C'2JE357!4;G![8=J.M=G.>4q2m
u@9dJ!438=?M'C5935`![938=2JnjO7.4Jt9û@9354-[5=D9>cCF`VM7b9C#=[82J@=DCxM2u;G.>4354>?v@C5935`![9384-4
H /357.93i=DCNS9>>c=3Ciu69dJ!435=DM
HS2u69=JVCh9[54;>?=J!4*H\`.G:<=357357!4@9G!G!>?=4*H\u@9dJ!438= -=J.dbm/2[8M(4 TNn9H!HS=35=?2J.9>l=JVM[84-9C54-C'=?JrM`![5[84Ja3h357![82`.d7
357.4]u69dJ!435= =?J!d6:<=JVHS=J.d;:<=?>?>nJ!23%[84-C5`!>3<=J}m/`![5357!4-[%=?J.M[84-9CF4*C#2mOu@9dJ!438=?
M .`!j
1%2:]N=?J.HS`VMT389J.M4x=DCO357!4xu64-9CF`![84i2m.7!2::#4->>!9J^=?J.HS`.M352[2G!GV2aCF4*CM7.9J!d4-CO=J6M`.[5[84Ja3pavH!4L4->2G!=?J!d
9eL2>389d4=?J\9J\2G!Gc2C5=J.dbHS=?[54*MT35=?2J{jhAx7!4;9p!=?>?=3gv2m"9JE=?J.HS`.M352['352}d4-J!4[9384]357.=?C'2G!Gc2C5=?J!dbL2>389d4]=?C
HS=?[54*MT38>vEM2J!J!4*MT384-HE:<=357\357!4@M7.9J!d4q=Ju@9dJ.435=D
M .`SE=?J.CF=DHS4q357!46=?J.HS`.M352[h[84-C5`!>35=?J!dem/[82u387!46M7.9J!d4
=?JbM`![8[84Ja3-Na9J.H6387!4(J`!uqpV4-["2mn:<=J.H!=J!d^35`![8J.C"=J@387!4(=?J.HS`VMT352[-
j Im{9Je=JVHS`.MT382[#7.9C#9C5935`![9384-H@M2[84NJ.2
m/`![5357!4-[u69dJ!435=Dg
M V`S\:<=?>>l[84-C5`!>3'm/[82um/`![5357.4[=JVM[84-9C54-C'=?JrM`![5[84Ja3*Nn9J.HCF2t357!4-[54;:<=?>>lpc46J!2tL2>389d4
=?J.HS`.M4-H=?J2G.GV2aCF=35=?2JK382_357!4}M7.9J.d4e=?JM`.[5[84Ja3-4
j J2357.4[^:i2[H!C-N9J=JVHS`.MT382[q>2aCF4*C=38Cq=J.H!`.MT39J.M4
Yg
HiQZu'
'
'"
?%Y Q
'
Z9p!=?>=3gve382;2G!Gc2C54M7V9J!d4-Ci=J_M`![5[84Ja3":<7.4J=3C%M2[54hpc4-M2u64-Cxu@9dJ!438=?M-9>?>vbC8938`![9354*Hj
Iml9J=JVHS`.MT382(
[ C%=J.H!`.MT39J.M4M7.9J!d4-C-N357!4-J_=3C%[84-9MT389J.MF
4 9J.H}=?u;Gc4-H.9J.M(4 i382ez(oM`![5[84Ja3%M7.9J!d4*C
9Cx:i4>?>sjJ}9@M=[M`!=3<:<=387_9;M2J.CF389Ja3xL2>389d4CF2`![8M4N387!=?Cx:<=?>?>n[54*CF`.>3%=?J}9@M7V9J!d4'=?J_M`![8[54-Ja3B
L
load
If L changes in inductance,
ZL will correspondingly
change, thus changing the
circuit current.
zC8938`![89p!>?4e[54*9M352[qM9G.=39>?=-4-C]2J357!=DCq44-MT3;pv\m/2[8M=J!dE357!4bm/4[8[52u69dJ!435=DM@M2[54@=?Ja3529\Cg39354b2m
C8935`.[8935=?2J:<=357@9hCg38[52J!d(u@9dJ!438=?M#.4->?Hqd4-J!4[9384-H]pv^M`![8[54-J3357.[52`!d7;9J!2357!4-[O:<=?J.HS=?J!d.jAx7!4x[84-9M352[- C
Gc2:i4[ :<=J.H!=J!dq=?C"357.4(2J.4'M9[5[8v=J.d357!4z(oQ>2a9H@M`![5[84Ja3*Na9J.H6357.4 M2Ja35[82> :<=?J.HS=?J!d^=DC"2J!4'M-9[8[5v=?J!d
96+o~M`.[5[84Ja3%Cg38[52J!d;4J!2`!d7t352eHS[8=?L4h357!4M2[84'=?Ja352@C8935`.[8935=?2Jn
saturable reactor
load
A 7!4eCF35[9J!d4I>22wa=?J!db35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[]CFvuqpV2>"CF7.2:<J=?Jr357!4e9pV2L46C8M7!4-u6935=DM;[54-G![54*CF4-Ja38C]9_C8935`.[89p!>4?
x
M2[54t[54*9M352[*N357!4`!G.GV4-[;:<=?J.HS=?J!drpV4-=J.d\387!4_+oM2Ja35[82>i:<=?J.HS=?J!dr9J.H387!4}>2:i4[;pV4-=J.d\387!4 GV2:i4[
:<=?J.HS=?J!dK357![82`.d7:<7!=DM7Q387!4EM2Ja35[82>?>4*HQz(oM`![8[84Ja3ed24-C-jJ.M[54*9C54-Hy+oM2Ja35[82><M`![8[84Ja3eG![82H!`.M4*C
u62[84<u@9dJ.435=DMx.`!6=?J6357.4([84-9M352[fM2[84NaHS[8=L=?J!d=3#M>?2C54[l382q9]M2J.HS=35=?2J@2m{C5935`![938=2JnN387a`VC#HS4*M[84-9CF=?J!d
357.4%GV2:i4[l:<=?J.HS=?J!dV Cl=?J.HS`VMT389J.M4NHS4*M[84-9CF=?J!d=3Cl=?u;Gc4-H.9J.M4N9J.H;=?J.M[84-9CF=?J!dM`![8[54-Ja3l352357.4%>2a9HjAx7`.CN
357.4+o~M2J38[52>M`![8[54-Ja3x=DC%9p!>4h382;4S4[53 X . R5X 2L4-[i357!4z(oM`![8[54-Ja3<H!4>?=L4[84-Hb352;357!4]>?29Hj
Ax7!4hM=?[8M`!=3xCF7.2:<J@:#2`!>?He:#2[5wNp.`S3i=3#:i2`.>?H@J.23#:i2[8w;L4[8v;:#4->>sjlAx7!4%.[CF3#G![82p!>?4uB=DCf387!4'JV935`.[89>
35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[9M35=?2J2m.387!4iC8938`![9p!>?4#[84-9MT382[*z(oM`![8[84Ja3{387![52`!d7^357!4xGc2:#4-[O:<=?J.HS=?J!dh:<=>?>35[8v352h=?J.HS`.M4
M`.[5[84Ja3=J\357!4@M2Ja35[82>:<=J.H!=J!dVNn:<7!=DM7\u@9vEM9`.C5435[82`.p!>4;=?J\387!4@+oGV2:i4[CF2`![M4jz(>?C52.NnC8938`![9p!>?4
[84-9M352[8Cf354JVHe382;[84d`!>D9354hz(oyGc2:#4-[i2J!>?v@=Jt2J!4HS=?[54*MT35=?2J{=?J}2J!4h7.9>mO2mn357.4z(oMvSM>?4N387!4u69dJ!435=DM
.4->?Hm/2[M4*Chm/[52upc2357K:<=?J.HS=?J!dC]9H!H=Jr387!4@2387!4[]7.9>mgNO357.4v\C5`!pS38[89MT3-jeAx7`.C-Nn387!4eM2[54;:<=?>>l384J.H382
pc4@u;2[54@C8938`![89354*HE=?Jr2J!4@7.9>mi2mi357!4ez(oMvSM>?46357.9J\387!4@2387!4[*N{GV9C8CF=?J!dM`![8[54-Ja3u62[5464-9CF=?>?vE=Jr2J.4
(''#

%' Si
HS=?[54*MT38=2Jb387.9J}357.4]2357.4[*j0.2[535`!JV9354->vNSpV2357G![82p!>?4u@C<M-9J}pV4]2L4[M2u64h:<=387_9q>?=3F35>?4]=?J!d4-Ja`.=3gv
load
1 235=DM4x387!4%G!>D9M4u64Ja3"2mV387!4%G!7.9CF=?J!dHS238C"2J;357!4%3g:#2][84-9MT352[8C-387!4%Gc2:#4-[l:<=J.H!=J!daC"9[54 =J6G!7.9CF4
%
:<7!=?>46387!4bM2Ja35[82>:<=?J.HS=?J!dC9[54 2`S32miG!7V9C54j Imxpc2357[84-9MT382[Ch9[546=DHS4Ja38=?M-9>sNO9JvEL2>389d46=JVHS`.M4*H
=?JE357.46M2Ja35[82>O:<=JVHS=J.dChpv_>2a9HEM`![5[84Ja3'357![82`!d7_357.4;Gc2:i4[h:<=J.H!=J!daC(:<=?>?>fM9JVM4>2`!3'382t-4[82t93h357.4
p.93F354-[5v;384[8u;=?J.9>?C-N387`.Ci4>?=u6=?J.938=J!d^357!4'.[Cg3iG![82p!>?4uu64Ja35=?2J.4-Hjl0!`.[F387!4[8u62[84NCF=?J.M4(357!4+]oyM2Ja38[52>
M`.[5[84Ja3h357![82`!d7pc2387K[54*9MT382[C(G.[52SHS`.M4-Chu@9dJ!438=?Mq.4->?H!C=?JHS=c4-[54-J3HS=?[84-MT38=2J.Ch357.[52`!d7\357!4@[84-9MT352[
M2[54*CN#2J!4_[84-9MT382[6:<=>?>(C8938`![89354u62[84=J2J.4MvSM>?4_2mh357!4Ez(oGV2:i4[6:<7!=?>?4357!4E2357!4-[@[54*9M352[6:<=?>>
C8935`.[893546u62[84;=?Jr357!4@2357!4-[-Nn357`.C](4 `V9>?=-=J!d}387!4eM2J38[52>l9MT38=2Jr357![82`!d74*9M77.9>m IMvSM>?4eCF2}357V93]357.4
z(oyGc2:#4-[#=DC 387![523F38>4*H C5vu6u;435[8=?M-9>?>vjAx7.=?CiG!7.9CF=?J!d;2mOM2Ja35[82>c:<=?J.HS=?J!dCxM9Jbpc4h9MM2u6G!>?=?C57!4-Hb:<=387
3g:i26C54GV9[9354[84-9MT352[8Ci9C(CF7!2:<J{NS2[<=?J96C5=J.d>?4][54*9MT382[<HS4*CF=?dJ}:<=387_=Ja384>?>=?d4-J3%>D9v2`S3x2m357!4]:<=?J.HS=?J!dC
9JVHtM2[84j
935`![9p!>?4;[54*9MT382['354*M7!J!2>?2dv_7.9C4-L4-Jpc44-Ju6=?J!=?935`![8=?4-H382t387!4@M=?[8M`!=3 IpV2a9[HE>?4L4->l=JM2u6G.9M3
Y c UR WTj~;Gc4[CF2J.9>?>v.J.HQ357!=DC@382KpV4_mZ9C5M=JV935=?J!dV
G.9Mw9d4*Cqu62[54d4-J!4[9>?>?vwJ!2:<Jy9C Y - U sZ

357.4q4c4*MT3]2m#9u6G!>=VM-935=?2Jy/2J!4q4->4*MT38[5=DM9>C5=dJ.9>M2Ja35[82>?>=?J!dt9J!2387!4[TTNJ!2[5u@9>>?v[5(4 `.=[8=J.de357.4q`.C54;2m
G!7vSCF=DM9>>?vem/[9d=>?4L9M`.`!u38`!pc4-C%2[%4>?4-M35[8=?M-9>?>v m/[9d=?>?4 CF4-u6=?M2J.HS`VMT352[%HS4L=DM4*CNcM9Jpc4[84-9>?=?4-H}=?J_9
HS4-La=DM4(pV2357@G!7vSCF=DM9>>?vq9J.H64>?4-M35[8=?M-9>?>vq[5`.dd4*HjE9dJ!438=?M%9u6G!>=.4-[8CfH!27.9L4%H!=?C89HSL9J39d4-C2L4-[357!4-=[
u62[84;m/[89d=?>46M2`!Ja354[8G.9[F3CNJ.9u64>?vC5=-4Nn:i4=?d7a3-N{J!2J!>?=?J!4-9[5=3gvN{9J.Hp.9J.H!:<=?H387m/[8B4 a`!4JVMv\[84-C5Gc2J.C54*N
p!`S3357.4=?[`!3F354-[C5=?u;G.>=DM=3gvCg38=>?>SM2u;u@9J.H!C9(M4-[F39=?J^HS4-d[844f2mV9G!G.[54*M=D935=?2J{N*=m.J!23OG![9M35=DM9>a9G!G!>?=?M-935=?2J{j
935`![9p!>?4 M2[54'[54*9M352[Ci9[84h>?4-C8C<M2u6u;2J!>?vewJ!2:<J}9C C8938`![89p!>?4 M2[84%=?J.HS`.M352[8C 2[] R .W * XR WTj
b't'
A{[9J.CFm/2[8u64[CxM9J_pc4`.C54-H}382@35[9JVCgm/2[5u=?u6GV4*H!9JVM4^9C%:i4>?>{9C<L2>389d49JVH}M`![8[54-J3*j#7.4J_387!=?C
=?C<HS2J!4h352@=?u6G![52L4'Gc2:i4[i35[9J.CFm/4[x382e9;>2a9HNS=3%=?C<M-9>?>4*H\ Y.U> UqY aj
!R !W XRTY@UR V #A%n=DC9(C5GV4*M=D9>=JVCg38[5`!u64-J335[9JVCgm/2[5u64[HS4-C5=?dJ!4*H352hG![82La=DHS4"9'G![84-M=?C54

z <X U .sV e
L2>389d4Cg384GHHS2:<Jt[8935=?2qm/2[<L2>38u;4354-[8Cxu64-9CF`.[5=?J!d;7!=d7tGc2:i4[%C5vCF354-uL2>39d4-C-j
zP SRTR5U V SR !W XRTY@UR soiA%f=?C#9J!2357!4-["CFGc4-M=?9>V=?J.CF35[8`!u64Ja3f38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-["HS4-C5=?dJ!4*H;352^CF354-GbHS2:<J

357!4M`![5[84Ja3i357![82`.d79qGc2:i4[<>?=J!4382@9;C89m/4>?4L4>m/2['9J9u6u64354-[x3526u64-9CF`![84j
z%JU RT XR8U 35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[x=DC<2J!4>D9Mw=?J!d;9qm/4-[5[82u@9dJ!438=?MhM2[54j
z .U W P X =DC9[54*CF2J.9Ja3*NO9=?[/IM2[84NnCF354Gs`!GK38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[HS4-C5=?dJ!4*H\382_G![82H!`.M4@L4[8v\7!=?d7z(o
L2>389d4*C#93%7!=d7bm/[84Ba`!4-J.Mvj
"% Y
aS
@
"%%Y
z?W SR UR5U XR =DC<9qC5Gc4-M=D9>c3gvGc4h2m{=?J.HS`.M352[*N357.4h=?J.HS`VMT389J.M4h2m:<7!=DM7tM9Jbpc4]M2Ja38[52>>?4-H@pv

357!4<+]oM`![5[84Ja3357.[52`!d7;9hC54-M2J.Hq:<=?J.HS=?J!d]9[82`!J.H^357.4xC89u64<M2[54j{=357@4-J!2`!d7q+]oM`![8[54-J3*N357.4
u69dJ!435=DM#M2[84iM-9JqpV4%C8938`![89354*HNHS4-M[54*9C5=J.d%357.4<=J.H!`.MT39J.M4i2m.387!4xGV2:i4[:<=?J.HS=?J!d=J69'M2Ja35[82>?>?4-H
mZ9C57!=2Jnj
l]i<Q<q_(lh;
z(C7.9CO9>[84-9HSvhpV4-4J;2p.C54[8L4*HN38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8C{u^`.CF3pV4xHS4-C5=?dJ!4*Hm/2[lC5GV4*M=VMfG!`.[5Gc2C54-CO=Jq2[HS4[O352h9M7!=?4L4
d22SHKGc2:#4-[qM2`!G!>?=J.d\9J.H[54(`.=[84-HKL2>389d4@[54-d`!>D938=2JnjEAx7!4-[54t=?CqJ!2 2J!4bC5=?4e.38C;9>?> 38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[
HS4*CF=?dJnNc9J.HEJ!4L4[%:<=?>>OpV4j%JE9H.HS=38=2J_352b:<=J.H!=J!db=J.H!`.MT39J.M4q9JVHu69dJ!435=DMM2`!G!>?=J.d@G.9[9u64384[CNV9
[84-9>!35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[lu^`VCg3ipV4(H!4-C5=dJ!4-H;382^M9[5[8v]357.4(4SGc4-M354-H6L9>`!4*Cf2mM`![8[54-J3f:<=357.2`S3#9Jv^38[52`!p!>?4jAx7!=?C
u64-9J.C357.4%:<=JVHS=J.dM2JVHS`.MT382[Cu^`.CF3"pc4%u@9HS4<2mV387!4%G![82Gc4[lda9d4i:<=?[84x3529L2=?H;9Jvq7!4-935=?J!d]G![82p!>?4u@C-j
,%4-[54;=DC'v43]9J!2357!4-[hH!4-C5=dJ\G.9[89u;4354-[(387.93u@9w4*C9 2J!46CF=?4q!38C9>> =DHS4*9>35[9J.CFm/2[8u64['=u6Gc2C8CF=?p!>?4
352@M2J.CF35[8`.MT3*j
z(H.HS=38=2J.9>?>?vNS:<=?J.HS=?J!d@M2JVHS`.MT382[x=?J.CF`.>?935=?2J}=?C<96M2J.M4-[5Jt:<7!4[847!=?d7}L2>389d4*C#9[54h4J.M2`!Ja384[84-HN!9C
357.4v@2m384J9[84(=?J}CF354-H
G I`!Gt9J.HbCF354-H
G IH!2:<JbGc2:#4-[iHS=DCF35[8=p!`!35=?2Je38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8C-jO1(23<2J.>veHS2q357.4':<=?J.HS=?J!dC
7.9L4'382@pV4]:i4>?>n=?J.C5`!>?9354*Hbm/[82u357!4=?[82JM2[84NSp.`S3(4-9M7t:<=?J.HS=?J!d@7.9Ci352@pc4CF`!@M=4-Ja35>?vb=?J.CF`.>?9354-Htm/[82u
357.4]2357.4[<=?J}2[8H!4[i352@u@9=?Ja389=J}4>?4-M35[8=?M-9>=DCF2>?935=?2Jbpc43g:i44-J:<=J.H!=J!daCj
i4v2J.Hb357!4qM2JVM4[8J2m:<=JVHS=J.dbM2J.HS`.M352['9u6G.9M=3gv}9J.H}=?J.C5`!>?935=?2JL2>39d4h[938=J.dC-N!:#4]7V9L4357.4
u@9dJ!438=?M.`SE>?=u6=38938=2J.Ch2ml387!4@M2[84j0!2[(m/4-[5[82u@9dJ!435=DMM2[54]38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8C-Nc:#4qu^`.CF3hpc4;u;=?J.Hm/`.>l2m
357.4eC5935`![938=2J\>?=u6=38C]2m#387!4eM2[54K
j <4-u64u^pc4[357.93]m/4[8[52u69dJ!435=DMu@9384[8=?9>?C]M-9J!J.23CF`.G!GV2[F3]=?JS.J!=354
u@9dJ!438=?Mi.`!6HS4-J.C5=38=4*CO357!4-v^384J.H;382 C8938`![9354 93"9M4[5389=?J6>4-L4->{ZHS=DMT39384-H6pv^387!4%u@9384[8=?9>.9JVH;M2[84
HS=?u64J.C5=2J.CTNfu64-9J!=?J!dE387.93;m/`![5357!4-[q=?J.M[84-9CF4*C=?Ju@9dJ!438=?Mb.4->?Hm/2[M4tH!2\J!23;[84-C5`!>3q=?JG![82Gc2[535=?2J.9>
=?J.M[84-9CF4*C#=?Ju@9dJ.435=DMh.4->?Ht.`Sjf1(2[8u69>>?vN38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[<HS4-C5=dJ!4[Cx[9354h387!4M2[54*C<M2JVCF4-[5L938=L4>?veCF2@9C
352@9L2=DHt9G!G![829M7.=J!d^357!4*CF4]>?=?u;=38C-j
Imh9\35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[* C^G![8=?u69[5vK:<=?J.HS=?J!dK=?C;2L4[8>2a9HS4*H3522Ku^`VM7yM`![5[84Ja3TTNl387!4[84tu@9vpc4_4!M4*C5C5=?L4
>?4L4->?C2mcu@9dJ!435=DMi.4>DHqm/2[M4<=?u;Gc2C54-H;2J^387!4(M2[54<93fGV4*9wû62u;4-Ja38C2mc357.4(z(oC5=?J!4:x9L4xMvSM>?4NaHS[8=L=?J!d
=3h382}C8938`![935=?2J{jh7.4J357!=DCh7.9G!Gc4JVCN387!4;L2>389d4q=J.H!`.M4*HE=?J\387!4;C54-M2J.H.9[8v}:<=?J.HS=?J!d}:<=>?>J!2}>2J!d4-[
u@93M7357!4}:x9L4 C57.9Gc4b9C^357.4tL2>389d4eGc2:#4-[5=?J!d_387!4tG.[5=?u@9[8vKM2=?>jrJ2357!4-[q:i2[H!C-N357!4}2L4-[5>?29HS4-H
35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[(:<=>?> DWT XR {387!4^:x9L4*CF7.9GV4hm/[82uG![8=u@9[5vb352bC54-M2J.H!9[5vt:<=JVHS=J.dC-NcM[54*935=?J!d@7.9[5u62J!=?M-C%=?J
357.4bCF4*M2J.H!9[8vE:<=?J.HS=?J!d. C]2`S35G!`!3-j_z(C^:#4eHS=DC8M`.C8CF4*HrpV4m/2[84N7.9[8u62J!=DM6M2Ja384Ja3^=?Jz(oGc2:#4-[^C5vCF354-u@C
3gvG!=DM9>?>?vbM9`.CF4*CxG![82p!>?4u@C-j
<4*CFGc4-M35=?J!d6357!4*CF4]>?=?u;=38935=?2J.C-NS38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[8Cx9[84[89354*Hem/2[(M4-[F39=?Jt>?4L4>DCx2mG![5=?u@9[8vb9JVH}C54-M2J.H.9[8v
:<=?J.HS=?J!dL2>389d4b9J.HM`.[5[84Ja3-N387!2`.d7387!4M`![8[54-Ja3^[8935=?J!d\=DC;`.C5`.9>?>vHS4-[5=?L4*HKm/[82u9\L2>3 9u6G/z'
[935=?J!d9C8C5=dJ!4-H352K387!4_35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[*j0!2[e4!9u6G!>?4N#389w4E9KCF354
G IHS2:<Jy38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[;:<=3579rG![8=?u69[5v
L2>39d4h[938=J.d@2Q
m L2>38C-N.9@C54-M2J.H!9[5veL2>389d4[8935=?J!d@2
m 6L2>38C-N.9JVH_96z[938=J.d@2
m ]wz
z'TjVAx7!4]u@9S=uq`!u:<=?J.HS=?J!deM`.[5[84Ja38C<M-9J}pV4H!4354-[5u6=?J!4-H9CiC5`.M7n
1000 VA
120 V
= 8.333 A (maximum primary winding current)
1000 VA
48 V
= 20.833 A (maximum secondary winding current)
2u;435=?u64-Cx:<=?J.HS=?J!dC<:<=?>?>npV4*9[%M`![5[84Ja3<[935=?J!daCx=J_9u6G.C-N!p!`!3<357!=DC<=DCx3gvG!=?M-9>?>vtCF4-4J2J_C5u69>>38[89J.C
m/2[8u64[CjlO9[8d4'35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[C#9[54]9>?u62CF3%9>?:i9vSCi[89354*Hb=?Jb384[8u@C<2m:<=J.H!=J!d@L2>389d49J.Htz2[<wz^j
(''#

%' Si %E#
7!4-Jb38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[8C#35[9JVCgm/4-[iGc2:i4[*N387!4vtHS2@CF26:<=3579qu6=?J!=?u^`!u2mO>?2C8C-jz'C<=3x:x9CxCF389354-Ht4-9[5>?=?4[*N
u62SHS4[8JEGc2:#4-[<35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[(H!4-C5=dJ.C<3gvG!=DM9>>?v4!M4-4-H_a4eM=?4J.Mvj(I3h=?C(d22SH352bwaJ.2::<7.4[84qC52u64
2m357.=?Cx>?2CF3%GV2:i4[xd2a4*CNS7.2:#4-L4[*N9J.H}:<7.93<M-9`.C54-Cx=3<3526pc4]>2aCg3*j
Ax7!4-[54;=?C-N2mxM2`![8C54NGc2:i4[h>2aCg3HS`!4;382t[84-C5=?CF389J.M4;2m"357!4@:<=?[54;:<=?J.HS=?J!dC-jq(J!>4*C5C]C5`!Gc4[M2J.HS`.M35=?J!d
:<=?[54*C(9[84`.C54-HnN.387!4[84^:<=?>>9>?:x9vC%pV4qGV2:i4[hHS=?C8C5=G.9354*H_=JE357!4^m/2[8u|2ml7!4-93(357.[52`!d7387!4^[84-C5=?CF389J.M4^2m
M`.[5[84Ja3 M9[5[8v=J.deM2JVHS`.MT382[Cjq#4*M9`.CF4q35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[C%[8B4 a`!=?[84;C5`.M7\>?2J.dt>?4J!d357.Ch2m#:<=?[54N357!=DC>2aC5ChM9J
pc4h9qCF=?dJ!=VM-9Ja3"mZ9MT352[-jJ.M[54*9C5=J.d]357!4hd9d4%2m357!4h:<=?J.HS=?J!dq:<=?[84(=DC#2J!4(:x9v;352qu;=?J!=?u6=-4(387!=?Ci>?2C8CNap!`S3
2J.>ve:<=357_C5`!p.CF389J38=?9>=JVM[84-9C54-Ci=?J_M2CF3-N!C5=?4NV9J.Ht:#4-=d7a3-j
<4*CF=DCg38=L4>?2C8CF4*C%9C5=?H!4NV357!4qp!`!>?w}2m35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[%Gc2:#4-[(>?2C8C%=DC(HS`.4352tu@9dJ.435=DM]4c4*MT38C'=?J_357!4;M2[54j
4[87.9G.Cq357!4Eu62aCg3eC5=dJ!=cM9Ja3e2m'387!4-C54 M2[84t>?2C8CF4*C =DC U SRTR5U . X WWTN<:<7!=DM7y=DC6[84-C5=?CF35=?L4Gc2:#4-[
HS=DC5C5=?G.938=2JHS`!4b352357!4tG.9C8C59d4e2m%=JVHS`.M4*HM`![5[84Ja3C]357.[52`!d7387!4b=?[82J2m<357!4M2[54ji4-M-9`.C54b=?[52J=?C
9M2J.HS`.M352[@2m]4>?4-M35[8=?M=3gvy9C6:i4>?>(9C@pc4=?J!d9J4!M4->>?4Ja3 M2J.H!`.MT382[ 2mhu@9dJ!438=?M}V`SNx357!4-[54_:<=?>>
pc46M`![8[54-J3C(=?J.HS`VM4-H\=J357.4q=?[52Jeg`.CF39C(357!4-[5469[84qM`![8[54-J3C(=?J.HS`VM4-H=?JE357.46C54-M2J.H.9[8vt:<=?J.HS=?J!dC'm/[82u
357.4t9>354-[5JV935=?J!d_u@9dJ!438=?M@.4>DHj\Ax7!4*CF4t=JVHS`.M4*HM`![8[84Ja38C]\m/2>?>2:<=?J!d387!4bGc4[8GV4-J.HS=DM`!>D9[8=3gvrM>?9`.CF4b2m
s X q354JVH;352^M=[M`!>D9384x357![82`.d76357.4(M[82C8XC C54-MT38=2Jq2m357!4(M2[84
R n W%
e
yXFxi?U R5XY U Z< *
Gc4[8GV4-J.HS=DM`!>D9[8>v352h357!4<G.[5=?u@9[8v]:<=J.H!=J!d38`![8J.CjAx7!4-=[fM=[M`!>D9[u6238=2Jqd=L4-C387!4u357!4-=[l`!J`.C5`.9>SJ.9u64
>?=w4h4*H!HS=?4-C<=?J_96Cg38[54*9u2mO:x9354-[x357.93(M=?[8M`!>D9354[9387!4[i357V9Ju62L4h=J_CF35[9=?d7a3i>?=?J!4-C-j
[82Jr=?C9}mZ9=[M2J.H!`.MT382[2mi4->4*MT35[8=DM=3gvN{p.`S3^J!23^9Cd22SHK9C387!4eM2G!Gc4[2[9>?`!u6=J`!um/[52u:<7!=DM7
:<=?[546:<=?J.HS=?J!dC9[84q3gvaG.=?M-9>?>vEu@9HS4jeo#2J.C5B4 a`!4-Ja35>?vN357.4-C54 4-H!H!v\M`![8[84Ja38C uq`.Cg3]2L4[M2u64;CF=?dJ!=VM-9Ja3
4>?4-M35[8=?M-9><[84-C5=?CF389J.M4_9C6357!4-vQM=[M`!>D9384357![82`.d7y357!4EM2[84jJ2L4[M2u6=?J!d357!4E[84-C5=DCg39J.M4}2c4-[54*Hpv
357.4@=[82JnNn357!4-vHS=DC5C5=?G.9384;Gc2:i4[]=?J387!46m/2[8u2mi7!4*93*je,%4JVM4NO:#467.9L4@9}C52`.[8M4q2mi=?J!4eM=4-J.Mv=Jr357.4
35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[e357.93t=DCbHS=eM`!>3t3824->=?u6=J.9354jAx7!4\u@9=JCF35[9384dvy=?Ju6=38=da935=?J!d387!4-C54\:x9CF354m/`!>(4*H!HSv
M`.[5[84Ja38Ci=DCi3526m/2[5u387!4=[82JM2[54h=?J}u@9Jav6387!=?JC57!4-438C-N!4*9M7tC57!4-43%M2L4[84-He:<=357_9Jt=?J.C5`!>?935=?J!d6L9[8J!=?C57
C52q387.93(357!4M2[84h=DC%HS=?L=?H!4-H`!G=?J382eCFw=?J!JvtC5>=DM4*Cj#Ax7!4][54*CF`.>3%=DC<L4-[5vb>=3F38>4:<=DH387}=?J357.4M2[84hm/2[%4*H!HSv
M`.[5[84Ja38C#382eM=?[8M`!>?9354=?Jn
solid iron core

"eddy"
current
laminated iron core
Y J U M2[54*Cx>=?w4387!42J!4^C57!2:<Jt7.4[84^9[84]Cg39J.H!9[8H}=?JE9>?u62CF3(9>?>n>2Q
e
: sm/[8B4 a`!4JVMv@38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[8C-j
z%J.2357.4[*NC5=u6=?>?9[l354*M7!J!=A`.4xm/2[fu6=?J!=u6=?=?J!d4*H!HSv6M`![8[54-Ja3f>2aC5C54-C:<7!=DM76:#2[5wSCpc435354["m/2[f7.=d7Hm/[84Ba`!4-J.Mv
9G.G!>=DM935=?2J.Cx=DCi3526u@9w4h357!4M2[84'2`S3%2m=[82J}GV2:%H!4[<=?J.Cg384-9Hb2m{357.=J=?[52J}C57!4438C-jfn=?w4h357.4]>?9u;=?J.935=?2J
C57!4438C-NO387!4-C54bd[89J`!>4*C]2m%=?[82J9[84@=?J.HS=?La=DHS`.9>>?vM2a9354*HK=JQ9J4>?4-M35[8=?M-9>?>vr=?J.CF`.>?935=?J!d\u@9384[8=?9>N:<7!=DM7
u@9w4-C"357!4]M2[54'J!2JVM2JVHS`.MT38=L4'4!M4G!3#m/2[i:<=357.=Jt357!4:<=DH357}2mO4-9M7td[9J`!>?4j2:%HS4[84-H6=?[82JtM2[84-Ci9[84
2m384J}m/2`.J.H}=J}35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[C#7.9J.H!>=?J!d@[9HS=?*
2 sm/[5(4 a`!4J.Mv@M`![8[54-Ja38C-j
z%J.2357.4[ M2[846>2aC5C =DC357.93^2m<u@9dJ!438=?M S WT UR5U WDWTjEz(>>"m/4[8[52u69dJ!435=DM;u69354-[5=D9>DC354-J.Hr352\[54389=?J
C52u64;H!4d[844q2m"u@9dJ!435=?-938=2J9m354[4Gc2C5`![84382}9J\4384[8J.9>u@9dJ!438=?M^.4>DHjÂx7.=?C'354-J.HS4-J.Mv_382}CF389v
"% '
gh"%%
)
u@9dJ!438=-4-H=DCtM-9>?>4*H 7vSCF354[84-C5=DCN 9J.H=3}389w4-Ct9M4[5389=?J=?JL4-CF35u64-J3}=J~4J!4-[5dvQ3822L4[M2u64387!=?C

2G.GV2aCF=35=?2J382'M7.9J!d4f4-L4-[5v(35=?u;4#357.4"u@9dJ!438=?MV4>DHG![82SHS`.M4*Hpv'387!4"G.[5=?u@9[8v':<=?J.HS=?J!d'M7V9J!d4-CGc2>D9[8=3gv
3g:<=DM4_Gc4[ez(oMvSM>4TjAx7!=DC;3gvGV4_2mh>?2C8C@M9JQpc4_u6=38=da9354*H387![82`!d7Qd2a2SHyM2[54u@9384[8=?9>xC54>?4-M35=?2JnN
M7!22C5=?J!d;96M2[849>>?2v@:<=357>2:7vCF354-[54*CF=DC-j
AO[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[h4-J!4[8dv_>?2C8C54-Ch354-J.Hr352d43:i2[CF46:<=357K=JVM[84-9C5=?J!dbm/[8B4 a`!4-J.MvjbAx7!4eC5w=JK44-M3:<=387!=?J
:<=?J.HS=?J!dEM2J.HS`.M352[C[84-HS`.M4-C387!4e9L9=?>?9p!>?46M[52aC5C CF4*MT35=?2JV9>9[84-9tm/2[4->4*MT38[52J\.2:]N{357!4-[54-pv\=?J.M[84-9CF=?J!d
44-M35=?L4h[54*CF=DCF389JVM4'9C#357!4hm/[8B4 a`!4JVMv@d24*C"`!G9JVHbM[84-935=?J!dû62[54hGV2:i4[i>?2CF3#387![52`!d7t[54*CF=DCF35=?L4'H!=?C8CF=?G.*
9
35=?2J{jE9dJ!435=DM<M2[54x>?2C8CF4*Cl9[84x9>?C524!9dd4-[89354-H^:<=38767!=d7!4[fm/[5(4 `.4J.M=4*CN4*H!HSv6M`![8[84Ja38Cl9J.H^7vSCF354[84-C5=DC
44-M38C]pc4-M2u6=?J!dtu62[54@C54L4-[54jq0.2[357.=?C][84-9CF2JnNc35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[Ch2miC5=?dJ!=VM9Ja3C5=-4@9[846H!4-C5=dJ!4-H\3522G
4[9384b4@M=4-Ja35>?vr=?JQ9\>=?u6=384-HQ[89J!d4b2m<m/[8B4 a`!4JVM=?4-C-jJQu;2aCg36Gc2:#4-[qHS=DCg38[5=?p!`S38=2JQC5vSCg384u@C^:<7.4[84e357.4
>?=J!4Em/[5(4 `.4J.Mv=DCeL4-[5vyCg39p!>?4Nx2J!4E:i2`!>DHQ357!=?J!wy4!M4*C5C5=L4m/[5(4 a`!4J.Mv:i2`!>DHJ!4-L4[bGV2aCF4E9G.[52p!>4-uj
%J!m/2[535`!J.9354->vt=3(HS24*CNS=?J}357!4m/2[5u2m7V9[8u;2J!=DMCxM[84-9354-HtpveJ!2J!>=?J!4*9[<>?29H.Cj
z(C:#4 L4eCF4-4J=?J4-9[8>?=4-[M7.9GS384[CNJ!2J.CF=?J`.C52=DH!9>l:x9L4m/2[8u6C]9[54@(4 a`!=L9>4-J3]382\9H.HS=38=L4eCF4-[5=?4-C2m
u^`.>38=G!>?4C5=?Ja`VCF2=?H!9>%:x9L4m/2[5u@C@93tHS=c4-[54-J3}9u6G!>?=38`.HS4-C}9JVHym/[5(4 `.4J.M=4*CjJGc2:#4-[bCFvSCF354-u6C-Nx357.4-C54
2387!4[6m/[8B4 a`!4-J.M=?4-C69[54:<7!2>?4 sJ`!uqpV4-[;uq`!>35=?G!>4*C62mh357!4}m/`!JVH!9u64Ja39>^Z>=?J!4*qm/[8B4 a`!4-J.MvN"u64-9J!=?J!dr357.93
357.4v_:<=?>>l9>?:x9vC(pV4;7!=?d7!4-[-NJ!23'>?2:#4-[-NV357V9JE387!46HS4-C5=dJ_m/[8B4 a`!4JVMv_2ml387!4q35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*j'JrCF=?dJ!=VM-9Ja3
u64-9CF`![84NV357.4v_M9J\M9`.CF4;CF4-L4-[5438[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[(2L4-[57.4-938=J.d.j%2:i4[<38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[8C%M-9JEpc4;4J!d=J!4-4[84-H}382
7.9J.HS>?46M4[5389=Jr>4-L4->?Ch2miGV2:i4[]C5vSCg384u7.9[5u62J!=?M-CNn9J.H\357!=DC]M9G.9p!=?>?=3gvE=DC]C52u6438=u64-C]H!4J!2354-H:<=357K9
mZ9M352[ [8935=?J!d.j
z(C5=DHS4]m/[82uGc2:i4[%[938=J!daC%9JVHGV2:i4[<>?2C8CF4*CN.35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[Cx2m384J_7.9[5pc2[%2357!4-[%`!J.H!4-C5=[9p!>?4]>?=u6=3895
35=?2JVC<:<7!=DM7M=[M`.=3'H!4-C5=dJ!4[Cxu^`.CF3%pc4u@9HS49:x9[84'2mgj#{=w4357!4-=[(C5=?u;G.>4-[(M2`!Ja354[8G.9[F3C#b=J.H!`.MT382[C#
35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[C#4S7!=?p!=3(M-9G.9M=389J.M4hHS`!4352;387!4=J.C5`!>D938=2J}HS=?4>?4-M35[8=?Mhpc43g:i44-J}M2J.HS`VMT352[8C-Om/[52u:<=JVHS=J.d
352t:<=JVHS=J.d.Nc35`![8J_382e35`.[5JZ=Jr9eC5=J!d>4q:<=JVHS=J.daTN9J.H_:<=?J.HS=?J!de382tM2[54j((C5`.9>>?v}357!=DC'M-9G.9M=389J.M4=DC'2m
J!2;M2JVM4[8Je=?Jb9Gc2:i4[#9G!G!>?=?M-938=2JnNp!`S3<CFu@9>?>CF=?dJ.9>V9G!G!>?=?M-935=?2JVC(/4*CFGc4-M=?9>>?v6357.2C54(2mn7.=d7@m/[5(4 a`!4J.Mv!
u@9v\J!23352>4-[893546387!=?K
C a`!=?[5w:#4->>sj_z%>DCF2VNO387!4e4c4*MT3q2m<7.9L=J!dEM-9G.9M=389J.M4@9>?2J.d_:<=387357!4b:<=J.H!=J!daC
HS4*CF=?dJ!4*HE=?J.HS`.M389J.M4;d=?L4*C%38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[8C(357!469p.=>?=3gv382 R8U W X U 93]9bGV9[535=DM`!>D9['m/[5(4 a`!4J.MvNnHS4.J!=354->v
9HS4-C5=?dJM2J.M4[8J\=?JrC5=?dJ.9>9G!G!>?=?M-938=2J.C:<7!4[84q357!4@9G.G!>=?4-H\m/[8B4 a`!4JVMvEu@9v_[84-9M7\357!=DCGc2=?J3eZ`.CF`V9>?>v
357.4h[84-C52JV9Ja3#m/[8B4 a`!4-J.Mv@2m9qGV2:i4[i38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[#=DCx:#4->>pc4v2J.Hb357!4hm/[8B4 a`!4-J.Mv@2m{357.4z(oGV2:i4[x=3<:i9C
HS4*CF=?dJ!4*He382@2Gc4[9384'2JVTj
0>`!M2J39=?J!u64Ja3@/u@9w=?J!d}C5`![84;9t38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[- C(u@9dJ!435=DM.`!HS24-C5Jn 34*C5M-9Gc4;C529C'352=?J384[5m/4[84
:<=357_9J!2357!4-[<HS4L=DM4N!9J.Htu69w=J!d6C5`![542357!4-[xH!4L=?M4-C-Su@9dJ.435=DM'.`Sb=DC<C57!=4->?H!4-Hbm/[52u357!438[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[
M2[54#=?C<9J!2387!4[%M2J.M4[8J}C57.9[84-HbpV2357pve=?J.HS`.M352[C%9J.He38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8C-j
AO[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[8C'HS2t7V9L4qC52u64q`!J!A= `.46M2J.M4[8J.C-NV387!2`.d7nNnHS`.4q382b387!4;G![5=?2[8=3gv}2m#uq`S35`.9>=J.H!`.MT39J.M4
pc43g:i44JqG![8=u@9[8v]9J.HqCF4*M2J.H!9[8vh:<=J.H!=J!daCjJû@9Jav9G!G!>?=?M-938=2J.C{=3l=?CHS4*CF=?[9p!>?4f382'7.9L
4 M2`!G!>?=?J!d
pc43g:i44J^:<=J.H!=J!daCNC52<387.93O357!4#35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[n=DC9p!>?4f382'M>?4-9J!>?v'38[89J.CFm/4[{Gc2:i4[{pc43g:i44-J:<=?J.HS=?J!dCO:<=387!2`!3
9M35=?J!d^>?=?w49Je=?J.HS`.M352[-jl,%2:i4L4[*Na9Jv;u@9dJ!435=DM<.`SeJ.23<M2`.G!>4*Hepc43g:i44-Jb:<=?J.HS=?J!dC#=J}938[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[
=DCm/[54-46352EC5=u6G!>?vCF352[54@9J.Hr[54->4*9C54;4-J!4[8dvZ[89357!4-[]357V9Jr35[9J.CFm/4[]=3]m/[82u2J!4eM2=>f352_9J!2357!4-[jbz%Jv
4J.4[8dve387`.CF>?vCg382[84-H_9JVH[54->4*9C54-H}pvb387!=?C(`!J.M2`!G!>?4-H}V`S_u69J!=m/4-CF38C%=38C54>m"9C(9J_=?J.HS`.M389JVM4^=?JEC54[8=4*C
U j
:<=357}357!4]G.[52SHS`.M=J.d;:<=?J.HS=?J!dVjfAx7!=?C(Cg38[89v@=?J.HS`.M389J.M4]=DC<M9>>?4-H U -
U *
n4*9w9d4#=?J.HS`VMT389J.M4<7V9Cf9]HS435[8=u64-J39>!4c4*MT3f2J;L2>389d4x[54-d`!>D938=2JnjOi4*M9`VCF4x>?4-9w9d4x=JVHS`.MT39J.M4<=?C
4 a`!=?L9>?4Ja3{382'9J=JVHS`.MT39J.M4iM2J!J.4-MT384-H]=?J^C54[8=4*Cn:<=357^357!4#35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[* Cn:<=J.H!=J!dVN=3u@9J!=m/4-CF38CO=38C54>mV9CO9
B
C54[8=4*C=u6Gc4-H!9J.M4%:<=3576387!4%>?29HjAx7`.C-N387!4%u62[84%M`.[5[84Ja3fHS[9:<J;pv^357!4%>?29HN387!4<>?4-C8ClL2>39d4<9L9=?>D9p!>?4
93t357!4rCF4*M2J.H!9[8v:<=?J.HS=?J!d354[8u6=JV9>DCjB(C5`.9>?>vN<d22SHL2>39d4_[54-d`!>D938=2Jy=DC}HS4-C5=[84-H=J38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[
HS4*CF=?dJnNxp!`!3e357!4-[54E9[544SM4GS38=2J.9>'9G!G!>?=DM938=2J.C-jz(Ce:i9CeCg39384-HypV4m/2[84N<HS=DC5M7V9[8d4}>=?d7a35=?J!dM=[M`!=38C
[8B4 a`!=?[54(9^Cg384H
G I`!G@38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[":<=357 >22C54 ZGV22[fL2>389d4%[84d`!>D935=?2J;382^4JVCF`![84%[84-HS`VM4-HeL2>389d4%9m354[
357.4]4-CF389p.>=DCF7.u;4-Ja3%2ml9J9[M(387![82`!d7t387!4]>D9u6Gnji'J!4:x9v@352@u64-43<357.=?C%H!4-C5=dJM[5=354-[5=?2Jt=?C<352@4J.d=?J!44-[
(''#

%' Si %E#
357.435[9J.CFm/2[8u64[<:<=357}.`S>4*9w9d4'GV9357VCxm/2[%u@9dJ!435=DM(V`St382@pvaGV9C8Ci357!4C54-M2J.H!9[5v@:<=?J.HS=?J!dcZCTj#Ax7.4
[84-C5`!>38=J.d(>?4-9w9d4fV`S:<=>?>G![82H!`.M4i>4*9w9d4f=?J.HS`.M389JVM4N:<7!=?M7q:<=>?>=J^35`![8J^G.[52SHS`.M4"387!4iGV22[[84d`.>?935=?2J
J!4-4-HS4*Hbm/2[%HS=DC5M7.9[5d4'>?=?d7a35=?J!d.j
b't'
2:#4-[35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[C;9[84b>?=u6=354-Hy=?J387!4_9u62`.J3@2m(GV2:i4[;387!4vM-9J35[9J.CFm/4[;m/[82uG![8=?u69[5vr382
CF4*M2JVH!9[8vE:<=?J.HS=?J!dVC8jO9[8d46`!J!=38C;9[8463gvG!=DM9>?>?v\[9354*Hr=JzZL2>3 9u6G.Ch2[^wazZwa=?>?2EL2>/3
9u6G.CTj
<4-C5=?CF389J.M4q=J35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[h:<=?J.HS=?J!dCM2Ja35[8=p!`!354-C'382}=?J!4@M=4-J.MvN{9ChM`.[5[84Ja3:<=>?>fHS=DC5C5=GV9354;7!4*93-N
:i9Cg38=J!d;4J.4[8dvj
E9dJ!438=?M(44-MT3Cx=J9^35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[* C"=[82J}M2[84'9>?C52qM2Ja35[8=?p!`S354'352;=?J!4eM=?4JVMvjfz(u62J!dq357!44c4*MT38C
9[84 U SRTR5U .WZM=[M`!>D938=J.dt=?J.HS`.M35=?2JKM`![8[84Ja38Ch=?J\387!46=[82JrM2[84*'9JVH WT UR8U WTDW;ZGV2:i4[h>?2CF3
HS`!4h352@2L4[M2u6=?J!d387!4354-J.HS4-J.Mvt2mO=?[82Jt352@u@9dJ!438=-4h=?J_9;G.9[535=DM`!>D9[<HS=?[84-MT38=2JVTj
J.M[84-9CF4*Hm/[54(a`!4J.Mv][54*CF`.>3C{=?Jq=?J.M[54*9C54-H]Gc2:#4-[O>?2C8C54-CO:<=387!=J69'GV2:i4[O35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*j{Ax7!4xG![84-C54J.M4
2m7.9[8u62J!=DMC=?J9xGV2:i4[OCFvSCF354u=?C{9%CF2`![M42mm/[8B4 a`!4JVM=?4-CC5=dJ!=cM9Ja38>v'7!=d7!4[n357.9J]J!2[8u@9>sN:<7!=DM7
u69veM-9`.C542L4-[57!4*938=J!d;=?Jt>D9[8d4h35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[C-j
#2357r35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[C9J.Hr=?J.HS`.M352[8C]7V9[8pV2[M4[5389=Jr`!J.9L2=DH!9p.>4@9u62`!Ja38C2m%M-9G.9M=389JVM4@HS`!46382
:<=[84=?J.CF`.>?935=?2JHS=4->4*MT38[5=DM-'CF4-G.9[938=J.d@:<=J.H!=J!db35`![8J.C(m/[52u|357!4;=[82JEM2[84^9JVHm/[52u4-9M7\2357.4[*j
Ax7!=?C{M9GV9M=389J.M4fM-9Jpc4"CF=?dJ.=VM-9Ja3n4J.2`!d7'382%d=?L4387!4l38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[n9xJ.938`![89> R5U W X J. R5U? .U N
:<7!=?M7M9Jtpc4]G![82p!>?4u@935=DM'=?J_CF=?dJV9>n9G.G!>=DM935=?2J.C-j
c U =?CxM-9`.C54-Hbpav@u@9dJ!435=DM%.`!eJ!23xpV4-=J.dE M2`!G!>?4-HbpV43g:#4-4Jt:<=J.H!=J!daCi=J}9

U -
U 5
35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*jOz%Jv@V`SbJ!23x=?JL2>L4-H@:<=357K R .W URTR ah4-J!4[8dv6m/[82u2J!4h:<=J.H!=J!d;38269J!2387!4[x:<=?>>
Cg382[849J.H[84>?4-9CF4]4-J!4[8dvN!:<7!=DM7E=?C(7!2:ZC54>m%=J.H!`.MT39J.M4:#2[5wSC-j<n4-9w9d4=?J.HS`.M389J.M4^354JVH!C<382
:#2[8C54J}9^38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[- CiL2>39d4'[54-d`!>D938=2Jnj

"!$#&% '# (
*) +
t ;
]

r % b{
load
#1
load
#2
.-
+'4G!=DMT384-H@9pc2L4<=DC"9L4[8vqC5=?u;G.>4(z(oQM=[M`!=3-jIm357.4(>?29H;[84-C5=?CF352[- CGc2:#4-["HS=DC5C5=GV935=?2J@:i4[84%C5`!p.CF389J
35=D9>sNS:i4'u6=?d7a3xM-9>?>c357!=DCx9 GV2:i4[xM=?[8M`!=3 2[ Gc2:#4-[iC5vSCg384u =?J.CF354-9He2mO[84d9[8H!=J!d^=3<9COg`.CF3%9^[84d`!>?9[
M=?[M`!=3-j<Ax7!4^H!=?CF35=?J.MT38=2J_pV43g:#4-4JE9 GV2:i4[%M=[M`.=3 9J.H9 [54-d`!>D9[%M=[M`.=3 u69v}CF4-4u9[8p!=35[9[8vNSp!`S3
357.4]G![89MT38=?M-9>nM2J.M4-[5JVCi9[54]HS4 .J!=354->vtJ!23*j
/
'J!4(C5`.M7eM2J.M4[8J@=?C"357!4hCF=?4'9J.HeM2CF3"2mn:<=?[8=J!d^J!4-M4-C8C59[5v^352qH!4>?=L4["Gc2:i4[lm/[82uB357.4'z(oyC52`![M4x382
357.4>2a9Hjx1%2[5u@9>>?vN!:i4HS2eJ.23%d=?L4]uq`.M7357.2`!d73<382@357.=?C%3gvaGc42mM2J.M4[8J}=ml:#4 [84]u64[84>?vt9J.9>?v=?J!d
9EM=[M`!=3^m/2[^387!4tC89w4e2m<>?4-9[5J!=?J!d\9pV2`S3^387!4b>D9:%C2m%4>?4-M35[8=?M=3gvj\,%2:i4L4[*NO=?J357.4b[84-9>#:#2[5>DHK=3;M9J
pc4q9eu@9g2['M2J.M4[8Jnj<Im":i4d=?L4357!46CF2`![M4]=?J_357!469pc2L4M=[M`.=39eL2>39d4]L9>`.4q9JVH_9>DCF2ed=L4Gc2:#4-[
HS=DC5C5=?G.938=2JL9>?`!4*Ch352357.463g:#2>?29H[84-C5=?CF352[8C-N:#4@M-9JHS4384[8u6=J!46387!4@:<=?[5=?J!dJ!44*H!Chm/2[387!=DC]G.9[535=DM`.>?9[
M=?[M`!=3-
120 V
load
#1
load
#2
0P = 10 kW 0P = 10 kW

21
4365
(''"
I=
;I =
0P
total
87
:9
l"' y g
E
10 kW
120 V
;I = 83.33 A
;I
(for each load resistor)
Ptotal = (10 kW) + (10 kW)
= Iload#1 + Iload#2
Itotal = (83.33 A) + (83.33 A)
0P
total
= 20 kW
Itotal = 166.67 A
2< <=<
&> 1=1 121

:<2B=B
?>A@CB
.j q9u6G.Cim/2[%4*9M7}>2a9H}[84-C5=?CF352[x9H!H!C<`.Gt382
j
9u6G.Ci352389>{M=?[8M`!=3(M`![8[54-Ja3-j"Ax7!=DC<=DC<J!2@C5u69>>
9 u62`!Ja32miM`![5[84Ja3*N{9J.Hr:i2`!>DHJ!4-M4-C8CF=389354@M2G!GV4-[]:<=[84@M2J.HS`.M352[Ch2mx93>?4-9CF3

bda9d4j `.M7K:<=[84
=DC(:i4>?>2L4[
@GV2`!J.H!ChGc4['357!2`.C89J.Hm/4-43*j#4*9['=Ju;=?J.HE357.93
=JVM7E=JrHS=D9u64384[*Nc:i4=?d7.=J!db2L4[
M2G!Gc4[h=?ChJ!23M7!4*9GE4-=387!4[ I3h:i2`.>?H\pV4;=J2`![hpc4-CF3h=?Ja354[84-CF3h352 VJ.H\:x9vSC<382tu6=?J!=u6=?46CF`VM7\M2aCg3C'=m
:i4h:i4[84]HS4-C5=?dJ!=?J!d@9;GV2:i4[<C5vCF354-u:<=357>?2J!d@M2J.HS`.M352[i>?4J.d357VCj
D>A@
&>HB
FE
G/
'J!4e:x9v352\HS2\357!=DCq:#2`!>?HpV4b352\=?J.M[54*9C546357!4tL2>389d4e2mx357!4}GV2:i4[qCF2`![8M4b9JVH`.C54e>2a9H!C^p!`!=?>3
352EH!=?C8CF=?G.9354 }w 4-9M793]357!=DC]7!=?d7!4-[]L2>39d4jeAx7!4@>?29H.CNO2m<M2`.[8C54Nn:i2`.>?Hr7.9L4q382_7.9L46d[54*9354-[
[84-C5=?CF389J.M4#L9>`.4-CO352HS=DC5C5=GV9354"357!4<C89u64"Gc2:i4[9CpV4m/2[84' 'wa 4-9M7c{939(d[84-9384[L2>39d4f357.9J^pc4m/2[84j
Ax7!4@9H!L9Ja389d4q:i2`.>?H\pV4@>?4-C8CM`![8[54-Ja3h[84 a`!=?[54*HNnGc4[8u6=3535=?J!d}357!4@`.C54;2miC5u@9>?>4-[-N{>=?d7a354-[-Nn9J.HrM7!4-9GV4-[
:<=?[54
K240 V
I>HB
HJ
load
#1
load
#2
0P = 10 kW 0P = 10 kW
SR
365 3 ML ON QP
;I = VP
g <{ '
UT
"
10 kW
240 V
I=
I = 41.67 A
(for each load resistor)
0P
Itotal = Iload#1 + Iload#2
;I
total
XW WZY
= (10 kW) + (10 kW)
Ptotal = 20 kW
= (41.67 A) + (41.67 A)
Itotal = 83.33 A
total
=< <2<
>A@CB
1%2:~2`![ X M=?[8M`!=3%M`![5[84Ja3i=?C< !j ^9u6G.CNS7V9>m{2m:<7.93<=3x:x9Cipc4m/2[54jr4]M9JtJ!2:~`.CF4hJ`!u^pc4[

d 9d4b:<=?[54N":<7!=DM7y:#4-=d7.C^>?4-C8Cq357.9JQ7V9>m'2mh:<7.93
\da9d4b:<=?[54HS24-C;Gc4[@`!J!=3@>4-J!d387njQAx7.=?C6=DC69

M2J.C5=?HS4-[89p!>?4E[54*HS`.M35=?2J=?JC5vCF354-uM2CF3b:<=357J!2QHS4-d[9H!935=?2J=?JGV4-[Fm/2[5u@9J.M4jAx7!=DCb=DCt:<7avyGc2:#4-[
HS=DCg38[5=?p!`S38=2JbM2u6G.9J!=?4-C"4>?4-M3"35235[9J.C5u6=3i4>?4-MT38[5=DM<Gc2:#4-["`.C5=?J!dL4-[5v;7!=?d7eL2>389d4-C<Zu@9Jv;357!2`.C59J.H!C"2m
L2>3C8352eM9G!=389>?=?42Jt357!4C89L=J.dCi[54*9>?=-4-Htpv@357!4]`VCF42mlC5u69>>?4[*NS>?=d7384[*N!M7!4-9GV4-[x:<=[84j
%2:i4L4[*Ni357!=DCCF2>`S38=2J=?CtJ!23}:<=357!2`S3}H!=?C89HSL9J39d4-C-jz%J!2357!4-[tG.[89MT35=DM9>'M2J.M4[8J:<=387Gc2:#4-[
M =?[M`!=38Cq=?C^357.4}H!9J!d4-[^2m(4>?4-M35[8=?MtCF7!2SMwm/[52u7!=d7L2>39d4-C-jz%da9=?JnN357.=?Cq=?C;J!23q`.C5`.9>>?vr357!4CF2[F3q2m
357.=J!d;:i4'M2J.M4-Ja35[9354(2Je:<7!=?>?4'>?4-9[5J!=?J!d;9pc2`S3#357!4h>?9:%C#2mn4->4*MT38[5=DM=3gvNp!`S3x=3i=DC#9^L4-[5v6L9>?=?HbM2JVM4[8Je=?J
357.4[54*9>:i2[8>?HnNS4-C5GV4*M=D9>?>vt:<7!4J>D9[8d4]9u62`.J3Cx2mGV2:i4[%9[54pc4=?J!deHS4*9>3%:<=387nj#Ax7!4]da9=?J=J4 eM=4-J.Mv
[84-9>?=?4-Hqpv^CF354G.G!=J.dh`.Gq387!4%M=?[M`!=3fL2>39d4iG![84-C54Ja38C`.Cf:<=387;=?J.M[54*9C54-H^H.9J!d4[2m4>?4-M35[8=?MxC57!2SMwcj2:i4[
HS=DCg38[5=?p!`S38=2JbM2u6G.9J!=?4-Cl389Mw>?4<357.=?C#G![82p!>?4uBpv;CF35[8=J.d=?J!d357!4-=[iGc2:#4-[f>=?J!4*C"9>?2J.d7!=?d7@Gc2>?4-Cf2[f382:#4-[8C-N
9JVHb=?J.C5`!>?935=?J!d6357.4]>=?J!4-Cim/[82u357!4C5`!G!Gc2[535=?J!d@CF35[8`.MT38`![54*Ci:<=387_>?9[5d4NGV2[8M4>D9=?Jb=?J.C5`!>?9352[8C-j
]\
^[
\
zi3l357.4<GV2=Ja3f2m`.C54]357.4%4>?4-M35[8=?MiGc2:#4-[fM`.CF352u;4-[N357.4[84<=?CfCF35=?>?>S357!4<=DC8CF`!4x2mc:<7.93fL2>39d4#352]`VCF4xm/2[
Gc2:#4-[5=?J!d>2a9H!C-j %=?d7@L2>39d4id=L4-Cd[54*9354-[fCFvSCF354-u4 @M=4-J.Mvqpvqu64-9J.Cl2m[84-H!`.M4*H;M2J.H!`.MT382["M`![5[84Ja3*N
p!`S3x=3#u6=d7a3#J!23i9>?:x9vCfpV4'G![89MT38=?M-9>!382^w44GbGV2:i4[f:<=?[8=J!dq2`S3i2mn[84-9M7693"387!4'Gc2=?Ja3#2mn`.CF4(357!4':i9v;=3
M9Jtpc4]4>?4L9354-Ht2`!3%2mO[84-9M7t=?JHS=?CF35[8=?p!`S35=?2J_C5vSCg384u@CjlAx7!=DCx38[89HS42EpV43g:#4-4J}4 eM=?4J.Mvt9J.HtH.9J!d4[x=?C
2J.4%357V93 f`![82Gc4-9J@GV2:i4[iCFvSCF354uH!4-C5=dJ!4[Cf7.9L4(HS4*M=DHS4-He352^[8=DCFwN9>?>V387!4=?[i7!2`.C547.2>DH!C#9J.He9G!G!>?=?9J.M4*C
2Gc4[938=J.dE93q9J!2u6=J.9>"L2>389d462m tL2>38C]=?J.CF354*9HK2m L2>3C9C=3^=DC=?J1%2[F387z%u64[8=DM9!jAx7.93
=DCq:<7v382`![8=DCg3C^m/[82uz(u64[8=?M-9\L=DCF=35=?J!d f`![82Gc4tuq`.CF3@M-9[8[5vKC5u69>>%CF354-G HS2:<J35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[C^m/2[;357!4-=[
Gc2[5389p.>4]9G.G!>=D9JVM4-C-N352@CF354-Gt387!4 ^z(o/L2>3C<z(oxiGV2:i4[<HS2:<Jt352e9;u62[84]CF`.=39p!>?4 qz(o'j
`_
Fd
B_
a
B
S> B
]\
.
e_ [
]\
b-
c> B
b-
gCl387!4[84'9Jvq:x9v382^[84-9>?=?4<387!4'9HSL9Ja389d4-Cf2mnpc2357b=J.M[54*9C54-H;4 eM=4-J.Mv@9JVH@[54*HS`.M4-H@C89m/43gv;7.9-9[H
9 3387!4<C59u;4#35=?u64 _'J!4xCF2>`!35=?2J;:#2`!>?H^pV4i382'=?J.CF389>?>!CF354G IHS2:<J^35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[C{93387!4x4J.H sGc2=?Ja32m.Gc2:#4-[
`.C54Ng`.CF39C<357.4qz%u64-[5=DM9J352`.[5=DCg3hu^`.CF3hH!2e:<7!=?>4q=J "`![82Gc4j (2:#4-L4[*NS387!=?C':i2`!>DH_pc4^4SGc4J.C5=?L4^9J.H
=?J.M2JaL4J!=?4Ja3m/2[#9Jva357!=?J!dp!`S3"L4[8v^C5u69>>S>?29H!C</:<7.4[84x357!4<38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8CM-9J;pV4%p.`!=>3#M7!4*9G!>?v!O2[lL4-[5v
>D9[8d4h>2a9H!C]Z:<7!4[84h357!4]4Gc4JVCF4]2m{357.=?Mw}M2G.GV4-[<:<=[84-Cx:i2`!>DHt4!M4-4-Hb357!4]4Gc4JVCF42ml9q35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[TTj
]\
b-
z%Jr9>354-[5J.935=?L4^C52>?`S38=2JE:#2`!>DH_pV4q352}`.C54q9b7!=d7!4[hL2>39d4^CF`.G!G!>?v352}G![52L=DHS4Gc2:#4-[%382b3g:i2b>?2:#4-[
L2>39d4e>2a9H!Cq=?JQC54[8=4*CjKAx7!=DC;9G!G![829M7M2uqp!=?J!4-C^357!4}4 eM=4-J.MvK2mh9E7!=?d7 IL2>39d4bCFvSCF354-u:<=357Q357.4
C89m/43gvb2ml9q>?2: IL2>389d4hCFvSCF354u
f-
4365
(''"
87 QP
:9
l ' y g
83.33 A
K240 V
load +120 V
#1 10 kW
-
K240+ V
load +120 V
#2 10 kW
-
83.33 A
hg i-
kj
1%235=DM4t357!4_Gc2>D9[8=3gvru@9[5w=?J!dC
9J.H ^m/2[;4*9M7QL2>389d4}CF7!2:<J{N#9C;:i4>?><9Cq357!4_`.J!=?H!=[84-M35=?2J.9>
9 [8[82:%C(m/2[M`![8[84Ja3-j .2[387!4@u62CF3G.9[53-NOT L4e9L2=DHS4*HE>D9pc4>?=J!d GV2>?9[5=35=?4-C =JK387!4ez(oM=[M`.=3C]:#4 L4

pc44J9JV9>?va-=J.d.Na4L4-J@357.2`!d7e357.4hJ.238935=?2Jt=?CiL9>?=?He352;G![82La=DHS4h9m/[9u64(2mO[84m/4-[54-J.M4(m/2[iG!7.9C54jJ}>?9354-[
C54-MT38=2J.Cq2m(387!=DC;M7V9GS384[*NlG!7.9C54}[54->?935=?2J.C57!=?G.C^:<=?>?>ipc4-M2u64}L4[8vK=u6Gc2[5389J3*N"C52T u=Ja38[52SHS`.M=J.d\387!=?C
J!238938=2Jt4*9[8>vb2J}=J}357.4M7.9GS384[im/2[(v2`.[#mZ9u6=>?=?9[5=3gvj
:> B
Ax7!4iM`![8[54-Ja3{357.[52`!d74*9M7>?29H]=DCn387!4iC89u64i9CO=3:i9C{=?J387!4xCF=?u6G!>4 <L2>3M=?[8M`!=3-Np!`S3357.4iM`![5[84Ja3C
9 [84(J.23%9H!H!=38=L4'pc4-M-9`.C54(387!4h>2a9H!Cx9[84(=?JtC54[8=?4-Ci[89357!4-["387.9JtG.9[9>?>?4>sjAx7.4'L2>389d4'9M[82C8Cf4-9M7b>?29H@=?C

2J.>v L2>38C-NJ!23 !NCF2q357.4C89m/43gv6mZ9M352[i=DCxpV43F354-[-j E=J.Htv2`nN:#4CF35=?>>7.9L4'9^m/`!>?> ^L2>3Ci9M[82C8C
357.4qGc2:#4-['C5vSCg384u :<=?[54*CNcp!`S3 U X =?C'2Gc4[938=J.dt939b[84-H!`.M4*H_L2>39d4j(Im#9Jv2J.4=?C'd2=J.de352td43
C57!2SMw4-HnN.387!4^2SH!H!Ch9[84]387.93h=3:<=>?>pV4^m/[52uM2u6=?J!de=?J382tM2Ja389MT3(:<=357\357!4;M2JVHS`.MT382[C%2m"9@G.9[535=DM`.>?9[
>?29Ht[9357.4[i357.9J}m/[52uM2J39M3<9M[82C8C#357!4]u@9=?J}:<=[84-Cx2m9;Gc2:#4-[xC5vSCg384uj
&> B
ml
Y on Y
$@
FJ
Ax7!4-[54 Cl2J!>?v;2J!4(HS=DC89HSL9Ja39d4x382]357.=?CiHS4-C5=?dJnO357!4hM2J.CF4 a`!4J.M4-C"2m2J!4'>2a9HqmZ9=?>?=J!dq2Gc4JnNa2[#pV4-=J.d

35`.[5J!4*H}2Q9C8CF`!u6=?J!d@4-9M7t>?29Hb7V9C%9@C54[8=4*Cx2J 2\C5:<=3M7}352@=?J384[8[5`.GS3%M`![8[54-Ja3x9[84J!23%d22Hnj"i4=?J!d
9}CF4-[5=?4-CM=?[M`!=3-N=m#4-=387!4[]>?29H_:#4-[54q352}2Gc4J{N{M`![8[84Ja3h:i2`.>?HCg382G\=?J357!462387!4[>?29H\9C':i4>?>j !2[h387!=?C
[84-9C52J{Na:i4J!44*Ht3526u62H!=m/vt357!4]HS4*CF=?dJ_9;p!=3-
pj
83.33 A
+
+
-
120 V
0o
"hot"
"neutral"
0A
120 V
0o
"hot"
83.33 A
load +120 V
#1
0o
-
load +120 V
0o
#2
-
K240+ V
-
SR 7
365 3 ML ON QP
VE = (120 V 0 ) + (120 V 0 )
VE = 240 V 0
0P
;I = 0VP
E
0P
;I = 10 kW
120 V
;I = 83.33 A (for each load resistor)
BB
]\
HJ
g <{ '
"
total
total
total
= (10 kW) + (10 kW)
total
= 20 kW
M> B
FE
J.CF354*9Hq2mc9C5=J.d>?4 'L2>3lGc2:#4-[C5`!G!G.>vN:i4i`VCF4x3g:i2 'L2>3fC5`!G!G!>?=4*C%/=?J6G!7.9CF4x:<=35764-9M7^2387!4[

=?JC54[8=4*C%382tG![82SHS`.M4 eL2>38C-Nc357!4-J[8`!J9e357!=?[H\:<=?[54^352t357!4@M2J!J!4*MT38=2JEGV2=Ja3]pc43g:i44J\357!4;>?29H.C%382
7.9J.HS>?4<357!4'4L4Ja35`.9>=3gv;2mn2J.4%>2a9H62GV4-J!=J.d.jAx7!=?C#=DC"M9>>?4-H@9eW W U GV2:i4["C5vSCg384ujlAx7![844(C5u@9>?>4-[
:<=?[54*C"9[84%CF35=?>>cM7!4-9GV4-[f357V9J6357.4%3g:i2]:<=[84-C"J!44*HS4-H@:<=3576387!4'C5=?u;G.>4%GV9[9>?>4->VHS4*CF=?dJnNaCF2^:#4 [84%Cg38=>?>97!4*9H
2Jr4 eM=4-J.MvjeAx7!4@9CF35`S384@2p.C54[8L4-[':<=?>>"J!2384q387.93]387!4@J!4-`S35[9>l:<=?[5462J!>v\7.9Ch382M-9[8[5v387!4 UR5U U
2m"M`![8[54-J3'pV43g:#4-4J_387!43g:i2b>?29H!C%p.9Mwb382e387!4qC52`![M4j%J_387!4;9pV2L4M9CF4NV:<=357EGc4[5m/4-M35>?v p.9>?9J.M4*H
>?29H.C<M2JVCF`!u6=?J!d64 a`.9>n9u62`!Ja3Cx2mOGc2:i4[*N357!4]J!4-`S35[9>:<=?[84M-9[8[5=?4-Ci-4[82;M`![5[84Ja3*j
1%235=DM47!2:387!4_J!4-`S35[9><:<=?[54=DC@M2J!J!4-M354*H382r4*9[5357yd[82`!JVH93@387!4GV2:i4[@C5`!G!G!>?v4-J.HjAx7!=DC6=?C
9EM2u6u62Jrm/4-935`![84e=?JGV2:i4[^C5vSCg384u@C^M2Ja389=J.=J!d J!4`!35[9> :<=[84-C-NC5=?J.M4ed[52`!J.HS=?J!d}357.4bJ!4-`S35[9>#:<=[84
4JVCF`![84-Ci387!4]>?4-9CF3<GV2aC5C5=?p!>4L2>389d4h93(9Jv@d=?L4-Jb38=u64]pc43g:i44-J9Jv 7!23 :<=[84]9J.H}4*9[5357}d[82`!J.Hnj
z%Jq4-C8CF4-Ja35=D9>M2u6Gc2J!4-Ja3{3529(C5G!>?=3 sG.7.9C54"Gc2:#4-[C5vSCg384u=DCn387!4xHS`.9>Sz(orL2>389d4"C52`![M4j !2[F38`!J.9354>?vN
HS4*CF=?dJ!=?J!d@9JVHbp!`.=>DHS=?J!d@2J!4=DC<J!23(HS= eM`!>3*j =?J.M4]u62CF3(z(oC5vSCg384u@Cx[84-M4-=L4h357!4-=[<Gc2:#4-[xm/[52u96Cg384G
HS2:<J]38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[9Jva:x9vqCg384G!G.=J!dL2>389d4"HS2:<J]m/[82u7.=d7qHS=DCg38[5=?p!`S38=2J^>?4L4>DCn382h9(`.CF4-[ I>?4L4->L2>389d4
>?=w4 q2[ N357.93<35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[xM9J}pc4]p!`!=?>3%:<=38796M4Ja354-[ s389G!GV4*HtC54-M2J.H.9[8v@:<=J.H!=J!dV
p> B
vw\ -
hq rW q.nsY
t u
8j
I-
I-
b-
Step-down transformer with

center-tapped secondary winding
x+
+
+
2.4 kV
-
120 V
120 V
x+
240 V
-
v-
I-
Im357!4qz(oGc2:i4[(M2u64-C'HS=[84-M35>?vem/[82u9@d4-J!4[9382[9>354[8J.9352[TTN!357!4^M2=?>?C'M9J}pc4qC5=?u;=?>D9[8>v}M4Ja384[
389G!Gc4-Hm/2[(387!4qC89u64^4c4*MT3*j'Ax7!4q435[9e4Gc4JVCF4^352e=?J.M>?`.HS469eM4Ja354-[ s389GEM2J.J!4-M35=?2JE=?J\9@38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[
2[%9>384[8J.9382[x:<=?J.HS=?J!d6=?C<u6=?J!=?u69>j
%4-[54(=?Ci:<7!4-[54<387!46 #9J.HE fGV2>?9[5=3gv6u@9[8wa=?J!daCl[54*9>?>v6pc4-M2u64(=?u6GV2[F39Ja3-jlAx7!=DC"J.238935=?2Je=DC#2m354-J
`.C54-Hb3526[84m/4[84JVM4'357!4]G!7V9C5=J!daCi2m Y S s U z(oL2>39d4hC52`![M4*CNSC52q=3%=DC<M>?4-9[x:<7!4357!4-[x357!4-vb9[84]9=DHS=?J!d
pV22aCg38=J!d 4*9M72357!4-[{2[{2G.GV2aCF=?J!dq p!`VMwa=?J!d 4*9M7]2387!4[*j{Im!J.23m/2[n387!4-C54"Gc2>D9[8=3gv'u@9[8w=J.dC-N*G.7.9C54
[84>D935=?2JVC(pc43g:i44-J\u^`.>38=G!>?46z(oCF2`![M4-C'u6=d7a3hpc4qL4[8v_M2J!m/`.CF=?J!dVj1(2384^387.93357.4;C5G!>?=3 sG!7V9C54;C52`![M4*C
=?J357!4C8M7!4u@938=?M\/4-9M72J.4 _L2>3C
Nl:<=387Gc2>D9[8=3gvru@9[8wCt 352 %g`.CF3q>?=w4tC54[8=4*C 9=DHS=?J!d
p.93F354-[5=?4-C<M-9J9>354-[5J.935=?L4->v@pc4][54-G![84-C54Ja354*Ht9C<CF`.M7{
hg
y- pz W q
> B |{ B=}
hg
y-
v-
~-
<=B
4365
(''"
87 QP
:9
l ' y g
"hot"
+
120 V
0o
+
240 V
0o
-
120 V
180o
"hot"
A 2Eu@9357.4u@938=?M-9>?>vM9>?M`!>D9354bL2>389d4epc43g:i44-J 7.23 :<=[84-C-N:#4tu^`.CF3bW

O
357.4=?[%GV2>?9[5=3gv@u@9[8wSC<CF7!2:357!4-u352@pc4]2G.GV2aCF4*He382;4*9M7}2387!4[*
Polar
120 0o
- 120 180o
240 0o
y-
Rectangular
120 + j0 V
- (-120 + j0) V
240 + j0 V
> 2BU}
z W Y ]W
R #L2>39d4*CNpc4-M9`.C54
Im{:i4u69[5w;387!4h3g:#26CF2`![M4-C-M2u6u62J}M2J!J!4-M35=?2JtGV2=Ja3387!4J!4`S38[89>:<=[84*":<=387b387!4]C59u64'Gc2>D9[8=3gv
u 9[8wq N:#4fuq`.CF3{4SG![84-C8C387!4=?[{[84>D938=L4lG!7.9C54"C57!=m38C9Cnpc4=?J!d * 9G.9[F3*j(357!4-[5:<=DC54N*:#4 H]pc4"HS4-J!238=J.d
@
3g:i2;L2>389d4]CF2`![M4-Ci=?J_HS=[84-M3%2G!Gc2C5=35=?2J:<=3874-9M7}2387!4[*N!:<7!=DM7:#2`!>DHtd=L4 qL2>38Cxpc43g:i44-Jt387!4]3g:i2
7.23 M2JVHS`.MT382[Cj<7v9ui389wa=?J!d@387!438=u64q352e4->?9pV2[89354]2JEGV2>?9[5=3gvbu@9[5wSC(9J.HG!7.9CF4;9J!d>4*C I3
:<=?>>nu@9w4u62[84hC54J.C54=J}387!4]J!43(C54-M35=?2J
2:i4[eC5vCF354-u@Cb=?Jz(u;4-[5=DM9J7!2`VCF4-7!2>DH!C}9J.H>?=?d7a3t=?J.HS`.CF35[8v9[84Eu62CF3t2m354J2m]387!4rC5G!>?=3 sG.7.9C54
L9[8=43gvN!G.[52L=DHS=J.deCF2 IM-9>?>4*H
z(oGc2:i4[*j#Ax7!4]384[8u CFG!>?=3 IG!7.9C54 u64[84>?v}[54m/4[Ci352@387!4^C5G!>=3
L2>39d4;C5`!G!G!>?vE=?JrC5`.M7K9CFvSCF354uj6JK9tu62[546d4-J!4[9>C54J.C54N387!=DC]w=J.H2m<z(oGc2:i4[]CF`.G!G!>?vE=?C]M-9>?>4*H
WT U
W U pc4-M9`.C54]pV2357L2>39d4h:x9L4m/2[5u@Ci9[84=J}G!7.9CF4N!2[x=?JCF354-GnN!:<=3574-9M7t2357!4-[-j
Ax7!4^354[8u C5=J.d>?4G!7.9CF4 =DC'9tM2`.J384[8GV2=Ja3%382}9J!2387!4['w=J.HE2m"Gc2:#4-['C5vSCg384u M9>>?4-H GV2>vG!7V9C54
:<7!=DM7\:i4;9[54;9pc2`S3h352}=?JaL4-CF35=?d9354^=?JH!4389=>sjz%Gc2>?2d=4*C'm/2['357!46>?2J!dt=Ja35[82SHS`.M35=?2J\>?4-9HS=?J!db`!G352t357.4
35=35>?4 s352G!=DM'2mn357.=?C<M7.9GS354-[-jAx7!4]9H!L9Ja389d4-C#2m{Gc2>?vG!7.9CF4hGV2:i4[xC5vCF354-u@Ci9[54hu62[84(2paL=?2`.C#=mO2J.4 .[CF3
7.9C<9qd22Ht`!J.H!4[Cg39J.HS=?J!d62mlC5=J!d>4G!7V9C54C5vSCg384u@C-j
2- e> BU@ B
uU .q n.Y
]-
I-
v- I/
b't'
uU sq n.Y
hq rW sq n.Y
U
SB
/
W U GV2:i4[nC5vSCg384u@C{9[54lHS4 .J!4*Hpavh7.9L=?J!d<9Jz(oCF2`![M4:<=387]2J!>?vh2J!4lL2>389d4:i9L4m/2[8uj
b-
zW W U GV2:i4[]C5vSCg384u =DC2J!46:<=357ru^`!>35=?G!>?4E/=?J sG.7.9C54*hz(oL2>389d4qC52`.[8M4-CM2J!J!4-M354*H\=?J

CF4-[5=?4-C-NHS4>?=L4[8=J.dbGc2:#4-['382t>?29H!C93u62[84^387.9J2J!4;L2>39d4N:<=387u62[84q357.9J\3g:i2b:<=?[54*CjqAx7!4v
9[84'`.C54-H}G![8=?u69[5=?>?v@352@9M7.=4-L4p.9>D9JVM4pV43g:#4-4JCFvSCF354-u4 eM=4-J.Mv\Z>2:M2J.HS`.M352[xM`![8[54-J3C8i9J.H
C59m/43gv\Z>2:>2a9HtL2>389d4*C8j
G!>?=3 sG!7V9C54fz(o\C52`.[8M4-CM9JpV4#4-9C5=?>v(M[54*9384-HhpvhM4Ja354-[ s389G!G!=?J!di357!4iM2=?>:<=?J.HS=?J!dCn2m35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[C

2[<9>354-[5J.9352[8C-j
v-
I-
]\
365 ^P ON QP SR 7
o % "!$#&% # ( *) +
I]\ &Y u
w- J
Wyn Z
hq rW qsn.Y
.
((" '
l%
]
"
<s>
% bn
G!>?=3 IG!7.9C54(Gc2:i4["C5vSCg384u@C#9M7!=?4L4x387!4=?[i7!=d7bM2J.HS`.M352["4 eM=4-J.Mv >?2:C59m/43gv;[5=DCFw;pv@CFG!>?=3F35=?J!dq`!G

357.4x35239>!L2>389d4i=Ja352>?4-C8CF4-[lG.9[538Cl9J.H;GV2:i4[8=?J!d'uq`!>35=?G!>4<>?29H!Cl93l387!2C54x>4*C5C54[lL2>389d4-C-N:<7!=?>4<HS[9:<=?J!d
M`.[5[84Ja38Ci93<>?4L4>DCf3gvG!=DM9>c2m9^m/`!>?> IL2>39d4hCFvSCF354-u}jlAx7!=DCi354*M7!J!= a`!4Npv6357!4:x9vN:i2[8wC{g`.CF3%9C#:#4->>m/2[
]oGV2:i4[(C5vSCg384u@C(9C%=3hHS24*C<m/2[hCF=?J!d>4 sG!7V9C54z(oCFvSCF354u@C-j `.M7EC5vSCg384u@C(9[54`VCF`.9>>?v}[54m/4[8[54*Hb382t9C
R5UU R5U C5vCF354-u@Cx[89357!4-[x357.9J\W W U pV4*M9`.CF4 G!7.9C54 =DC<9@M2JVM4G!3x[84-CF35[8=DMT354*He382@z(o'j
i`S3^:i4ewJ!2:m/[52u 2`![^4Gc4[8=?4J.M4e:<=387L4*MT352[8C^9J.HM2u6G!>?4KJa`.u^pc4[C]357V93qz(oL2>389d4-C]HS2Jn 3
9>?:x9vC^9H!H`!G9Cq:i4e357.=J!wK387!4vK:i2`!>DH=m%357.4v9[84b2`S3q2m%G!7.9C54b:<=357Q4-9M72357.4[*jrAx7!=DCqG![5=?J.M=G!>?4N
9G.G!>=?4-H382}Gc2:i4[C5vCF354-u@CN{M-9JKpc4@G!`S3]352_`VCF4;352_u@9w46GV2:i4[]C5vSCg384u@C]:<=357K4L4Jrd[84-9384[]M2J.HS`.M352[
4 eM=4-J.M=?4-C<9J.H}>2:i4[<C57!2SMwe7.9*9[H@387.9J:<=357_CFG.>=3 IG!7.9CF4j
]\
I-
v-
X> BU}
`!G.GV2aCF4387.93e:i4_7.9HQ3g:i2CF2`![M4-C62mz(oL2>39d4M2J!J.4-MT384-Hy=?JC54[8=?4-Chg`.CF3b>?=w4357!4\C5G!>?=3 sG.7.9C54
C5vCF354-u:i4C59:pc4m/2[54N!4!M4GS3x357V93%4-9M7tL2>389d4CF2`![8M4':x9C %2`S3<2mG!7.9C54:<=387}357!4]2357!4-[-
83.33 A 0o
+
+
"hot"
120 V
0o
"neutral"
load +120 V
0o
#1
-
K207.85+ V
120 V
120o
load -120 V
#2 120o
+
-30o
-
"hot"
83.33 A 120o
`> B
pz W ?> B
k
F
>
B
> =B=} B ~> B{ B=}S-:> B{ > =B=}
[ Q
=?J.M4<4*9M7;L2>39d4xC52`![M4x=DC (L2>38C-N9JVH^4*9M76>2a9Hq[54*CF=DCF352[=DCfM2J!J!4*MT354*H6HS=[84-M35>?v^=?J6G.9[9>?>4->S:<=387
=38C<[84-C5GV4*MT38=L4C52`.[8M4N357.4]L2>389d49M[52aC5Ci4-9M7b>?29H Y W pV4 ;L2>3C<9Cx:i4>?>j h=?L4-Jt>?29HtM`![5[84Ja3Cx2m
.j ]9u6G.C-N4-9M7@>?29H@u^`VCg3xCg38=>?>pV4hHS=?C8C5=G.935=?J!d ]w=>?2:x93F3Cf2mnGV2:i4[*j (2:#4-L4-[-NL2>389d4%pc43g:i44-J@357.4
3g:i2 7!23 :<=[84-C(=?C'J!23 @L2>3C^
- T(pV4*M9`.CF4357!4;G!7.9CF4;HS=4[84JVM4^pc43g:i44-J_357.4
3g:i26C52`.[8M4-Ci=?CxJ.23 - *jlJ.CF354*9HN!357!4]L2>389d4'=DC-
2< <=<
Etotal = (120 V 0o) - (120 V 120o)

Etotal = 207.85 V -30o
X> BU@ B
1%2u6=J.9>>?vNO:#4eC89vE387.93^357!4@L2>389d46pV43g:#4-4J .
7 23 M2J.HS`VMT352[8C=?C }L2>3Ce/[82`.J.HS=?J!d_`!GVN9J.H
357`.C<357!4]Gc2:#4-[<CFvSCF354uL2>389d4h=?C(HS4-C5=dJ.9384-H}9C
j
!
f/
u W
Im:#4%M-9>DM`!>D9384x357!4%M`![5[84Ja3l387![52`!d7q357.4 J!4-`S35[9> M2J.HS`.M352[*N:i4 .J.Hq357V93"=3"=DC cX !4-[52VN4L4J6:<=387

p 9>?9J.M4*HE>?29HE[54*CF=DCg39J.M4-C-j =[M7!7!2< Co#`![8[54-Ja3h{9:354>?>DC'`VCh357.93'387!4@M`![8[54-Ja38C'4Ja354-[5=?J!d9J.H\4S=38=J.d
.
357.4]J!2SHS4]pV43g:#4-4Jt357!43g:i26>2a9H!Cxuq`.CF3xpc4]4-[52V
<
4365
(''"
83.33 A 0o
87 QP
:9
l ' y g
"hot"
load +
120 V 0o
#1
"neutral"
Node
Ineutral
load
o
#2 120 V 120
+
"hot"
83.33 A 120o
-Iload#1 - Iload#2 - Ineutral = 0

- Ineutral = Iload#1 + Iload#2
;I
neutral
= -Iload#1 - Iload#2
neutral
= - (83.33 A 0o) - (83.33 A 1200)
;I
Ineutral = 83.33 A 240o or 83.33 A -120o
:/
=< <2<
2VNS:#4 .J.Ht387.93<387!4 J!4-`S35[9> :<=[84=?C%M-9[8[5v=?J!dq9;m/`.>>{ !j ;9u6G.C-Ng`.CF3%>=?w44-9M7 7!23 :<=[84j
2< =< <

^[ S<
1%2354]387.93h:#4q9[84^Cg38=>?>OM2JL4-v=J!d @w 2m352389>{Gc2:#4-[%352e357!4^3g:#2e>?29H!C-N.:<=357E4*9M7>2a9H C 7!23

:<=?[54]M9[5[8v=J.dq .j q9u6G.C<9Cxpc4m/2[54j=357}387!4C59u649u62`!Ja3<2mM`![8[54-Ja3i387![82`!d7b4-9M7 7!23 :<=?[84NS:i4
u^`VCg3(`VCF4387!4^C89u64]d9d4]M2G!GV4-[(M2J.HS`.M352[8C-N.C52@:#4]7.9L4Jn 3%[84-HS`.M4-HC5vCF354-u|M2CF3%2L4-[x357!4^C5G!>?=3 sG.7.9C54
hC5vCF354-uj (2:#4-L4-[-N:#4%7V9L4%[84-9>=?4*H;9^d9=J@=?JbC89m/43gvNpc4-M-9`.C54<387!4(2L4[9>?>!L2>39d4<pc43g:i44-J@357.4
3g:i2 7!23 M2J.H!`.MT382[C'=DC L2>3Ch>2:i4[h357V9Jr=3:x9Ch=?J387!4@CFG.>=3 IG!7.9CF4@C5vCF354-u tL2>3C'=?J.CF354*9H2m
^L2>38CTj
> BU@ B
B
I-
2< <2<
v-
Ax7!4'mZ9M3i387.93x387!4'J.4`S38[89>c:<=?[84'=DC<M9[5[8v=J!dq !j q9u6G.Ci2mM`![8[84Ja3#[9=DCF4*C#9Jt=?Ja354-[54*Cg38=J!dqGV2aC5C5=?p!=>?=3gvc
C5=J.M4x=3* CfM-9[8[5v=?J!d'M`![8[54-J3l9Jv:x9vN:<7vJ!23`VCF4i357V93l357.=[H^:<=?[84x9Cl9J!2357!4-[ 7!23 M2JVHS`.MT382[*NGc2:#4-[5=?J!d
9J.2357.4[">?29H@[84-C5=?CF352[":<=357b9357!=?[8H L2>3iC52`.[8M4%7.9L=J.d^9G!7V9C54'9J.d>?4(2m
_Ax7.93i:i9vN:i4'M2`!>DH
35[9JVCFu6=3 Y6XR5U GV2:i4[qZ9J.2357.4[ @w~<:<=357!2`S3'7V9La=?J!d@382b9H.HE9Jv}u;2[54qM2JVHS`.MT382[Cj%{43* C'CF4-4^7!2:
357.=?C<u6=?d7a3<>22wc
D>FeB > B
BU}d
365 ^P ON QP
SR
((" '
"
<=<
83.33 A 0o
load
#1
120 V
0o
83.33 A 240o
+
120 V
240o
120 V
+ 120o
120 V
10 kW
120 V
10 kW
load
#2
+
208 V
-30o
-
load #3
120 V
10 kW
83.33 A 120o
z m/`.>>u@9387!4u@938=?M-9>c9J.9>vSC5=?C"2m{9>?>V357!4'L2>389d4*Cf9J.HbM`![8[54-Ja38Cf=?J@387!=?CxM=[M`!=3#:i2`.>?H6J!4*M4*C5C5=39384%357.4
`.C54b2m(9_J!43g:i2[8w357!4-2[84uN357!4}4-9CF=?4-CF3^pc4=?J!dE387!4 `!GV4-[5Gc2C5=35=?2JAx7!4-2[84ujET >>xC5G.9[84ev2`K357!4}>?2J!dVN

HS[9:<J I2`S3%M9>?M`!>D935=?2JVCxpV4*M9`VCF4v2`_CF7!2`!>DHtpc49p.>4382@=Ja35`.=38=L4>?vb`!J.H!4[Cg39J.Ht357V93<357.4]357![844]L2>389d4
C52`![M4*C93357![844%HS=4[84Ja3lG!7.9C54<9J!d>4*C:<=>?>.HS4->=?L4-[ hL2>38C4-9M7^3829pV9>D9J.M4-H]38[5=D9H;2mV>?29Hq[84-C5=?CF352[8C-j
!2[<G![82a2mO2mO387!=?C-NS:i4M9J}`.C54 f5o Q352eH!2q387!4]u@9387tm/2[<`.C-
b-
f> B
"_
1
+
0
+
+
120 V
240o
1.44
R1
120 V
0o
3
R3
120 V
120o
1.44
R2
A Uss2AUs.2biFs2.=6$6bA
sAAbF
.4s8ZUA=.bF
. 4488ZZUU
Ibs$FbsHsi~ ~ ~
bb$$FFbbssmm 2v mm mmoo H=
v v I.
I2b
s .=== bUb=sUIU .2 ~
1.44
m I
AmCsCBM p>H=BSwo2"s =.]s2=2QQ6F"2.ov UUo2C vJ FsIv2~.6v2Q F==.`< O<2v< oC]cC..sO. A2b mm?svMCvC6sO.b .2vB 2MUSQ =22wsosO b$ ]=~vw"o=Cm2H=
v.I. -.sI=I2M. 6 "2:2]2f.DC`sv=e=.sC2s.bv.2=G.c2=s.Hs ^2 F"s6Q"=O.Ds= = &`.I.H=v.&OsCIsvH6v2vGkvCp^2C$m$2vss
C=wCo.C=2v:.bHQ2="2G=]2$=O.v..sS"?.CH.H.p.UH2bvoC"$`òpC.2=. sHcOvH.sXIsvv2X.o=]2 s =.w:oC2=s:?I=22.G.~bGb|2.=S]v s F
"
!j
83.33 A 0o
"hot"
120
oV
0
83.33 A 240o
+
"hot"
120 Vo
240
120 V
+ 120o
"hot"
83.33 A 120o
load

#1
120 V
10 kW
load #3
120 V
10 kW
load

#2
120 V
10 kW
0 A "neutral"
sy= ` XvkvHbCvk
&2.2].s=v|UcbCvCC?2. ssCH C`s]Hce.v`y J so~s2I Hv~o=CIs=2.2SJ 2sCp]=.vDUU2o|=vvF.IIv.2o.`vvo.C2$.`|C`8=$.H2
. q / a=.CCSM$]2bb|.cv:2p"vs C 2cGc$vHaCacC2CckC2sHpCsvs22`. v2`.v=.y F = Sq 2CCq=bpvvv2ssy?ICH?vCS=HGCHF]c a2qp=vvsq.c2nsYs=C .]=..sGwv sbH2ws~s.s
Cb
$Hv Hq U" .?2Cvv:s2.2eHc=y~kM.CfHc2v22U?v.sC:b=
$.HvH2=vFf&.sC=IIXvCbs.2Ho=vs.]kfvf.M q=woC 2.G2vv2Hsp]HD.2vw Cl "2C
vvIFv]H /? 22w | Wyn !q.nsY #"$%&" z $rW v. ssvHsvFb2csCUv2v=e$6OHb~v.b=
"=22. k'2 Cv =.S Cs `X$.?6Q.O=H2|Cv2U2s2222Hw~]$ .28bv "HUvS..)=( < - - .s<=s<s=2Iv^c$IH6b OIv< Hb 2IbÌ vCvHXB vCs cvHHsmHÙI2..= 2- ..sH2v^HvSbb~HC SJ . C o2CHUH
.j
365 ^P+*+,-,ONQP.,: R ,/*87Q0, e
C<
"
load
#1
120V
load
#2
load
#3
K250 A 10 kW 10 kW 10 kW
y"MH"2.C.sS|"`s2.vHe?. H2HsHvI.sCCovC .- <US2@CB.C=OCX=2?.C]G$2sCXIo`H2ov.`DFv e-b 2^1kvs3. D6b2~v2~=o C8sE 7*SCMyvv=Cs $M22.vv25..H4 o:]>HXB C$?s2.U2".|cf$]22sS>FeB2.B2.2B .vy2sH
v. - .s=ISvb~ `v|~" > 4 U >FCBM =w`==.
j
+
+
125 A 0o
"hot"
120 V
0o
120 V
15 kW
120 V
15 kW
load
#1
"neutral"
0A
load
#2
120 V
180o
+
240 V
0o
-
"hot"
125 A 180o
/ =.7 v]=..."G]2.2=vbHpU QACfB=OAB s2`=w8.w2si.`ssv6H."wf.f.2Ds2m$C` kvk yHvU].C::=`GIwc] 2.sv.HsD2`2.v|s$6]CM>H.B=vCB2HoUB C`y".?o2kH="oC&=2vF~=O6bQH c&1 .B2vB2v .$ o2]c.2.Us
= 2vs. |v[ b~6" .HH 8 O|kv2s2v. =s| F 2po e=]2=sI2bsHSvv.F]k sF vF>F22vBMH 2vCy ]:~7sHF2Cohvs2"S `.= vF69=B|f =2wvoHS=.2HvyU=
.2. 2H.v=Hs|""SH]=v=X=Is~" vsHvvcb~"]cs].Cc.Hf2=CsI`2."vsvH - .s2vSIbIvH|.2 2UC=H"C J sw
$$]2H.2ps sIQj$s?o"~Fvv.`sDv2.ss ICS]s=2psybMHs]s]Fovb|2`|v..]o..k.`HUs2sCC|oC< 2J4UsB2vHBw `=.vss.Qw|: rFyD=v.2f; |(v.< I<2mS< CC.c>HMB2sB= BH yH9 "v=s2F 22Xo>A` 4ay==O 6= .42"B]=.CbCc cs>F.o 4
$]o.]7. / . `= vJ ssC.HÌXvv.2S.?HC?vUCDsXs8 v:v ==f.wo CC/ =IC"U|vH].U~svb6 ~.DUv:.ff 6""2vSsS GCbB:I.( " Q - 2o.Iss*2 v.?9=IB b I+ vH>a| *2`w22 Qvv.2Gs=.Hb*`v.2=sv2
.`ss=bI .C s2 Hcc"Cc. .2 .?>ACIBs} 2- s.Csv= I?d ?v7 I v H 2*IvasOp&vs2C@S HcC U2v.H - =2 pv oC s2Iy222cp"p 2 ?]yC=vv?Hvv6sv=C
CCDGHwsb.sS]v2eoQsvsM2vMvF=6 > .( BUs} =I2:.IXs2wrQoO.s2=I>F 2BB=} A b..sO2s."kpv.2U.I ./s22.vDv.=brfI"=2c.DGfbAHH sGsI=cG2.s2sws22vo
"Cs22.H.mSo2$C2H..I=O:fU A2 ?cHvvUkpvs2$]H.s CvE .sHsQs=2mv"IswroIss"~ wvSbv. p sc2ys22w` G22mH.sob6:v:CÙv2.pMy=I=O.SH2v"I]v2 ~vUs2]
vss= vv+H> 2Hv..o6?2vc]:C2vQHv`6vp=o`s... Ub.F2ov .cI$X6vOsH2H v>FsCoBUa} k2sfCAv:2vv=6.Xsv&.c.?Co]6v..pcy22s.Dv2Q/ vs
?2o..=
j
!j
C< 1
C
P0,-*4365i:D87QP.,
:9
CECGF * C HF
Single-phase alternator
S
winding
1a
winding
1b
Three-phase alternator
winding
2a
winding
3a
winding
1a
winding
3b
winding
1b
winding
2b
`~ "skb`2.2sbvs.2.HHoFvCH.=Go XvIwsaC.C$M.2UHbv|bHs`]2s..b.F+.=>eS= 2s=fwo|$C]=~."`wH-e.ss`=2.Iso?=2ICwmQ2`.s2s6b2>F.S2=B=Cc} ?I2s]:w2rIs.H.X6H`]yve2Hy2vv..]?2HcvC.s2.I pQ- .2vssv.2vHHv

CCvvHHvv66vv==H`Qbv.AJ`~..Mcy$2:v`c.$]]~~ "e`s..U > ?Cs > s S$H2cIvF&y2 v.Dv. - ss2v
.$o26= k ==rv.sfve2]c..Cbcvbp.F`X.]2&.HwOkFbvOs6SXIov=2.~oo6.C"FoHMcv2.. :/ C2v...Hob6 vo=C=woC]`==sv|bv2s2.].ov]2XFO HL22.C..FH=]Ho2?|cvc22=.2]ov]sfvfAHpicbcK:H.p2]]ck=c/ .2 ]=..Fv2 o.cX`v?boAvsS`s..Uf|.IC$:2^cK:p :.H
j
+
120 V
0o
+
+
120 V
120o
120 V
240o
.s.o.~aoCsKX|i6 ]=/ oI/ =.l C2v2:vG|2.cC|X2vs v.=.v.2.b~H]=C2vH$`vv.soHC.b.| &|.2s2..aH=IHIk

j
MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
365 X.QP.,Y*SS F Z
C< T
M [
23$2uU2 :"!q. n. Y]y= vG6 "pIbIvH p2.`.G.kp2.a2. +>4 =woC=kI=.o]e2.|I=.
M E
H 62"o?\q`2$r]W]v!=.q.sHn.HbY Us$]6v$=O6fHOvH..mvIHbS=Iov~fH" `D.v2X.F? `- C]`=Us..CFO.v..FcpU62C." UG~2O s =22woC2 222FfUOIyC=2=.C6HyH] ~.k> ( "vB=F} 2.v2.ss:= I2 .- v.~rDvFDys 2
M q q.nsY 6"Dvb~ sIFSDsw. 2C=?I=.HSCDb
U.2vGC.=FXyv= F2o
Cpv=sv:D$c6O2H 62`.sFv= IF v2pC2 2:2`w22 Sv?f C ]Hy =- v=?22`:C]2O=bs 2o "v$s22|Usvs.22vS -6="I:.Ib - I.vsH 2vSHCIbIbvHHc H
M .c.s2v - v.wrH =woC2pI=.o]H:.F]FvC|y2|=.2vM$6OHSIbIv CpvF6vFC v]s.Cpv2yo?`sv:28D..Sv.v2v=v' ] "v2C6`=eC``vs.b.b=FI^H|.CF.I=eUòs..I|Cevs2H2v=.svs
T _ ` a c% bIdGegfhIi0b6i0jh5k
l C' C OvF .:v. - .2vCvHv6v=ObFI22k2bfH2vO2sGf6ook`sC"C.$sf=m.?22.
j
Three-phase alternator
m winding m winding
2a
m winding
3a
1a
m winding
3b
m winding
1b
m winding
2b
C =wòC=.s"S....U22 nvX 2.>Fv22.B=|S} I?ys2Cwr22sw2] c>AsCM6BUv}22mCvsvM6.yr.Osv]2vb62 &`=2v*^26.r`D2ms]`bvs.s2 bv<.2 `C v2"2`s=.2.oHcC.C`=vSswsvo.wMowmr$HC m $v.Hs XIk2.>AUvCHB=CS} ssCCr2vo
`C*sv.b.v sC> r6 .p.?HvCX=".X]:.sH2]bI:Fv? sH==]o:v.=X`MssCbX.6=:f`.
8bUXCv:UIvsv2sCc2&.Uv.`pCC.sC=vI2Ssv2.8wrc $ ]H~c"HU
vCss2` s B=b} .]Q='.+>` 2sb2.2` f `]y=`vs? o 8 ".s?=I& Cs`2sb2. -o>F> CBU2.} " C>FC]BUy} C=]2H .s Q22 22 9UvB=2} .oF]2`by=.OUsps22sv
`sb. < C C.=XC -Z 9=BU} 2 >F2B=} F2b.
2 f>2-Z6s.-c<`=If` OJs.S.s.2 USv> C^$..H:s v=?IS/ Cvo.~CFwrvo`.vs.=2c`wbs bs/ 6s.w 2p f2$ovvbs.H6 rF `j =b]s < ` JIX.Co62vo2b| C vHssIsC$rHHCbv..Sk2ovbH
j
j
C< (
C
P0,-*4365i:D87QP.,
:9
CECGF * C HF
phase sequence:
1- 2- 3- 1- 2- 3- 1- 2- 3
1
TIME
?`Cs=[b.6.]"Q ` fF"Os= v Q]"y2 M& .1 `q$2 $ .se2oY ormC$ ou6? v>A2.CB=}=2.SC.vUF.I2ev:2CwI >Js.s6sI2vFp 2 Gk IsCsI*CvHrC ==?2yvC.. s>b-Z26ws-< ]2=<". Ù vs $- ]S C .<C -Z2`6v-.I> HA* ">F62vsSB=}
CsH2C
j
j
phase sequence:
3- 2- 1- 3- 2- 1- 3- 2- 1
3
TIME
.u 2obO"C v=wosCv=.a" ]y==v.sI= IJ .s=woHCQ=k|I=.$o2]Usvs 2v6"vb~pvFII"v 2kH= =q..n.HmY .Is&=CIW|YC)Wv$;2 u Cv=2qsn.`Y
z
v?ss vM.2Dp..& b2 v.CSso6CvcX2Cv2CcH XcsMC .=s..Xv.C"vHA 2cs>]2f-~"A2-Z8< .v2s 2vHv<C. -Z- H6. -s> 2$vvXs. 6 " 22FvCbc=2M]f2"soXf`Cs.8vvCHc=SScIs?]2vCvH=v."2U"vsv2sb.CF:Gb`$X$QsCvH=$
&vH2*sGsIsv.`c6U.2Ds.C.2XvC^v2b2Cv.2p v.C m~C=& =HCv.G$6OHvIvH Hs".F vks v2c2v.H
~]"svp7 sU.bHb`.Csv==o`. 22pfpv.H o&]sswv?HbHvvG2bvsFvHc.I2 sJ 2.ws2SG"UvAkbbCs]] 2css2sv2vv2||v.r~?OH|~OvH.S s v22U2v2skH2fsC
qs "qj#

j
365 X.QP.,Y*SS F Z
v
C<ut
v
to phase
w
#1
to phase
w
#2
to phase
w
#3
C2ss.2vA.wb|2?X~"6"v HGDCcv.|sD?$c2Cvcv|HD.C2X2c] FJ2e.sU2e/CCcHH=vUI?v2=sv:F]I2OIC CJ Ib]CI vHC sC.ypf Jv6|.IoHvCss=]p xC2c`.Fs2&'oCHvC2cI]@2vs=c]=HGvv.Ivy c2Hs~i"] v-a Cscvss
".s2=.I|I2s6wr?$6]p~" J sC" .=wo=CU2v.FCvsHv].. v]HUM.Mv$s..CiCsHeHC v[.&6"]o ]H.H*MvsJ |HCC"sv= ]t2vBU2}M#Uv.bbMsssH2Mv
v2.Hw]r=Fbb2.H:CvvXOv.CQ sB=s} 2.vbÌsFwrvoOmsC6 v >F CfBU} Sb. s=IO<vsG .2y2226`2s.B .A-v&H>"=_ 2CsC.HbfI2mbvUHcvQ2vssIvo~6"DH^C`cssC
`C.$
j
.j
{
+
0
+
2
120 V
0o
+
120 V
240o
120 V
120o
|
3
R1
C1
K2650
1 F
2650
R2
s.2.s=.=$AC2b2b.Fs6.2~}} 2UusC2 } .} .
sAAbF
.sUA=.bF
.s 4 U
Ibs$FbsHsi~ ~ ~
I2b m m mo
Q.IU= b $ m"I$AI b $ I I m8oIF~ b
9UB
P 0,-*i:DoQP., CECGF * C6HF

.bvDbF . ?> > 2T Hst v .4 9 v m=.w&oD.2s?=IG v.9 .|( rv>.yv2=sofIXC.CkGc2.s b2 2w2C2s2H:C2sv].vHG=XvmH.s2 ss2 ev2 2Cc=?Cc2.]=2U: ~.Os H=sI|I X.v> b.bcCHc= . CUy$I]v~c"9 `H
s2.H wv.Sss2vSI J ss:` oIF
C
.j
s.2.s=.=$AC2=.b2.sb6F.2~}} 2UusC2 . } .}
sAAbF
.sUAbF
.s 4 U
Ibs$FbsHsi~ ~ ~
I2b m m mo
Q.I=U b $
m8II b U O IAI m 8 oIF~ b
[ Hv=v.I`2p H H > T t 4 2"`.Xv.vH2svF]H H"2. 9 ( >: 2

CGC .vM 2 2 w|[ 6s"6F~2pUF "6FHC C.ovv6.2?=2?sssC2.=v.]Cv`CHoCv6ssC|=v=.'6 *pv.s:Cbrb2^sCHo6Doy=vD.C. ^==H.|CbmHMskvsi 2 `HsvCo.pp2bv.=D=M2sw=2oHsDD6=]2ScpC `sp2vssvCHr
vs.2sv=2OI8pCCIQ 2J H.^]vCsvHHCv.$s6C6v"=fO ve.o.2Is.kH6?2"wcS.s6s2CU2v2yCòH6...=G20v.&~spI62:.bHoMCC.v.=HDvsMCCv2O ~2OzsC"Cn vMFs2$DvH..vSfHMA.G2.Ck2oDG s` H.vFFv
2=sDGD.U .s=IX==
=woC=.:^vv2. o ]=? F^c2IHsIfOfo `2.C. CQ:v.s.sS.s2vv J .]fC:v. hss2v
!j
}U}U}}$a..==..==$$CC22 }U}U..}} }$} }U}U}$} }$} }=}=..}}}} }U}U}}$}$} }=}=..}}s

]=< . > s~ sXCI"=2O=.fM2Hc2yvvc=?2.$?r"b2HMvH2 s2CUv"H k> G 2< "S.DX2 .> D> $< < X `.Ivs=.IcvC2$6 =Gkl ] = .` I~=sUIv`.=:Q2".$=$vXv:v22H6G= < < > X =>
CvUsoSC`vv.HDf=6b`M`wc|MC.s|=vI:Xv`2sCCv`2sGC2. $< f >vp=OvsXS2vFGI.vvk.2?$v .J X.U]v2v swFOy2ÌfCs.sMCc~"
Sj
.DomQP.,xiS`*EJ," F L Z
9>
Original 1-2-3
phase rotation
End result
(wires 2 and 3 swapped)
phase rotation = 2-1-3
1
2
. $ M.??6vI H"`vH.o G> s C < Q=2]8o`C.o2sCD.=`HkHvQ 2b "> C < vs> < . v2H<" o> .b2UI` JMs v "C2U=v ..s2vCo6=?s.
3
MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
.sn.2Y vI?=.Io C]J W:YC.)Wv$;sF 2u oHb?H2 .> qs n.`Y < vBF2Is$q Hs ]z <v u :"q> UF"2 vsv^F:Ij $=22`.sD.fv..|`v .h.o.k2?v:~." vb ~=wUo vCv2sv."?H vbX]vCyF=:v?2=.OsSCc*C~pÒ$Cp2v$HU=vsIs62.v=v
v26=
A Us2=.IH"b2v2`vC.v62`ps2|^v..SSc=sH2]Cmv22pvCFIMIvs sf2vUX2v.2HC6..=m|wm.`]vFss2 ]fop].2m=MsUCCsHMvF2
M UB&
+>
. ss2=vIXC6o"6"=kcp2k.$U. s=oII:Fc=U2G vfC...pCp~OMC..XC.2H=."I.s..Mv.
M A
+T_
ah3TcbIdGehIiGh5fed0jUk
2AC$ so 62sI=Ms vC.C&+cb> =IUpGv2pv2=$2 "v 2U2cs"I$vs~sUs.bk=H2&vi$ 2vv.sH.Is s2oCv~vH+ovs> CCbv$=6e"y2=?. .H HC?v$2IU.?2U2v.2.Ucsv=HXIv|~CvcFHvf.C 2+.sHv> v~=c.Ci22sCo
vIs6=vspCsk=`..bD`"Xsb`.=:HC s &vks=v2vXC.v].2G?fCc=.2].C=.vv`MH.v 2 7 v.H +> cC2:bHv=s2vD.C J sw
j
9
C
P0,-*i:DoQP.,
Step #1
CECGF * C6HF
Step #2
S
N
N
-
+
I
AC motor operation
Step #3
Step #4
N
S
S
+
v`sm.C`Hv]..vS2v?22sC6=.s ]S2c` 2sb2b.v.FQ=vOQ2C|2sy=òfAv .8 ``Hc?C.]2?2Up` `vv.?s^6r.``yGO I.J s..HFs/S] pCC]2=..vs5:~CsbvIHv2s`CvIH 2.8v[ ]G6s"$vS $Um6FOH]sHvbF 2k y `&.v
]=.UvH2 Z]b `vbvF=G.Cc + > =woC=f y2|
j
9U<
Step #1
Step #2
N
N
S
-
+
I
AC motor operation
Step #3
Step #4
S
S
N
+
.v.b=b s2h]vsFs]c"2vvM6+m.> `2v2cbovss2`v].=.s2?]2Cs2Ccsc]2vvUv J oC..2vH=Qs.]H2fCGCvv$.c2?CCvG=w~HDHw.b.]fHpb`sv F 2`=2. 2SG2.C2s.?OvCH.O==F2Q]C2=cM2p?vF=2c2o:.vo.CvOOH$2]v222H

C=mCso.6H?=b +vF.M=?s6w.O22 ?J .vF.~?H=we.IsQ2".A&+ ~Cs~v"D2Cm"vs Td =sUFC`s.v6"Cvv6.mMp.H2vv=c2C:2oI2.IFH? XIvs
.fHAG2=f]vv2..?k2IC+ vv> F $J67OHs"`.?C$HU 2k.FIGspv.SG`Csvbv]..= C.H]v2 .|`^]2U.Skv.vsC
j
CCk H.. HIvs2c2yFs2k6sM`w2v.&2cCsH "+]y=>2c H2XC&y2222 ..vsyw2CD=s&fCv=vsb]2CU 2^..`ss2=svIbX+.`=> v|pUv2sIvS=vSc2.v2&F|=.]$ 6

O2=HHsU &vGay22s Gvb.SH]?v22&v]2H
j
9u9
C
P0,-*i:DoQP.,
CECGF * C6HF
Unidirectional motor
winding 2s voltage waveform is 90 degrees
out of phase with winding 1s voltage waveform
winding
2a
winding
1a
winding
1b
N
winding
2b
v.wr.&FI].v..U.`c~HO=oHCMv.2X~m"2?vfI~`.2*2`Msb2..s=HHHpGIHvH`vGSHCs=]v=^vUv.s]Sss2v
winding 2s voltage waveform is 90 degrees
out of phase with winding 1s voltage waveform
1a
2a
1b
2b
|
I
C
I
these two branch currents are

out of phase with each other
v s"svs.C.`"..yss2== IIpXI2Csowr6 v>]2pH2CvsvF6> ? .C.=.f.]Sv. SHvs.Co`.6`.yvcp=v ?]C]=C2.]? CCk2s2C]svs Jk s&.vcs`bCÙXs2vs&vwMc bJbssCH.]|vvS2= b.s=2IOXIvCo6v`2w
2=H.woA Co2=6?H." s = I|] y2v+ .?>pSccCC2vv22Fpo2b~ oJ s6.v 2Gm.CeXbIU s`sosswbvG. v=2 +Cv e22vv].HJM$.v.pc]]2b=^ Dsve..bsvf&Cvb2.v&FkCvQH2v2 HF*vsHvHH?CDsc.vm2s2=..IMv`8v.s.bHss.
vG]:Co"62 . .?GCv22s=]]v.I X]&HCvvH6X`ssv6.XvF 2r vH = 2HFeI?&CWbYC)WF$ Iu2 vY .Cpu O]]W =$;" v<: U r I X$"2=`.vss2SvD2HsFbv:C2
$v2IvU Hs?ssS2CvXvc26."GMfk p ]?H=`bIysS.v2IsXck..]s==sFIb]XHpb$=6vO:H `?\ O2HbvHMX=Dbscvo2 v 2oFoHCk`C.vXH. 2..=.Cvs2U=`2C s` [ 6 yS~k2=2& 2=oCv=HHOC
C6c CH*ps GsbMU .=wUMfsb.H"v=so|22Ov.vM. .. ssk2wIFGs6 > .=~6c=Cfsb&Hs2Co 6 v&2d v J=.pX]IvJ.7 Uf.C.:$~Hv2Q.U
~sI:s 2 Cs
`we. CssCUcC= X s6X? Hv.cb
$HvHs]M~OH.M~Ok~U$H
j
j
C^..&~v.U d sI"F^.s=ISv.wr E
_ .2p.Xc~v.cC^2Uof`.X HvkCvs`.. f6C?= vp=
9 4
all "2" bulbs lit
all "1" bulbs lit
phase sequence: 1-2-1-2
v ]'rU". vD.]H22.UvCo.~QHsvCIXf"=`.Q.kFG2 bvF|cs..2.QvsyvMC=c42v2?v22UHsmMvvv.pc] .r S .s.H.os.'sDsHCC=UG= .22Km. 2 :s*2Hs= 2H`s G]= . SkH.y=s k6 .?w2 c.v.CMvv2'sU. Hys2]sF
cC`Cn?2'FC(u= .`} ].=boJksCHHC s2sw.2vi~s6y~S.=22kH2= I 2`s|cUebIUvssvswF2XoCbCCHC].vv22 ..s:k`.oCesH2C=.2.22:pIv2I:.2vs:26U`.&s$2Hv2+sv>
C~s I6` ~O]' . `Csbk2vcsH.vXv?.IvS.v?]C`2vX==po=``C.GHv=Xb.C.Cs=XIXv.`v vH]=oo`C2v..sHHs v?$Dv' U.]H|sIvH=
j
all "1" bulbs lit
all "2" bulbs lit

1
Time
all "3" bulbs lit
all "1" bulbs lit

phase sequence = 1-2-3
bulbs appear to be "moving" from left to right
vc =U. mX 26Uv.?p2I2p =.s:vs.`.6 U .G?rI.vS.Icp =2s.sssv.C6`2.U2F.?XU..csc"ò]2C .$H2Op2c HSyv=4]r

j
9
C0
2
all "1" bulbs lit
all "3" bulbs lit
CECGF * C6HF
all "2" bulbs lit
0,-*i:Do .,
The bulbs appear to

"move" in a clockwise
direction
? ]Ho]v6::wvssvI.vFS2=s|=sCo2QvS?2.I~p=F2sC=sUf:$2.8 Cc. S: .I..s==s.X`|G`2 c] HbS v2 H`` svGIb..H]vv2?vs$CHHCvs.v`2v.s$HcCCoC]CXC2^.c2FCMv22v =.`s

.s= I=X.wov`C' .=U:. v2].. oD]Fs"6.Cvvfv.`?C`sS2b=
$2Hv2.vHHUOvC?.sDs2FvvC.SI shwscros 2 v` ]+ b> c`Cvv=Ò2`Qv2|.U.vHv2HZ:]vb]of`Cv``bs.$.sU."..DH2vc= HvsH
3
Three-phase AC motor
winding
2a
winding
1a
winding
3b
winding
3a
winding
1b
winding
2b
A phase sequence of 1-2-3 will spin the magnet

in a clockwise direction. A phase sequence of
3-2-1 will spin the magnet in a counter-clockwise
direction.
cC 2ovFkvss"s2Cvo6v..r"?CC82sH]Qvvs2 D'(u.uFf]F"v:C2]Oy=v.I:Hwv%Z2~o6Cvv=?.CMs.I:*c2$2".vvF 6sHH X fwA:|2vs22sU 2.sw2 v

j
*+,-,/ .,JZ+ C Z+ FU8 * F Z:

9.
.Cms=vsI6rv.rC o^6=v?y=$2$U2ssU2svsf2pvS2cv=CvH=6vfs` . HHGvH2=vIsks2 v `HI.vHr\O~Cs~":vI.fHvC&2CHk=b~O GGA 2.sCoCMv.`.H`H=]2v2.
vp.ScCv=H.2s|w`v. |v.S=.UIvSbH=@

MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
v sCCvs.bcs]cv222s. v2sJes=I.fs.o.bb2ss2]Fs|?UcC~o62vo2"C2 ? `Xs` ss.|.U v2Cv.?22.y=6.?C

s2U .s2v +
> cC2o^C$v.^~$`.FMsMS2Q~oCvvHpv.s.sS?Xs2I.2bH]v2
MUvbbssX.s2vv.rQCH^vs2
bH]v2|CÎsCrv2Cv2HC $SHICs I's(uHu QvS.?C=.]: .mGIocp2v=H2S.U s.v
M +>
M
M
s2s2wU2".vsG2vcvF6vbsvsS=.aHpH2vv2=v?X2.rv2vaXsvv.Gr C2bb2v&`sb.e2.sHHvHX`v&
.bHeU|.Mss2v
A 2Uss2vScCv=b2o X.FvsocH=I.H' $v.HXbvF=CQCo6=&+
Ip=ss:28. =woC2vs\ X6"H
M
M
v " 2.ov...McwoCcvs~6Or`cCCsCCvM2` vFf2p$2.s2v +> cC2f` oIwof.s2vXIp=ss2vs
M
+T_q
cfee:cbIdGe
bkc
hk5cfb6ijUh5kcd
v .==2wvoCvC=.:Hv2Oa.&o`]Fbs".CD=voFC]=o2p.&c=b.HHH ?C :.k6v`s?vH2U 2cX.cs2.2vG ]KX=6.".Hy2G]Mvv2b2|~IC?o==cU:~2=.s.2=...c.oF62vs2X. v QbS..vCH H]2 =o=. wsoCv222s.&oC]vv2=2. o]FC

j
120 V
0o
+
-
120 V
120o
+
120 V
240o
`sbm."UDfb2osA.kG]I=p.SwXvIs2U6``.HkCHo2Co. =.2C2.2v2KX.po]S2.G2$.po6G=2k8$2Hm]=`cHk`c2w2:s26 2=2s 2sIy2pH
9 (
C0
0,-*i:Do .,
CECGF * C6HF
3-phase, 4-wire "Y" connection

"line"
+
+
120 V
0o -
"line"
120 V
120o
"neutral"
120 V
240o
"line"
v s2HM .?$%A.&U 2^m:`]?.=sA&b?sv.].Cv=X`$cH=bb.s.H=bSvAo".CÂ?`vyvv=c 6Fv.2C osc H=~wo.CC=:HmCI.=aJ.~.2HsH`=s.$ 2U.UUU Sv ei6fv.CcoK+cZf]=s=.b=.S=F8CvCF^v~sI2b..I=HveCH|

]bHvIosC.IF&k.FCsSFC Cvp2vH=2^.v=.?XI.=.e=.MHHcUSC"kvsvHU.s2vpU2&2=H8=
Tj
3-phase, 3-wire "Y" connection

"line"
+
+
120 V
0o -
"line"
120 V
120o
(no "neutral" wire)
120 V
240o
"line"
."H vOepFp2Fv2.v.. =$%woC 212 s' .]vyHQUGvDv.vXsCvcHU 2.ss=2"vCe v b2~C?=`c"H=eI.sHHGv~O$Hkv2FU]p ~e"D=?s

] =us( b s=]wvo= X & s1 22 s'] F e]y.ofU?.sv=.I ? v2b~22 Sc H=IvsavF|.k=]2=` GC]k=..wF8]=.cG=s. U M=woIC=2.cSS`2.b=.s
2.?s=I= =i =wcoC2Fk.C ] F p =wo snCCs.kHivHvv?. h$%ss2"Uv.&3&I=. Csn=?U 2 Y".23&cUvs y=]6.wvksv|.6C`ckC$2=2=?mvvss
y22sXc2:cv$y2.vH=. kv ].vHUvsv=.2 C 2.p.c]=sbs]v2FC&vsM6vv:|.vUv.2.=2U
$]sSv'K+UUZs]C=Q.' .UcFsv2v.sFSDsvs.22ssv= IH: X2]C.s22U=v2cHsHS8"Cvv.s"J AK+b&UZ]ss=2 .v .XcH]Uv.2F`GCIG=2.so 2]2H=O2=H=CcvH"ss2C2as.]F22v. :2.2 2H H2C2s2 `s
&
*+,-,/ .,JZ+ C Z+ FU8 * F Z:
9t

For "Y" circuits:

Eline =
Ephase
v H2v.o D]6Ss"=2 s ]UFM2m|v|.evscKXH:=o`] = .22s]2Ivs.HCS v"22Q v.s2?Gv.svH2CpGp2..ss2=p2.s&o6 v 22|= 2 s.c6`]y2&=kv2Mfs2.C.v.MF]uc2.HOawo...cpy2U=.2sv=~I2 Hy22 cS2]F22vo2
`sb.?vsbA`.c$6S
Iline = Iphase
3-phase, 3-wire connection

"line"
120 V 0o
+
120 V
240o +
"line"
+
120 V
120o
.=H] vv2sss6o IM6s2`2C.&]G2vp.=.cvseH&cvvM..c?2svvsC.2.=v=.G2cCa.`=.vFvaSH .C"2 vv2.sH.Cv&=cG.v.Ib=D.vo.] H?2UCv =??sI2.=.Dc"H$2HH.8..26s]"]?HC2vOkFe.vG.I.`=IsS& b..2o=]:svswF

=I
vCs|7 2.v=Q= .Us=..| v .6o .vHQ U =C` 2-s. D]=.sIpeUb.svbTUvv.XH?oo.v...HvS
``B8$=$wo.C.=G l o=]Aws4oCC=vvX. IGH2k].C.vsU:GvGvssvCsHvIv& .=?.wov`C=vUH 22.vvS==..vss=
`sb.GCs.2=vFvvsM]=.UvH2 Z]b `v2U2. l ]b.HI2 fv2c].sp XvsH
"line"
j
(120 V 0o) + (120 V 240o) + (120 V 120o)

Does it all equal 0?
|Hvyso]b.H.H6fU2s]pmOv.:v62m.Up.oOH.vHf"vvv.c.=v HH 2 .H2|22`.-IX=U.so22]U Hv6vH`HC=c.$2-=~]s]v=ss..FH=2]|v.F$D?2Ub2D=]C=vs.s|?.2GGvX.CHv2 c `^=wovC..2=2Xbv.Q2HOvHUvf.vAQvv.s

.H
Yes!
C0
0,-*i:Do .,
CECGF * C6HF
120 V 0o
+
120 V
240o
+
120 V
120o
E
should equal 0 V
U
o
'UsCv2| f :vsv&.Hv 2Uc`s..2 upCs.2=vFvvse]=.Uv&Z] Ì=2. l
break
(120 V 120o) + (120 0o) + (120 V 240o) + Ebreak = 0
0 + Ebreak = 0
E
=0
Hv =woC2:2vUvQv.X.H 2.csOvsC`.p.vH=fò].6
`v. | v..XpHvICC.s=.IsCHfv=sC2 ` sZ]b=...=Ff`vFs|v.vsCh.]=2.v. H]v22|22XIc=.=bSX]`=ps.2vf s.v v^v??]v

b .H:HCscvHo]=soGCvs2.pOC.v.HX=o]=s"bs].v=kQp"]=f.s.H=]vvFG2bvsFISv=?"2pvvU2v.mo]M:IC.=6"`"s.|.M.v|HU . s=]I:o]].HU.vwos
6. | .2bb2c2$c]`~"O~'"UsC`msv&b..=GH.s.=cI . G2.22v UX> `2 H$vcv2.* FF2s2IS?IFs2 oaCO.v.p]2~"b s~22.DsC|Ios2so.2Fv
]svU 2I..v.22UvsSvFI.v.c'UsCv2sOy= ]=.s=.Cv2|C:="y26H
break
For ("delta") circuits:

Eline = Ephase
ÌHX.6.IO= "&2b2c.So].H
Iline =
l '
phase
120 V 0o
+
120 V
o
240
10 kW
+
120 V
120o
10 kW
10 kW
vs ].vvHUHf=oH===ok .vFsI=I~oXC2s*c.vF]] .sw`` 8 =wo(uX y vp= CcsSHHv$H ?.s=Ic`sb.e6S.Gv2.o]=

j
*+,-,/ .,JZ+ C Z+ FU8 * F Z:
4

P
E
I=
10 kW
120 V
I = 83.33 A (for each load resistor and source winding)
I=
Iline =
Iphase
Iline =
3 (83.33 A)
Iline = 144.34 A
c" 2 c=sUC.~p:CHv2.opvk.G..?=S ]..CvUU2Uo2OFXGC"..v.OK+.Zvh]H.2U s2..vsH?]=vIH6"I6b"SIv.fHH Ivb="I8v=pH " vH'.UcsC2:s=FTC s9 69 M5 O9 7 ?C.cMs sp H?b2IUI.sSo"~ao2C=sUvbvFH6CvH
"]==22s.Gbksv.]v'f=U"'.Us.CvvF.UQopX.pF.]DwHvv$vXwo 6Xv.U CM 2v4 X.] $= .2H$.HU.cf22Cs:^b]2=sIvv=HcOX`y=6" v'.uX .D`S.yC=XI"CIb"IbvHI"?.2]sb]wX` $`v].~~"=.2HHvvQ.2sfs]C:2v.ss
v'su v2p$ 2s2s.C:=CpO2 2 . $:2'Ù].=svFb s]yv2=S2 hkv v.22sU b.sv==Iop IbIv . .kv.cCcD$6OHp) C
Vj
v
QI]v7$H.`*=b b~.HH`bvvmoC2 `H2 v=cvo.CfM=2O.X2s.=HIH b F22.2.2HFH`2vCHpp=I..bDcIvC=" =vk.y?2s^ s22ov s? 2C.U$22:..X. H"bvospCbv`|C.8Cm =.HvH?HJv2K+2vZ ]$=cy.2v.sFv . vFF
$H=vIF.v v2s ` .Zs]2=v.`.`FvsFb.]s=v..w .s =Iv 2F2Co=``=2s$.22vs&I2=cmUUkCbobvFH^C]2=$..cH]2vF.H=]?=vcs
=2cH=o
j
22s:A .28vsH.=2Xps ^`vss.2.UHfCv F~O= C2U..2F2H2?v.. U.s2=.I.XFv2H.Go]v2.vpo]CO2wo$m|2.Òv.2=boCs

H ]ov.fMQ=$== I.22y2=
j
C0
120 V 0o
+
-
0,-*i:Do .,
CECGF * C6HF
120 V
+
winding
failed open!
V
120
120o
120 V
120 V
Even with the winding failure in the source,

line
voltage will still be 120 V and load phase
voltage will still be 120 V. The only difference
be extra current in the remaining functioning
will
source windings.
n u2 T J & Q y.y ; yyu' 8 3 ' #& Q5y &'

K+ U '.
2 U ' yy y.yu-j+>/ 8 y ; u I
.
y & q 6 y.y
208 V
+
120
0Vo
V
120
120o
104 V
104 V
winding
failed open!
Y U 'Q :5 @ '& q ': .

' ' u q J y y
K 3 ' y n .
# un: 2 ; T 8= .
J
y y yyu u u( j
; y y BKJ 3 'c& q
+
120
0Vo
V
120
120o
104 V
winding
failed open!
104 V
0V
' & :y p2 q ' .

Q ' p
u c y 2p=
u
u8 ' & 3 'x& q p p = ' y j~: u -
K u 3 pQ.
u q u' 6''.p j Vj ( p y/ y & +
u y T j
MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
*+,-,/

"!
Z $
#%!
!
CGF ! C6oF

M'& 3 u U p 'u ( 5 ' 2I& q 6 y y'*),+%.-0/Tj

M'& 8u 8 2y B 2I& q 6 y y' / -0/Tj
M " +%. - 121 ) - 3u 6 '54 /' :yy'y B 2 qU j
M /0- 121 ) -By 6u u8 ' & & y 8 ' ' 2=& q 8
j
M " +%. -87 9:9-U\y U& : u = y34 /' 5 &6& q Qy j
M /0-7U 9:9-G ' + u c u8u 6 8 y&y 22 q
j
4 ''
= K = > y?
=5 25 u q 8p c @(
M<; <
yy & 2 U& j
For "Y" circuits:
Eline =
Ephase
Iline = Iphase
M<; A4 'n 0y6 u q 8 u 2Bu H y=yy & u

& U / 8
p ( j
For ("delta") circuits:

Eline = Ephase
Iline =
Iphase
M u 3 p &C u q u+2 q ' - y 4y 5y J> ' @(@ y.yD(

KJ 3 'x& q pj +/> KJ 3 'x& q p ' Y.' 8 8 8 @(
: cp&yy U c U 'c& q pj
+T_FE
cfee:cbIdGeiGfbkcdHGhBfefjUfj3iGd
I y & y 2p=&I@( 'J( : y & 4 . y =. @K p&& :: 8p

' & L( *4 4 'u ' O nj & 55 n & y &
2yu & &q L( 8 A4Q u' I &q L( : 4 :' /
28 '+y ( u y >\y8y 8 ( I & &
&q M ( 8 jT+/> G2 & &q L( 8 B4 y ( u& K > 4
( cp& 8' .p& &N p&:y ( 8. 2 j
O 2 L ( B =@
( 'Q& B@( y n2 y.yu>0 u #2
: u8'c@ ( &P
4 jJQ/&& y K y K =&u &
R y' S
( 8 2 y
49
C0T
'U#Do
!
CECGF ! C6HF
V

Three-phase transformer core
Q& 5 y.yu: yW4 U 'QT :

K q u
& 262 :@(o y
5( T 8y j & X y uP4y uJ@(- . 6 p2 .u Y4 u 3 p
u c y4 Z( @( y & U y nj
[Y 8 c y.yn2 & u8u &&X4n u O y.y y &
&q M ( 8 I y.y 3 uTu y S
M'\Z]_^`<a
]_bAcXdfeghjiHkHa ]_b
M KE-K
M KE
M K
M
q ul( L( . u 3 y
& 2uU( u& cK
8 m( J T ' & y S K^ 3 u 2y 5 && 5( yy
u q u'>u yyB u U y ' R 2 y > \( y 4y (Gu .X( f I
: ' c y@ y 5( y@y3u u' I j
A 4 4 +8u y8 2q / & 3 @( u 3 y +& @(@ y =2 u y.yu
u + 5
( Q & M( 8 4 K 2 y u 2yl 8
&' I.' %
= u = ( y.yu jn ''P4 0 u & ' y &yH4 /' &
y.yu ( K S

! o
+
0o
"!
+
120o
Z $
#%!
240o
!
CGF ! C6oF

4u4
With these phase angles,

the center point of the Y
must tie either all "-" or all
"+" winding ends together.
+0 o
240o
+
p
120o
With these phase angles,

the winding polarities must
stack together in a complementary
manner (+ to -).
& y yB 2y & U = y.yu q 2 y K u y

54 & rK jl@ 8Iy &q S
A1
B1
C1
T1
T2
T3
A2
B2
C2
M( 8 B4 u 3 p u & q L( / ( u

& y.
5K+]K u y S
2I. jG ; q o& I y u 3 y $(
C0T
s
'U#Do
!
CECGF ! C6HF
V

Y-Y
t
A1
B1
C1
N1
u
T1
T2
T3
N2
t
A2
B2
C2
v T y T y.y5 FK p . u U p ' '& 3 Q &' O

> y 5 . 3 ' u B( ' ( Y= K =.j+ y
U
Q& u .8& U 'Q?= K =D( u yo( : &6@(o .&q
4
u U ZwvZx 5vy yc T: . j
v3
.: q y @ K y KQ+5K+ u y S
Y-
A1
B1
C1
N1
u
T1
T2
T3
A2
B2
C2
v B& u T Dz4 & u

& : u 3 pc y P=u. q ==&.I@(
y.y u 3 p = . =2.( 0{ ( 8 Junj O u u U y y
4 : -@(< .u> 3 uy- . yy+( J& 8: . | O U T> j
v3
.y q { 8 ]K L. '?S

! o
"!
Z $
#%!
}
!
CGF ! C6oF

s
-Y
A1
B1
C1
T1
T2
T3
N2
A2
B2
C2
I
q y / y~( = 2&u(: 6u 'J;y ] yy yy ]
.&q 2 Q/ L . '?( 2 J: L. ' y5 . j
O
y./ B u y S
-
A1
B1
C1
T1
T2
T3
A2
B2
C2
U 2 u =/ L. '? U y
[Y' I''5( J . u
8' 6 0( & '54 2( I ' 4 y Q@( q unj
>/ 2. y J u y c q 5 M( u3 yQ8y &Q y.yj& 8I/
' .p2y u& U ' 2 &q M( 8 4 K : &q L( 8
'& y q y T 2y8 .y4 I y T& =&.'>S
C0T
s
'U#Do
!
CECGF ! C6HF
V

"Open "
A1
B1
C1
T1
T2
A2
B2
C2
u y y ' yp8= =6 =J' bj =DT( & u 5( : L( G u 34

2 &N' . 8 (/ 0 y 5 q u _4 . :2u q y
& N'.:y u q p J( c: & T j/ yT8y/> u .
& 8&&y6( 8 & y6L. ' Qy u 2.' X( 6 y q ( 0
'

j ; (H 6@( / &q L( 8 : D( y 6 Bu ' / =. 64
U p j
2
&
C TH :XDC
2. J= ( J 2yu ] & O
.yu : : '&y 6 S
120 V
60 Hz
I$"0X
PX
: .
C0:H
u QCN
J
u uI2
60
ZR = 60 + j0 or 60 0o
E
Z
I=
I=
120 V
60
I=2A
; I0{ U ' 6 y : *45 fnT I j & : .&&y ' I

y 8: yJ4U@ 2 j": ' & y/ - ' p2 D U ' /= &
Bu U y 6y K &8y J > y Z qU j ; (/8:
y 3
u q U ' / u0( ( y qU . : T K K y>S
s@

T U !'#D
!
mm#%!
e=
i=
p=
+
Time
v 0 ( ( : y .H2 u ' ( 0 '&y j & y
8 : .$4'. 2y '4 '&y 6 = & p I2
y 3 u -j ; ( J& q : 8 q : K T@6 2 : &
@(08 \' 4 .32 &/ r & & ( j
O &T J 8 u0( ( / 6 6 8 8P(
Ju u I& p
n <
( > J
1 )- @(-' 6 J 5 U ' 0( -j & y. (
n 4 8 0
{. ' 2y # (J/ y O 8 2y 8 8y0{ 3q
u r q y &'l
( u u U #8' H4 ' & D( @(
L P4 y2y8yp yQ & ' y &y jP[Y*
( p B 8@ &
y 2y u u j
O &q Q2'
3
4p 'T O : y 2J
/ 7 ) 9
u 8 y & u& y u 8 & j
u y& y q &y 2y8y O Y qU ' 3 u S
120 V
60 Hz
160 mH
XL = 60.319
ZL = 0 + j60.319 or 60.319 90o

I=
E
Z
I=
120 V
60.319
I = 1.989 A
<#D
!M! $ H_ T!
mH_
HM!ZU
@
e=
i=
p=
Time
v / 6/ - p> 84 /' p(@2 ' & 8

/ "4y 42 4'Z( & p 2 ; ( 2 /: 8
' q u / K 8 q U y 8 ' & ( 4 &J/
:
4 &'?
4 & Iu & ( : y54B =&y Iy U / yT
4 u86 5 '& /
3.y q &.
v
~ y &y y@("4 cy U '&y S
Load
Lload
160 mH
120 V
60 Hz
Rload
60
@
" U !'#D
XL = 60.319
ZL = 0 + j60.319 or 60.319 90o
ZR = 60 + j0 or 60 0o
Ztotal = 60 + j60.319 or 85.078 45.152o
I=
I=
!
mm#%!
E
Z
120 V
85.078
I = 1.410 A
J ( > ' @(oBCN 88yy .@(y U 5 ' J( 3 u

& y u3q P4p B@( '& q ( T q y y' @($
R 6U s 2B s s ; (//q 6 u 'c & y'P; /q 6
yBu r H: ' U U ' 4 K u & .( 6u
& q
@u n. y X
= u & .( =y8p s @ ?[Y
/ ? u uJ ( @8 u C
nC I y U ' 8> & 3 nT I
88 : T ' I ( U 'Tyc& y' '& Ty U
[
K 3 u u8u 6.&&y P
N Q: y 4& 4/
(
& : J p @ ( & ( cy U U By
y K ' y&+. 2y C
N I: & J yy0 ( : By 2y / +y p2 u & y
( y =y' ; (H: K=: I ( ^y ( u q u U ' <: ( y
@
qU :I2' y X
4y uT: F K S
O
e=
i=
p=
Time
O J
u3 : 6 pT4 :'2 B
'+2 y ; u3 qU y ?4 /'u& u c /
5 yn.y' p y : .&& y O@(N' A: u 0 5 8{p
'&y 3q K y+ : ( yo yy 34 :'c2
' u 4 8 @(J2 : y { p 8 @(+' Q: ;
: uP
4ypc 3 u '& uI y u 88 : + 6 C4 urKQ
"!8 C ! o
mH_ m
o ! X'#D
!
@
& q
@ K y J u0( ( : & yJ4+>.' - - + 2-8 8+u
:u& 2.@( ' y ' y. y G :y08 :: 0 4& 4'
4 & p [Y y & y & y@(\/ 0 'U 0
u3q X
4 :@(u& % H :/ '&y G .y & p
. &y: ( qU By m( @(\ r ; ( & :: ' . ' q
8 (H8 <' Qp.' 2 ( : ?4 8 (G/ '
4 : I2 Q / y'>
'& / y O y # yyu $4 2 /

'
2 q B = 8X
( > ' Z
u q u5 ' B & 8 & uX
( / 8
& 8 l
c. ' ( T & y6
( ' u q uQ 8U& [Y y
( u u5 IU ' 6 '&
/+ rU+<+8+84 :' : u'> 8 2 yP
(
/ G p2' 9F2+ 1 4 /': y 2y ' B/ & p : ' &@ ( I8
O / . T
( O u q I 6 ' 3 y & u 'C
( : 4
yT <
/ 7r2)@9 pJ (o u q u U ' p2 q U
. (
2-r70 1 9:o 7 1 T.)-F6 p6@ (u ' y' : q / K '
28
(
'50
<;
<;
<;
PXr
'&y qU y qU : .&& p'4 '&y )

U ' y &
u q u
V
u3 u 0 qU / y5.&& p4 Qy ; Yn G/ y

42 4'6( u ' O 2 q "u q & Z . @(
& c
qU + &y y( '&y 3q {.' I yy 4B / .&& p
) @ & ' 24 . & 8/: y.0 D4y 2y ' & 8/ yy. '
4 42 4' 'H & y8 I qU y4 . ( &%4
2u' U
4 /' 5_
4
C$"0XlD
3T8 lT
'
[ K / U y - 3 -.y & CN' I: u C( u3/

Yu q U& uu' 8. By8 ' 2y 6 U& ' 1 .&&y
/ & y"= u : = ' ypB9-r7 +2- 1
-09: I G8 'y J 0' yp 1 ),Tj/
T-r70+_-Zw O n !"#> & %$ &$ !"')(*,+-#". $ 4-/,+.(0/, 1("'32 54 /! 6')#87:9 (0/1;9<! +3.=
< (* 4 '>+-+ ; <kX & ,(?"9<,+@ $ /19AB/@( 4 /! o4 '3C9@# EDGF /1 D ')##;' 4 ! &DGF '3(*'>(?9'>')#B(&+3+ ED 9H!
- 9 F D '>')# $I ,#"9 &D '3 !;#J7#;. $ 4-/,+3'N &D 4A.I (& 4 '>,+@+ " K F ,#B,+> L.#=0 & < (?/ $ 4'3<"'3/,
/ (G 1("'32 M4 /! B, D "9 N4 /! O')#B(*,+>+ &D r29- . 1!
- 9 F D '>B')#P J4 / D 9<(?B/@(QR(*'>(?9'>>q #O21/,+>,C
@
D (*9 1 F M'> /19O ( <( "/ 4 1# ,C,+ O 44 , A 4 /! P')# $S ,#"9 &D '>I 9'>O/@(% 1 ),Tj/
z7 O =N D '3#M#". $ 4-/,+3'N &D 4T.U < (* 4 'V+G+ ; I
O #9+ 1F "9 W4 /! ')#
(09@("'3/,X/@(NY(?'3(?9'>>q # D '3##;' 4 "'32 U + *$S 1# F 9<#"9<,+>+3.Z #"')#[<( #W7nJ=:
n ,('>2 54 /! 6'3# P
(09<('>/1/ (\(*'>(?9<'Vq #6 ,(?,<( 70]8=0 O 4<4 A 4 /! 6'3#MD(09<('>/1^/(_I(?'3(*9'Vq #
"/,,+_' $S4@ED <( 7a`G:= I '3<( q D +3'>CM'V #(*+) 19@A"'>"' #T(0/, 4 /! 8(*+)(?9<+3"'3/, F T.(?/ $S4 + {
8c
"
1d
! '#D
!
Mc
m#%!
#;""'3C'A9<,A"'>"' #e#;9<( ,#W21/,+>,C ,F (*9 1 F D ' $S4-&D ,<( Z$ 9<#;54 &4 # A &D 4T.f < '36 1 )@9
B +g
H -0/ F /C 4T.^ +G/,M' $ C1'><,". (,C,9<+3, (*/ $S4 /, 1# /,J'><#;,<( 1F '( ; q $ (&+)(?9+)!'><C"9
4 /! (0/ $ (?9 A , D #;')#;@( ,F ; $ 9<#;N9<# 4 /,+) $ C1'>"9 D (0/1N(?9 A F , D </ $S +3.U <
= ,+ =/,3
=' $ C1'><,". = 4 /,""'3/,h@/ ( (*9" A ; ( ; q $ (&+)(?9+)!'><Ce 44 A 4 /! (0/ $ 21/,+>C , D
' $I4-&D <( ,F 4-/ / ( # (0/, $S +>.Y(*/ $S4 + {*A9<,1'V' # $ 9<#;34 &D 9<( ED /^ '3 4 /,+) $ C,<'V9 D #
(0/, #(*+)M,"'> $S "')@
(
& , # 2 + 4 /! A9<!'>/1<#O +)!'><C * [. 4@ #B/( 4 /! O/ #"'3#;,<( 1F 1(,<( 1F , D
' $I4-&D <( 7:+3+G9<#"'><CW#"(&+)m A9<A"'>"' #:= S
2
P = true power
P=I R
P=
Measured in units of Watts
E
R
iQ = reactive power kQ = I2X kQ =
E2
X
Measured in units of Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR)
jS = apparent power
S = I2Z
S=
E2
Z
S = IE
Measured in units of Volt-Amps (VA)
KO+ 1# / !I [6/ A9<"'3/,<# 1( l /, < (&+)(?9+)!'>/1m/ l "9 D ,(?"'32 W4 /!
n & A9<!'>/1<#5L2!,'>+)o+ Rl /1J (*,+3(*9+3"'3/,Y/ l 4<4 A 4 /! F K p5q[rso '3Ce9<# *l 9+Nt2@uwv
l /, ! 4 9 4 /A# xrOy $ '> <Jl /1+>+3/!M'><C(?'3(?9'>#6 D # &J /!s # * [. 4@ #/ lz4 /! B'31 +3 1{
| #;')#['>2 +>/A D /1+3. {
I=2A
120 V
60 Hz
R
no
reactance
60
}P = true power = I2R = 240 W
kQ = reactive power = I2X = 0 VAR

S = apparent power = I2Z = 240 VA
| ,('>2 +3/1 D /1+3. {
1d <d~cx8_ N BDMcH_x T 5BGJJocX5DB
I = 1.989 A
no
resistance
120 V
60 Hz
b A
160 mH
XL = 60.319
}P = true power = I2R = 0 W
kQ = reactive power = I2X = 238.73 VAR

S = apparent power = I2Z = 238.73 VA
| #;')#['>2 L ,('>2 +3/1 DG{
Load
I = 1.410 A
120 V
60 Hz
Lload
Rload
160 mH
XL = 60.319
60
}P = true power = I2R = 119.365 W
kQ = reactive power = I2X = 119.998 VAR

n # * [. 4- #x/ -l 4 !/ z"9 ,F ,('>2 ,F , D 44 , 1zR +3 "/%/, </ < x'>I"'3C,/1/ $S "')(
l /, $ P &( +3+ ')# t
B? 2u ?{
JJ8cxB1dX5DBDMcM
"
The "Power Triangle"
Apparent power
(S)
measured in VA
Reactive power (Q)

measured in VAR
Impedance
phase angle
True power (P)

measured in Watts
J#"'3CU < +)LN#N/ l "'>C1/,/ $I ". F (*Z#;/1+>2 l /,J + C / l ,T.e#"' D 7: $ /,9A5/ l T.e[. 4@ / l
4 /! = F C,'32 ^ < + <C #M/ l /, [/U#"' D # F /,6 + <C / l 1/ #;' D D ,e,C,+
'50
Kx/! D '3##"' 4 ED oA.SR+3/1 D '3#B *l0 ED "/1#C H t

B? On_"9 J4 /! O'3#6#". $ o@/1+>'3 ED oT. + "
Kf, D '3# $S ,#"9 ED '3e 9<'VN/ l !"#R7:~=:
Kx/! $I +>.o@#;/1"o &D D "9 ED '>m+3/1 D D 9 /'># ,(?"'32 U4 / 4- ""' #')# *l0 ED /Z1#
" , <t
B* | 1('>2 4 /! 5')#%#;. $ o-/,+3'3 &D oA. + ; ^k D '3# $S 1#;9 &D '> 9'>%/ l
P/,+>L $S4 #La| ,(?"'32 7zxJ|J=0
nz/,+ 4 /! P'3S,U (*'>(?9'> F o@/, UD ')#"#"' 4 ! &D D ,o<#;/1"o &D- "9<" ED ')#P *l0 ED /R,#Cr "
t
B? P 4<4 A 4 /! P'3#O#". $ o-/,+3'> &D oT.R + ; 6I, D '3# $S ,#"9 ED '>I < 9'>B/ l P/,+>L $S4 #
z7 x5:
=
n # & [. 4- #8/ l4 /! % "'3C,/1/ $S "')(*,+>+3.e +3 &D "/e/, /, >%qh'>C J"')C1+ 1F
Kp DL 1( AM+ C, QF kp/ 4<4 /A#;'> + C, QF , D ep . 4 / T9<# + <C On / 44 /1#"'V C1+ '3#
A9<+/I (*'>(?9'>& # ' $I4-&D <( 7g`G= 4 ,# ,C,+
PX
R*C0U">lT@$HX
J# ,# $S A'>/1 &D o *l /, ,F < ,C,+ / l ')#M 4 /! B"')C1+ RC1 4 ')(*+3+3.I'3 D ')(* #B "'3/o [ *
< $ /,9A/ l_D ')#"#"' 4 ! &D 7:/,Rt2<H *= 4 /! D < $ /,9A/ l o@#;/1"o &D@ "9 EDS4 /! xqa ,+3#"/
44@ <#/Yo < #" $S C1+ 1# !/ l (?'3(*9'VE #' $S4-&D ,<( '> 4 /,+) l /, $ y 4 ## &D
,#8 l ,(?"'3/, F '3#8!"'3/Wo [ * "9 I4 /! 8 D 44 , 1 4 /! 5'3#8(*,+>+ &D t
B? 0, at Nl /1J '3#
(?'3(?9'>> % (*,9<# "9 4 /! 5 D 4<4 A 4 /! l /, $ D! ,( AJ De . 4 /, T9<# #"' D #M/ l S'3C
1d dxJ$U__NcHM5DBDMcM
"')C1+ 1F # 4- ('>2 +3. F <4 /! l 1(/,8"'3/')#8,+3#"/ A9<+\"/^ < (*/1#"'> / l ! 4 ,# <C,+ J#"'><C
2!+39 # l / $ +),#; y $S4 + (?'3(*9'> {
Power factor =
Power factor =
True power
Apparent power
119.365 W
169.256 VA
Power factor = 0.705
cos 45.152o = 0.705

qaN# /,9+ D o /, ED ! 4 /! l ,(?"/, F +3'> ,+>+G!'>/ $S 1#;9< &$I A# F ')#NeH gu A9<A"'>[.
/1O J4 9< +>.I #;')#;"'32 (*'>(?9'> F J4 /! l ,(?"/1B')# 7 4- l0 (= F o (*,9<# ,(?"'32 M4 /! 19@+)#
"/j 1F Y4 /! S"'3,C,+ /19+ D +3/T/,m+3'3 /1"'3*/11+M+3'> ,F o (*,9<# / 4<4 /A#;'> 7: ,('>2
4 /! =6#"' D 6/,9+ D^ L2 "/I+ C,
/1 4 9 +>.'> D 9<('>2 (?'3(*9'V F <R4 /! l 1("/1M'3#N / F o (&9<# "9 4 /! A9<+)# "/j ,F
<J4 /! O"')C1+ 6/,9+ D +3/T/,I+>'3 R2 ""')(*,+<+3'> ,F o (*9@# DL 1( A570"9 J4 /! =x#;' D 6/,9<+ DS L2
"/I+ C,
n #" $S (*/,9+ D o #' D l /1U 4 9< +>.m(& 4 1(?'>"'32 (*'>(?9<'V mq l , / D '3##"' 4 "'32 70 #"'3#;"'32 =
S
$
(?/ 4 /1 A#'>X (?'3(*9'> F < "9 4 /! $ 9<#;So ^ A9<+B"/Z / Fx$ T'3C,A. 4 /! R'3m <
(?'3(?9'> 4 9 +3. 1("'32 Bn R4 /! "')C1+ %l /1J 4 9 +3.^(& 4 1(?'>"'32 (?'3(*9'>N/19+ D ,C1'3eo S2 ""')(*,+
+3'> 7 4 /1'>A'>C D /!M^'3<#; D / l 9 4 1# 'VN ,# l /1 4 9< +>.W'3 D 9@("'32 (*'>(?9<'V=:
Kx/! l 1("/1M(*o ^' $S4 /,",1M,# 4- (6"/S(?/1<#"' D '3^,^ (*'>(?9<'V F o (*9@# T. 4 /! l ,(?"/1
+ ##B 8$I <# ! < (*'>(?9'>& # M'3"'3C ,#"/U(*,". $ /, (?9<" A6 , 6/,9<+ D o ( ##.
M'> "/ 1(<( '>S (*'>(?9'>P"/ D +3'>2 P # $S $ /19AB/ l 70"9 = 4 /! P/ #;')#['>2 +>/A D \q l
/,9<+),#; y $S4 + (?'3(?9'> D o * 4 9< +>.U #"'3#;"'32 1F /19+ DW L2 o & ^,o+ / D +>'32 6 l 9+3+ b @
$S4 #/ l (?9 A F % , W$S Y
16;#
!;#%"/Y +3/1 D M'V # $S
'>I')# 4 # 1+>. D ')#"#"' 4 !'>CZM'V !S#" $I (?9 AX
A9<A'V[. Zn e4 /T/1 4 /! l ,(?"/1 $ # l /,,
'3 ? (?' A 4 /! D +3'>2 .#".T#; &$
Kx/T/, 4 /! l ,(?"/1(*,Uo (?/1" (? &DQF,4 , D /Ly'3(&+3+>. F oA.U DD '3C</ < O+3/1 D "/ (*'>(?9'> D LM'3C
A9<+B, D / 4<4 /A#;'> $ /,9AR/ l 1("'32 U4 /! F "/Z(*@( +/,9 W*- (#R/ l +3/1 D #R'> D 9<('>2
,(?,<( q D 9<(?"'32 ,(?@( (&Z/,+3.o (&<( + &D oT.(& 4 1(?'>"'32 ,(<( ,F #"/^ L2 "/ DD
F, at '> 4 ,,+>+ +-"/S/19 y $S4 + (?'3(*9'>M1#6 DD '>"'3/,<,+G+>/A D Pn *- (M/ l < # [6/S/ 44 /1#"'3C
r
,(?,<( #'3 4 +3+ +'3#6/Uo'>CI (?'3(*9'>& #6"/+G' $S4@ED <( A9<,+"/S'V# "/,,+G #;')#[<( 70"/ $
< ' $S4-&D ,<( 4 ,# ,C,+ % A9<,+ F /1 N+ ,#;N(?+3/1# F "/S "/T:=
T'3<( A</! ! 709<<(?/1" (? &D =% ,(?"'32 U4 /! ')# 1?
\5|70'3 D 9<(?"'32 = F &&D /
(*,+3(*9+)! < (?/, (S(* 4 ,(*'V/,U#;'3 "/ 4 / D 9<( #" $S A9<,A"'>[. / l 7(* 4 ,(*'V'>2 = ,(?"'32 4 /!
T'3<( '3#S(* 4 ,(*'V/,M'>+3+o D '> (?"+3. '> 4 +3+ +M'> #"/,9( 7:/ l T/!MX2,/,+>,C = F +3+69<# <
4 /! l /1 $ 9+) '3( #;"# l / $ 2,/,+>,C D ,(?,<( 1{
b 1
JJ8cxB1dX5DBDMcM
"
Q = E2
X
. . . solving for X . . .
X = E2
Q
X =
(120 V)2
1
2fC
. . . solving for C . . .
119.998 VAR
C =
X = 120.002
C =
1
2fX
1
2(60 Hz)(120.002
)
C = 22.105 F
& # 9<# /,9< D&D (* 4 ,(*'V/, 2!+39 / l b,b m
, D # & ! 44@ <#6"/U/19N(?'3(?9'> {
Load
Itotal = 994.716 mA
IC =
995.257
mA
120 V
60 Hz
Iload = 1.41 A
160 mH
XL = 60.319
Lload
22 F
Rload
60
1d dxJ$U__NcHM5DBDMcM
Ztotal = ZC // (ZL -- ZR)
Ztotal = (120.57 -90o) // (60.319 90o -- 60 0o)
Ztotal = 120.64 - j573.58m or 120.64 0.2724o
}P = true power = I2R = 119.365 W

n 54 /! l ,(/, l /, (?'3(*9'V F /!2 +3+ F, 1#Oo * e#;9<o<#[A"')+3+3.' $S4 "/!2 &D xn 5$ ,'>^(?9 A 1#
o * D (* ,# &Del / $ $S4 #J"/5@j $ '3+>+3') $S4 # F '>+ 4 /! D '3##;' 4 &D ! J +>/A D #"'3#;"/1
*$ '3<# 9<( C &D ! 1R6;# Pn 4 /! l ,(/,M')# $ 9@( (*+>/A# /Uo '><C 1{
Power factor =
Power factor =
True power
Apparent power
119.365 W
119.366 VA
Power factor = 0.9999887

Impedance (polar) angle = 0.272o
cos 0.272o = 0.9999887

T'3<( ' $I4-&D <( C1+ ')#R#['>+3+B 4 /1#"'V'>2 A9 $ o F A</! ! < (?'3(*9'> F /!2 +3+ F ')#R#;"'3+>+
$ /, '> D 9<('>2 ,Z'>R'3#(* 4 ,(?'>"'32 q l /,9< 4 /! l 1("/1(?/, ('>/1 * /1;# D o * 4- l0 (?"+3./,
,"C F 6/,9<+ D L2 "'32 ED J' $I4-&D <( C1+ / lx y,(+>.^ "/ F /, 4 9 +>.^ #;')#;"'32 q l D
D<D&D "/T/^+)C / l ^(& 4 1(?'>"/,8'3 4 ,,+>+ + F 6/,9+ DY L2 D&D 9 4 M'V ,Z' $S4@ED <( ,C,+
,# C1!'>2 ,F '3 D ')(*!'><CS 6 (?'3(?9'>N61# $ /, (& 4 1(?'>"'32 ,^'3 D 9@("'32
qa_# /,9<+ D o /, ED z/A/ $ 9<( (& 4 1(?'>@( '3R (*'>(?9'>zM'3+>+A #"9+V_'>N+>/! 4 /! l ,(?"/, 9<#[
,#J +>+x,#N"/T/ $ 9<( '3 D 9<(?@( NO/,9 $ 9<#[8o (*, *l 9+z/,J//!2 L(?/1" (?6 < DD '3C(* 4 ,(*'V<(
"/ (?'3(*9'V hO/,9 $ 9<#;S,+3#"/Yo ? ve(*, *l 9+B/Z9@# e4 / 4- S(* 4 ,(?'>"/1# l /, /,o70! ED
D A9<! +3. l /1 4 /! #".#[ *$ 2,/1+VC #R D /(*(*1#;'3/,@+O21/,+>C # 4 '> Wl / $ +>'3C "<'>Ch#["'3 # F\l /1
(?/1A"'3A9</,9<#M # "2T')( ,F , D (* 4 o+ / lx D +>'3CI y 4@ ( ED + 2 +)# / l (?9 A0=
q l 8(?'3(*9'>\')# 4 ED / $ '3<A+>.%'3 D 9<(?"'32 ,F #"L.8 !x'V# 4 /! l ,(?"/,x')#6u %70o (&9<# (?9 A
L2 Nl /1 (*'>(?9'>M+3,C1#6o * '3 D 44 +3' ED 21/,+>C L2 := /,T2 # +3. F ' l I(?'3(*9'VM')# 4 &D / $ '3<,1+>.
(* 4 ,(*'V'>2 ,F #"L.Z '># 4 /! l ,(/,'3#u @hn 9<# F /19 y $S4 + (?'3(*9'VS#[" ED /,9M'>
4 /! l 1(/,M/ l ,2A+)C1C,'3C F , D ,#M(*/, ( &D /U 4 /! l ,(?"/1M/ l +3,C,C1'>jC
'50
Kx/A/1 4 /! l ,(?"/1U'> (?'3(*9'V $ L.mo (*/, ( &DGF /,U #;,o+>')# &D !h2!+39 (?+3/1#
"/ ,F oTY
. D<D '>< C 4 ,,+>+ +\ ,(?@( / 4 4 /1#"'V S? (?R/ l +>/A D #8 ,(?@( q l < +3/1 D #
JJ8cxB1dX5DBDMcM
"
,(<( 3' #M'3 D 9@("'32 '><"9 07 ')( ')#N+ $ /1#;J+36L.#6M'>+3+zo = F@4 +3+ +BFr1 2 ')#M
'3# &&DED "U
/ (?/1" (? 4 /T/, 4 /! l , (/,
[
PX
$?mRf*C@$HXmPJ$"08
&&D ')# #6"/W(?/1" (? l /1 4 /A/1 4 /! l 1(/,M'3Y 4 /! N#;.#; &$eF .,/,9 4 /,o<,o+3.W/1Q
L2 +39y9.W/ l T/!M'3CI +3/1 D # y,(? '3 D 9@(,<( '> ".# /U9<# %l /,M.,/19N(*,+3(*9+)!"'3/,@# PO/19
$ L.Yo Sl /,""9< S </,9C / L2 '3<#["9 $I A(*+3+ &D 6<t
B* 010t * /^ +3+O.,/19Z ! <
4 /! l 1(/,P')#M7:8T9 $ o Po [ * 8% D = F , D 44 A 4 /! M7: '3( (*,o <C19 ED oT.T'3C
Y21/,+> $S D '3CY'3m2,/1+V#, D $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><CoT. X $I$S D '3CY'3X $I4 #=0Zqm+ ## l L21/,o+
(?'3(?9 $ #;@( #.,/19 $ L. L2 "/9<# ,/1#(?'3+>+3/1#(?/ 4@ /(*/ $S4 21/,+>C D (?9 A L2 ?l /1 $ # F
$S 1#;9'3C 4< ,# # ' l J'3Ya[;5, D (*+)(?9<+3"'3C 4 /! l ,(?"/1MoA.W (*/1#"'> / l ! 4 ,# # ' l >
/A#[P+3'> +3. F .1/,9IM'>+3+ L2 1(*( #"#\/5 !" $S l /1 $S ,#"9'><CJ"9 M4 /! F /1# D '3C%.,/19(*,
(?/ $S4 CA'3<#;J(*,+3(*9+)!"'3/,/ l 44 A 4 /! 7 l / $ $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><CW"/,,+_21/,+>C D "/+x(?9 A
$S 1#;9 *$S 1#0= H<"/ $ 2!,+>9 #B/ l "9 , D 44 A 4 /! F .,/,9W(& D $ '3 1("'32 M4 /! B, D
4 /! l 1(/, " E # D /S, y $S4 + %4 "/1o+ *$ /S# * /!s '3# 6/,# {
240 V
RMS
60 Hz
wattmeter
ammeter
Load
Wattmeter reading = 1.5 kW

Ammeter reading = 9.615 A RMS
\'>#; F &&D "/ (*,+3(*9+)! 44 A 4 /! S'3fxDO (*, D / ')#UoT. $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><C +>/A D
2,/1+VC oT.W+3/1 D (*9" A {
S = IE
S = (9.615 A)(240 V)
S = 2.308 kVA
J #R (& # &,F b 1x'3# $ 9<( +)C Z@C,9 , eA F '3( +3+3#R9<# ! W4 /!
l ,(?"/15'3Y '3#%(*'>(?9'>%'3#5 4 /T/,S7:#"9o<#;,1'3,+>+3.+ #"#J =:N/! F @C,9 4 /! l 1(/,8/ l
'3#M+3/1 D oT. D '>2T' D '><CS "9 %4 /! MoT.U 44 , 1 4 /! {
1d dmBJDMcH xJ5DBDMcM M JNMcH*%
Power factor =
P
S
Power factor =
2.308 kVA
1.5 kW
Power factor = 0.65
J#"'3Ce )' #%2!+39 Il /, 4 /! l 1(/, F (*, D L 4 /! 8"'3,C,+ ,F , DYl / $ D $ '3 <
,(?"'32 84 /! M/ l '3#N+>/A DG{
Apparent power
2.308 kVA
(S)
Reactive power (Q)
???
True power (P)

1.5 kW
n_/ D $ '> 9<T/!M70 1('>2 J4 !/ =P"'3,C,+ A9<,1'V[. F 9<# < BK .1 C1/, ,Sn < /, *$
o@,(T6, D # F SC,'32 + C, / l . 4 / T9<# 7: 44 , 1 4 /! =N, D + C / l DL ,( A
#"' D 70"9 %4 /! = {
Reactive power =
(Apparent power)2 - (True power)2
kQ = 1.754 kVAR
q l '3#+>/A D ')#, + (?"'3( $ /,"/1 F /, $ /1#;IT.h/ '> D 9<#["')+ +3/1 DQF '>M'3+3+ L2 Y+)C1C,'3C
70'3 D 9@("'32 = 4 /! l ,(?"/, F ')( $S <#_ !x +3+ L2 "/%(?/1" (? l /,x'>PM'V SrF, at / l 4<4 "/ 4 '3
#"'> ,F M'3 &D '> 4 +3+ + N/! S T/! < $ /,9AU/ l ,('>2 4 /! 7 ,@xJ|J= F (*,
(*,+3(*9+)! #;'3 / l (& 4 1(?'>"/, &&DED /W(?/19A ,(?6'># ? (# {
JJ8cxB1dX5DBDMcM
bb
"
Q = E2
X
. . . solving for X . . .
X = E2
Q
X =
(240)2
1
2fC
. . . solving for C . . .
1.754 kVAR
C =
X = 32.845
C =
1
2fX
1
2(60 Hz)(32.845
)
C = 80.761 F
|M/19 D '3C8 ')#B,<#" \/ "/R F (& 4 +),( !B#"'3 / l (* 4 ,(*'V/,x'3 (*'>(?9'>B D (&+)(?9+)!
< #;9+># {
240 V
RMS
60 Hz
wattmeter
ammeter
80 F
Load
Ne (* 4 ,(?'>"/1BM'3+>+ L2 (* 4 ,(?'>"'32 ,(?@( / l 3 F C,'32T'><CI(?9 A/ l b ,R $S4 # F
D (?/1" # 4 /, D '3C^ ,('>2 4 /! %/ l @W\5|7 l /,% < (& 4 1(?'>"/1Ut@<uwv*=0WT'>@( (& 4 1(?'>"/1& #
(?9<" AQ')# \/19z/ l4 ,# xl "/ $ < +3/1 D #G'3 D 9@("'32 (?/,A"'3o9'>/1%"/J(*9" A D L F (& 4 1(?'>"/1& #
,(?"'32 84 /! MM'3+3+ D '> (?"+3.^#"9o1( l "/ $ < +>/A D # ,(?"'32 84 /! F #;9<+V'>CS'3 {
Inductive kVAR - Capacitive kVAR = Total kVAR
1.754 kVAR - 1.737 kVAR = 16.519 VAR
n ')#M(?/1" (?"'3/, F / l (?/19# ,F M'3+>+z/J( ,C < $ ,/ 9AM/ l "9 %4 /! N(*/,<#"9 $S&D oT.U < >+ /A DGF o 9
'>JM'>+3+Q #"9+>N'>YU#"9o<#;,1'3,+Q &D 9<(?"'3/,/ l 4<4 A 4 /! F , D / l /+z(*9" A D LM l "/ $ <
b PP/1+VJ#"/,9<( ,{
1d dmBJDMcH xJ5DBDMcM M JNMcH*%
Power triangle for uncorrected (original) circuit
Apparent power (S)

2.308 kVA
Reactive power (Q)

1.754 kVAR
(inductive)
True power (P)

1.5 kW
1.737 kVAR
(capacitive)
Power triangle after adding capacitor

Apparent power (S)
True power (P)
1.5 kW
Reactive power (Q)

16.519 VAR
n 4 4 A 4 /! 5(&Yo l /,9 DYl "/ $ "9 , D ,(?"'32 R4 /! J2!+39 # F 9<#"'><CW <
#; D DWl /1 $ / l KO.A 1C /, ^n /1 &$e{
Apparent power =
(Reactive power)2 + (True power)2
Apparent power = 1.50009 kVA
n ')#PC,'32 #P(?/1" (? &D4 /! l ,(/,P/ l 7;!T ,1Jx5= F /,O 1,1 F , D 8 f"/,,+<(?9 A
/ l 7[ ,,1,5x b 1UP/,+>#= F /, b 5 $S4 # F #;9<o<#[A"')+<' $S4 /!2 &$I Ax/!2 x 9<(*/, ( &D 2L,+>9 / l
LR $I4 #*Pn ')# +>/! 6/,+G(?9 A M'3+3+"<#"+3 "/S+ ## < !M+3/1## #6'>^ (*'>(?9'>MM'>'3C F$S ,'3C
C, #".#[ *$* (?' <(*.Z70+ ## 4 /! 6 ,#; ED =:
b !
"JJ8cxB,1dX5RBRMcM
ZU*
x \NPRR xNP
+ (?"/ $S ( ')(*,+ $S $ /!2 *$S A#B(?/ $S '>[/o<,#"'3(5,C &$S A# { /1# o<1# ED /, f$ /!2
$S A D #"'3C,<# F D /A# e <C,'3 * ED # 4@ (?'@(*,+>+3. l /,U 9<# Xn < o<1#;')( 4@ $ A a$ C, $S
$ /!2 &$I A y 4 +3/, &D '> $S ( 4 R/ l '3#o@/T/,hM'3+>+/6/,(*/, ("+3.' lND '3 ("+3.(?/,
( ED /U+> <"'3C(*9" A F o (&9<# RD '3 ('>/1/ l *ED + 8$ /!2 *$S A M'>+3+Q( <C M'> e 1( ,+ l
(?.(*+ / l -K $ , A a$ C1 $S $ /!2 *$S A# F +>'3 R4- $ A a$ ,C, $ //,# F D 2T')( #
/A# 5$ /,"'3/, D*4- D #/1W 54 /,+)'>[.I/ l < 44 +3' ED 2,/1+VC 70/1 F .,/19(*,W '><U/ l '>6'3W $ #/ l <
D '3 ('>/1^/ l (?9 A0=
DArsonval electromechanical meter movement
50
0
100
"needle"
magnet
magnet
wire coil
through this movement will cause
AC
the needle to flutter back and forth
uselessly.
qR/1 D Q/59<# #;[.A+ B$S $ /!2 &$I A\#"9<( ,#z < J#"/,T2!+ D #"'3C, F ,+V <!'><CJ(?9 A
$ @9 #[6o I"
'>A"/ n ')#'3# $ /1#; 1#;'3+3.I1(*(?/ $S4 +>')# &D /,9C 9<# / lzD 2T'3( #(*+3+ &D t 1
#L D '3/ D # 9@# ED '3 y $S4 + (*'>(?9<'V D&$ /1<#;"!"'3C (* !"'3/,^/ l\ $ /,')( l 9 <(?' # l / $
D '3#;"/1; &D 7:/,% (' &D =5#;'3 6L2 '> /19C,/,'3C^'>A"/ +)o-/,! D ,'>+x/!2 /!, D . D '3/ D #
6/,S1#O . D / FE 9<#; *$S&$ o . ,( 1(6+>'3 /1 L.2!+32 Jl /, + (?"/,<#B"/</! { ,(?"'3C
b
JJ8cxB<dXR!Y5cx#"%$&"[%(')"*c+*
b
, # , (*/, D 9@("/- l /M- /1 %4 /1+ , "- '>[. , D , ^'3<#"9+ , "/- l /- , </ < - /.8D<D +>. /19C QF , -0-/! , D '> , (
D '3/ D #;. $ o@/1+ 4 /1'>A#1231 4 5
7608:9<;=9-0>@?6A6A9B@B7?C-09D560?FEG@E l 9HF9ID560-AEGJKEMLN- , 6A8K9-&6A8 , G@L#?608?F6 ,O EG:9P>@?FQ836
9?y7;=9D6 <-0- , G:Q9IB?CG , o:-0?RB7Q9S l ETK-UB7?CEVB:9 O L#?CHCH O 9-0W9(6AE O 6A99-J 608:-AET:Q8X608:9J>@9609-<>@EMW9>@9G36<?CG ,
DEG O 6 , G36<B7?C-A9ID560?FEG608:-AET:Q8KET76 , HCHY;=E-A6A?CEG O E l 608:9R DZVDHF9 {
"Rectified" AC meter movement
50
0
100
"needle"
magnet
magnet
wire coil
-
AC
source
always be driven in
will
the proper direction.
Meter movement needle
Bridge
rectifier
<GKE6A8K9- O 60- , 6A9QZ l E- , ;:- , D560?CD , H\ >96A9->@EMW9>@9G36? O 60E-09B79 O ?CQG[6A8:9>EMW9>@9G36(L#?608:ET76(6A8K9

C? G:8:9-09G36(;\EH , -A?F6%Z O 9G O ?F6A?CW3?F6%Z]E l 6A8K9 6%ZV;\9 O nP8K? O >@9 , G OU, WE?CB:?FG:Q@608:9JT O 9E l ;\9-A> , G:9G36> , QG:96 O
^/-0E,o , o:HCZJ608:9 O ?C>@;:HF9 O 6PB79 O ?CQG? O 6AEJT O 9 , G:EG:> , QG:960?>9B_?C-AEG`W , G:9U6AE>@EMW9#608:9GK99B:HF9 , Q , ?CG O 6 O ;:-0?CG:Q
6A9G O ?FEGaSK608:9bW , GK9Ro\9?FGKQ , 6A6A- , D6A9BX60EML , -0B ,Ò 6 , 6A?CEG , -AZXDE?CHcE l L#?F-09b9GK9-0Q?39BeoVZd6A8:9I e T , G36A?F6%Z60E
o=9f>9 ,O T:-09B
Kg>gmRih ajYjxU*W$Uk[Y(jxBU*
l
Iron-vane electromechanical meter movement

50
0
100
"needle"
wire coil
iron vane
O >@9G360?FEG:9Bo\9 l E-09m?CGb608:? O o\EVE,nSo608:9P9HC9D560-AE O 6 , 60?CD , 6p60- , D560?FEGo=96%Lm99GJ6%LqE(>@96 , HV;:H , 6A9 OO 9; , - , 609B
oVZ , G , ?C-/Q , ;_D , GUo=9UT O 9IB6AEbQ9G:9- , 6A9 , G:99B7HC9 >@EMW3?CG:Q l E-0D9#;:-AE;\E-p60?FEG , H:6AEf608:9<WEH6 , Q9Mo\96%Lq99G@6A8K9
;:H , 609 O Pn 8:? O LmE- O T O 6 ,O Lm9HCH l E-N ,O ?F6UB7EV9 O l E-< S:E- O 8:ET:HRB^q OA, ZS T O 6 ,O ;=E3E-AHCZPnP8:9 l E-D9 O
?CG3WEHCW9IB , -09PW9-AZ O > , HCHrS>TKD8 O > , HCHC9-6A8 , G6A8:9#> , QG:960?CD , 6p6A- , D6A?CEGIo\96%Lq99G , G9G:9-AQ?>9BDE?FH , GKB , G
?C-AEGW , G:9S , GKB ,O/O TKD8@6A8:9 O 95 9HC9D6A-0E O 6 , 6A?RD*( >@96A9- >@EMW9>@9G36 O 609GKB60ERo=9 l - , Q?CHC9 , GKB9 ,O ?CHCZB7? O 6AT:-o\9IB
oVZs;:8VZ O ?RD , H)>@EMW9>@9G36 ft T76S l E- O E>98:?CQ8 WEH6 , Q9 , ;:;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG O S=6A8:99HC9D6A-0E O 6 , 60?CDJ>@EMW9>@9G6(? O
, GX9HC9Q , G36P6A9ID8:G:EHCEQZ
nP8:9 , 608:E7B7h
9 | , Zn)To=9Nu |xn<v>@9G60?FEG:9Be?FGw6A8K9x >@9609-0?FGKQ!D8 , ;76A9-X? O ?CB:9 , HCHCZ O T:?F6A9IB l E@> 9 ,O T:-0?CG:Q WEHF6 , Q9 O S39 O ;\9ID? , HCHFZ@? l 608:9y9HC9D560-AEGo=9 , >z? O#O Lq9;76 O ?RB79 6AE O ?RB79 , D-0E O0O 608:9 O D-A99GÈ l 6A8K9
6AT<o\9L#8:?CHF96A8:9>@9 ,O T:-09BY WEHF6 , Q9JB7-0?CW9 O 6A8:9Io=9 , >{T:; , GKBB7EML#G |Q- , ;K8:?CD , H)-A9;:-A9 O 9G36 , 60?FEG]E l
6A8K98 L , W9 O 8 , ;=9 , GKB`G:E6 T O 6 , >@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36qE l > , QGK?60TKB79yD , Gd9 ,O ?CHFZSo=98 , B`L#?F6A8 O TKD8 , B79WV?RD9
}<EMLm9W9-IS |xn% O 8 , W9#6A8:9(B7? OA, B7W , G36 , Q9 O E l Lq9?FQ836S O ?39S O ?FQG:?F\D , G6q;\EMLm9- DEG O T:>@;760?FEGaS , GKB l - , Q?FHC?6%Z
0u o=9?CG:Q~> , B79E l 9W , DT , 609BQH ,OAO vyLmE-3?CG:Q , Q , ?CG O 6b6A8K9> ~ E-b608:9 O 9-09 ,O EG O S)9HF9ID56A-0E>@9ID8 , G:?RD , HB
>@9609-#>@EMW9>9G36 O#O 6A?CHFHa8 , W9 , ;KH , D9f?CGd;:- , D6A?RD , HYT OA, Q9
?F6A8 O E>@9E l 608:9 , B7W , G6 , Q9 Oy, GKBxB7? OA, B7W , G36 , Q9 O E l 608:9 O 9@>@96A9-b>@EMW9>9G36609D8:G:EHFEQ?C9 O 8 , WV?CG:Q
o=99G~B7? O DT OAO 9B , HC-09 , B:ZS7608:9-09b? OU, GKE6A8K9- l , D56AE-D-ATKD? , HFHCZ?C>@;\E-p6 , G36 l E-#6A8:9B79 O ?CQG:9- , GKB]T O 9-<E l
>@9609-0?FG:Q_?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O 6AEUo=9 , L , -A9(E l% nP8:? O ? O 6A8:9f? OAO T:9fE l |<ZX>9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 O Lm9 , HC-A9 , B7Z3GKEMLfS
>9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 O@, -A9]E l 609GD ,O 6_?CG ,xO D , HF9]E l ;=EMLm9-@9 T:?CW , HC9GKD9SPD , HCHC9B(]uÈVE6 9 , G
T , -09Iv l E-U6A8:9 OA, 9fE l >@9 , G:?CG:Q l T:H&DE>; , -0? O EG O L#?F6A8[ , G\B]L#?608sE6A8K9-5 L , W9 l E-0> O E l W , -AZV?CG:Q
O 8 , ;=9 < EG:9#E l 6A8:9U>96A9-+>EMW9>@9G36+609D8:G:EHFEQ?C9 OO E l , - B7? O DT O0O 9IB?CG:8:9-A9G36AHCZb>@9 ,O T:-09m6A8:9J|UW , HFTK9
E l , Gf z T , G360?6%Z s96A9->@EMW9>@9G36 O -09HCZV?FG:QxEG!6A8K9X>@E6A?CEGNE l , >@9D8 , G:?RD , HPG:99B7HC9u:-A9ID56A?FK9IB
U - O EGVW , HSK?C-AEG W , G:9S , GKB]9HF9ID56A-0E O 6 , 6A?RDv , HFHc6A9G\BX6AE`>@9D8 , G:?RD , HFHCZ , W9- , Q96A8K9J?CG O 6 , G36 , G:9ET O W , HCT:9 O
?CG60E , GxEMW9- , HFH , W9- , Q9bW , HFT:9 l E-y6A8:9_L , W9 l E-0> Pn 8K? Of, W9- , Q9W , HCT:9_? O G:E6fG:9ID9 O0O0, -0?FHCZ]6A8:9 OA, >9 ,O
<| Y S , H608:ET:Q8`> , GVZ6A?C>9 O ?F6P? O >? O 6 , 9G ,O O TKD8 < W9- , Q9 , GKBWU| @ W , HCT:9 O - , 6A9 , Q , ?FG O 6 9 , D8_E6A8:9,O#O TKD8 l E-P608:9 O 9y6A8:-099fDE>@>@EGXL , W9 l E-0> O 8 , ;=9 O {
l
JJ(jxBKgXR!Yjx#"%$&"[%(')"j+*
RMS = 0.707 (Peak)
AVG = 0.637 (Peak)
P-P = 2 (Peak)
RMS = Peak
AVG = Peak
P-P = 2 (Peak)
RMS = 0.577 (Peak)

AVG = 0.5 (Peak)
P-P = 2 (Peak)
V?CGKD59 |< O 99> O 60ERo=9#6A8:95V?FGKB@E l >9 ,O T:-09>@9G36/>@E O 6/;\9E;:HC9 , -A9#?CG36A9-09 O 6A9IB@?FG_E1o76 , ?FGK?FG:QfL#?F6A8 , G
C? G O 60-ATK>9G36S , GKB`9HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , H:>@96A9-m>@EMW9>9G36 O G , 60T:- , HFHCZ@B79HC?FW9-y1M ? 12 >@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36 O - , 6A8:96A8 , GW|<YSL#8 , 6 , -09N >96A9-qB79 O ?CQG:9- O 6AEbB7EV 8:9 , 6SE l DETK- O 9,xn ZV;:?RD , HFHCZb608:9 ,OAO T:>@;76A?CEG@? O > , B:9
6A8 , 6y6A8:9_L , W9 l E-0> O 8 , ;\960Eeo=9_>@9 ,O T:-09B? O QE?CG:Qd6AEo\9 O ?CG:9su0oVZ l , -y608:9_>@E O 6bDE>@>@EGcSa9 O ;\9ID? , HCHFZ
l E-m;=EMLq9- O Z O 6A9> O vS , GKB@608:9G6A8:9(>@96A9-P>EMW9>@9G36 O D , HF9? Om, HF6A9-A9IBUoVZ6A8:9 , ;:;K-AE;:-A? , 609<>JTKH60?F;:HC?RD , 60?FEG
l , D6AE- E- O ?CG:9<L , W9 O Lm9 O 99P6A8 , 6|<Z? O 9 T , H760ER 60?F>@9 O 6A8:9U;\9 , JW , HFT:9#L#8K?FHC9J<W9- , Q9m? O 3
6A?C>@9 O 608:9_;\9 , nS O EXLm9@D , GB7?CWV?CB79@EG:9J\QT:-09 oVZs608:9@E608:9-y60EXE1o76 , ?FG , G , W9- , Q9 6AE |UXDEGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE-#E l E, {
0.707
0.637 = 1.1099
qGNE6A8K9-_LmE-B O S/6A8:9s>@9609-_>@EMW9>@9G36_L#?FHCMH o\9[D , HC>? oK- , 6A9B6AE?CGKB7?RD , 6A9 , ;:;K-ALE y7?C> , 6A9HF
Z 160?F>@9 O
8:?CQ8:9-f6A8 , G?F6JLqET:HRB~E-0B:?FG , -A?CHCZ!uG , 6ATK- , HFHCZ:v(?FGKB:?CD , 6A9L#?608G:E O ;=9D? , H , DDE>@>E7B , 6A?CEG O q6>JT O 6 o=9
O 6A-09 O0O 9IBb608 , 6/608:? O D8:9 , 6 EG:HCZbLqE"- O Lm9HCH:L#8:9G608:9<>@9609-/? O T O 9B60Ef>9 ,O T:-09m;KT:-A9 O ?CG:9#L , W9 O ETK-0D9 O
<E6A96A8 , 6 l E- 60-A? , GKQHC9<L , W9 O S608:9(- , 6A?CRE o\96%Lq99e
G |<
, GKWB UW9- , Q9<? O GKE6 608:9 OA, >9 ,O l E- O ?CG:9(L , W9 O {
0.577
0.5 = 1.154
?F6A8 O T , -09dL , W9 O S 6A8:
9 |U
, GK
B <W9- , Q9XW , HFT:9 O`, -09]?CB:9G36A?RD , H ~Us
G >@96A9-dD , HC3? o:- , 6A9IB60E
D, DT:- , 609HCZ[-09 ,
B |<Z
xWEHF6 , Q9@E-bDT:-0-A9G6bEG , ;:T:-09 O ?CG:9_L , W9@L#?CHFH 4 tM
Q?CW9@6A8K9`;:-0E;=9-fW , HCT:9`L#8:?CHC9
?CGKB7?RD , 60?FGKQ@6A8:9b> , QG:?F6ATKB:9bE l , GVZ36A8:?CG:Q_E6A8:9-#6A8 , G , ;\9- l 9ID56 O ?CG:9bL , W9 nP8:? O ?FG\DHCTKB79 O 6A-0? , G:QHC9fL , W9 O S
Z V?CGKBE l B7? O 6AE-A6A9IB O ?FGK9L , W9 ?F6A8x8 , -0>@EG:?RD O o=9DE>@?FG:Q , Gx9W9- ;K-A9 O 9G6;:8:9
O T , -09JL , W9 O SnE- , GV
G:E>9G:EG?FG`H , -0QN9 ;\EMLm9- O Z O 609> O S608:? O > , 6A6A9-qE l , DDT:- , 6AN9 |U
_>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36 ? O G:E O > , HCHK> , 6p6A9-
Kg>gmRih ajYjxU*W$Uk[Y(jxBU*
l
nP8:9 ,O 6AT7609J-09 , B:9-UL#?CHCH&GKE6A96A8 , 56 qU8 , W9bE>@?6A6A9B[6A8:9 |xn>@EMW9>@9G36 l -0E>608:9I|U UW9- , Q9
7B ? O DT O0O ?CEG nP8:? O ? O o\9ID , T O 9 , |\nL#?608J?F6 O ;:- , D6A?RD , HFHCZyLq9?FQ860HF9 OAO 9HC9D6A-0EGRo=9 , >>@EMW9>@9G36UB7? O ;:H , Z O
6A8K9`^9 , uE-b^9 , 60E ^9 , d? l ZETxL#? O 8\vE l , G L , W9 l E-0>{- , 6A8:9-y6A8 , GhUW9- , Q9E-R|< 36A?CHCHrS ,
O ?F>@?CH , -(;K-A1E o:HF9> , -0? O 9 O { 8:EML|B7E]ZET~B:96A9-A>@?CG:96A8:9U|<ZW , HFT:9@E l , L , W9 l E-A> l -0E>?F6 EGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE- O o=96%Lm99G_^9 , , GKBS|<Z@EG:HCZJ8KEHRB O EfHCEG:Q ,O 6A8K9<L , W9 l E-A> l , HFH O G:9 , 60HFZ?FG360E , VG:EML#G_D , 609QE-0Z
E l O 8 , ;=9!u O ?CG:9SP6A-0? , G:QHC9S , GKB O T , -A9 , -09]6A8:9~EG:HCZ!*9 y , >@;:HC9 O L#?F6A8w^9 , |< <W9- , Q9XDEGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE- O Q?FW9G8K9-0,9 v
. G:9 , G O Lm9-y? O 60E[B79 O ?CQG[608:9_>@9609-f>@EMW9>9G36 , -AET:GKB[6A8:9_W9-0Z[B79KGK?60?FEG~E l |<Z
{ 6A8:9_9 9ID560?FW9
8:9 , 6A?CG:QXW , HCT:9JE l , h
G WEH6 , Q9 DT:-A-09G36 ,O ?F6f;\EMLm9- OU, -A9 O ? O 6A?CW9bHCE , B VT:;:;=E O 96A8 , 6608:I9 O ET:-0D9
6A^
E o\9>@9 ,O T:-09B]? O DEGKG:9D6A9B , D-0E O0O<, -09 O ? O 60E-UE l VG:EML#GsW , HCT:9S , G\B]6A8:98:9 , 6ET76A;KT76E l 6A8 , 6(-09 O ? O 6AE? O >@9 ,O T:-09B!L#?608 , B:9WV?CD9sHF3? 9 , 608:9-0>@EVDET:;KHF9 nP8:? O LqET:HCB!;:-0EMWV?CB79 , l , ->E-A9sB7?C-09D56_>@9 ,O TK-A9
>@9G36>@9 , G O E l |<Z
]6A8 , G , G3ZsDEGVW9- O ?FEG l , D560E-(DETKHCBYS l E-U?F6(L#?CHFHLmE- L#?F6Ah
8 JML , W9 l E-A> O 8 , ;=9
L#8 , 6 O E39W9- {
sensitive
meter
movement
AC voltage to
be measured
thermocouple bonded
with resistive heating
element
8:?CHF9[6A8:9xB79WV?RD9 O 8:EML#G , o=EMW9s? OO E>@9L#8 , 6D-0TKB79 , GKBLmET:HRB O T 9- l -0E>T:G:? TK9[9G:Q?FGK99-0?CG:Q
;:-0E,o:HC9> O E l ?F6 O EML#GaS7608:9JDEGKD9;76<?CHFHCT O 6A- , 6A9IBX? O W9-0Z O ET:G\B nP8:9f-09 O ? O 60E-<DEGVW9-A6 O 608:9 WEH6 , Q9yEDTK-A-09G36 T , G360?6%Zx?FG360E , 6A8:9-A> , Hu8K9 , 65v T , G60?6%ZS)9 9ID560?FW9HCZ O T , -0?FGKQ]6A8:9`W , HFT:9 O ?CG-A9 , H 60?F>@9 nP8K9
> O > ,O0O LmE- O 60E , W9- , Q9P6A8:9 O 9yW , HCT:9 O oVZ@6A8K9;:-0?CGKD?C;:HC9E l 6A8K9-0> , Hn?FG:9-p60? , S , GKB`6A8:9G608:9>@96A9O Z O 6A9
DO , HC9U?F6 O 9H l ? O D , HF3? o:- , 6A9IB@6AEQ?CW9 , Gd?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CEGô ,O 9BEG_608:9 O T , -A9 -0EVE6 E l 6A8K9U608:9-0> , Hn>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 {
;=9- l 9D5N6 |#EVE6 s9 , G T , -09<?FG\B7?CD , 60?FEG , HCHn?FGdEG:9yB79W3?RD91PqG l , D56S7EG:9(> , E-m?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6P> , GVT l , D56ATK-A98 ,O ?F>@;:HC9>@9G609BX608:? O 6A9ID8:G:? TK9f?FG36AE_?F6 O 8:?CQ8 9GKBXHC?FGK9bE l 8 , G\B78:9HRB]9HC9D6A-0EG:?RDy>JTKH60?F>@9609- O l E-5M6A-0T:9
|<
_D , ; , o:?CHF?F6%Z
, HC3? o:- , 6A?CG:SQ WEH60>@96A9- O#, GKB , >@>@96A9- O l E-<B7? 9-A9G6 l T:HCH O D , HF9y- , G:Q9 O E l E;=9- , 60?FEG? O >JTKD8X6A8K9
@
>
O0, 9 ,O L#?F6A8 ?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O { O 9-0?F9 O >JTKH60?F;:HC?C9- d-09 O ? O 60E- O(, -A9@T O 9B~60EsQ?CW9@WEH60>96A9-f>EMW9>@9G36 O
8:?CQ8:9-<- , G:Q9S , GKB]; , - , HCHC9QH O 8VT:G36 @-09 O ? O 6AE- O#, -A9fT O 9IBX6AE , HCHCEML , >>@96A9->@EMW9>@9G6 O 6AE`>@9 ,O T:-A9bDT:-
-09G36 O o=9ZEGKBd608:9?C-<G , 6AT:- , HY- , G:Q9 }UEMLq9W9-S7Lm9 , -09fG:E6<HC?F>@?F6A9IBX6AE@6A8K9 O 9f6A9ID8:G:? TK9 O<,O Lq9fLm9-09fL#?608
5 { o\9ID , T O 9Lq9@D , Gs6AEXT O 9J60- , G O l E-A>@9- O L#?60h
8 Sn>@9609-y- , G:Q9 O D ,
G o=99HC9D560-AE> , QGK96A?RD , HFHCZX- , 6A8:96A8 , Gs-09 O ? O 6A?CW9HFe
Z O 6A9;K;\9IB]T:<; _E5- O 6A9;:;=9BsB7EML#GaS O E>@960?F>@9 O l , N- o=9ZEGKB]L#8 , 6U-09 O ? O 6AE- O LqET:HCBX8 , W9
;:- , D6A?RD , HCHCZ , HCHCEMLq9IB l E- Ê609G36A? , H nc- , G O l E-0>@9- O u^ n% O v , G\B T:-A-09G36 n)- , G O l E-0>9- O u n% O v , -A9_;K-A9
D? O ?FEG?FG O 6A-0T:>@9G36@B79WV?RD9 O > , GVT l , D6AT:-09Bx60E;:-0E7B7TKD9`W9-AZx;:-09D? O 9`- , 6A?CE O E l 6A- , G O l E-0> , 60?FEh
G o=96%Lm99G
;:-0?F> , -AZ , GKB O 9IDEGKB , -0ZfL#?CGKB7?CG:Q O nP8K9Z@D , G , HCHCEML O > , HFHS O ?C>;KHFN9 >@96A9-/>@EMW9>9G36 O 6AEf?CGKB7?RD , 6A9<*9 y
6A-09>@9HFZ@8:?CQ8_WEHF6 , Q9 O/, GKB`DT:-A-09G36 O ?FGd;\EMLm9- O Z O 6A9> O L#?608 , DDT:- , DZ , GKB_DE>;KHF96A9U9HF9ID560-A?RD , HK? O EH , 6A?CEG
u O E>@96A8:?CG:Q@>JT:HF6A?C;:HC?F9- , G\B O 8VT:G36#-A9 O ? O 60E- O DETKHCBdG:9W9-<B7EVv {
l1
JJ(jxBKgXR!Yjx#"%$&"[%(')"j+*
0-5 A AC movement range
A
step-up
ratio
CT
high-voltage
power source
load
13.8 kV
fuse
PT
precision
fuse
precision
step-down
ratio
V
0-120 V AC movement range
t 9D , T O 9qEK608:9 O ?39 , GKBJ97;\9G O 9PE=?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G366A- , G O E-0>@9- O So608:9Z , -A9PG:E6+T O 9IBb60E O D , HC96 >@96A9- O
E- , GVZ , ;K;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG O E6A8:9-P6A8 , Gs8:?CQ8]WEH6 , Q9 , G\Bd8K?FQ8]DT:-0-A9G6 / E- O D , HC?FGKQ , >@?CHFHC? , >@;sE-#>@?CD-AE , >@;
>@EMW9>9G36q60E , - , G:Q9UE6Il,bWEH6 O E-< , >@; O S3GKE-0> , Hn;:-A9ID? O ?CEGd-A9 O ? O 6AE- O u>JTKH60?F;:HC?C9- O#, GKB O 8VT:G36 O v , -09
T O 9BYS T O 6 ,O L#?608s
d
ÊH , -0>? 9Bu vb>@96A9->@EMW9>9G36 O >T O 6T O 9dB79WV?CD9 O D , HCHC9B b60E=9 , :HC9`6AE~?FG\B7?CD , 609^
T , G36A?F6A?C9 O
HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , Hn>@9609-<>@EMW9>@9G36 O S:L#8:96A8:9-<9HC9D6A-0E> , QG:960?CD(E-U9HC9D560-AE O 6 , 60?CDS:G , 60T:- , HCHFZ`;K-AE
W3?RB79s608:9N1 12 W , HCT:9E , >9 ,O T:-09
B T , G36A?F6%Z 8:9 O 9?FG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O > , Z=9- , GKQ9B!60E
?FGKB:?CD , 6A9y<
`W , HCT:9SV:T76#EG:HFZ@?Fc608:9 O 8 , ;\9(Ea608:%9 L , W9E-A>? O ;:-09D? O 9HCSZ VG:EML#G`=9E-098 , GKGB
VE D , HFHC9B
5K (]>@9609- O T O 9sB7? 9-A9G36609D8:GKEHCEQZx60Ex;K-AEMWV?RB79d?CGKB7?RD , 6A?CEG O -09;:-09 O 9G360?FG:Q~6A8K9
xu- , 6A8K9-m6A8 , G O 9Lm9B , W9- , Q9<E-#;=9 , :vmE ,
G L , W9E-A>
, D560T , HaU
yU
P<J]P Rs\ NPJJI

G_?C>@;\E-p6 , G36/9HC9D6A-0?CD , H T , G36A?F6%ZJL#?F6A8_G:Ef9 TK?FW , HC9G36/?CG` D?F-DT:?F6 O ? O) AK4=M& -A9 T:9GKDZJ>@9 ,O TK-A9
>@9G36P? O W9-AZ?C>;=E-A6 , G36m?CG> , GVZ , ;K;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG O E , HF6A9-0G , 6A?CG:QDT:-A-09G36IS9 O ;=9D? , HFHCZ@?FG ;\EMLm9- O Z O 6A9> O
B79 O ?CQG:9IB@6AE-ATKG`9 D?C9G360HFZ , 6mEG:9U-A9 T:9GKDZ , GKB_EG:9<-09 T:9GKDZ@EG:HFZ ) c6A8:9 ? O =9?CG:QJQ9G:9- , 6A9B@VZ
, G_9HF9ID560-AE>9ID8 , GK?CD , H , HF6A9-AG , 6AE-S6A8:9#-09 T:9GKDZL#?FHCH=\9UB:?F-09D6AHCZJ;:-0E;=E-A6A?CEG , H76AEy608:9 O 8 , 6 O ;=99IB@En6A8K9
> , D8:?CG:9S , GKB-A9 T:9GKDZDET:HRB_=9<>@9 ,O T:-09B O ?F>@;:HCZ3Z>@9 ,O T:-0?CG:Qy6A8:9 O ;=99IB@En6A8K9 O 8 , 6 & Y-09 T:9GKDZ
G:99B O 6AE]=9@>9 ,O T:-09B , 6 O E>@9@B7? O 6 , GKD9-0E>{608:9 , HF6A9-AG , 6AE-S=6A8KET:Q8aSYE608:9-y>@9 , G O Eq>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36
L#?CHFHa=9fG:9ID9 O0O0, -0Z
. G:9 O ?F>@;:HC9y:T76UD-0TKB79f>@96A8:E7BXE)-A9 TK9GKDZ`>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G36#?CGd;=EMLq9- O Z O 6A9> O T:6A?CHF?C9 O 6A8:9f;:-0?CGKD?C;:HC9
EP>@9D8 , G:?RD , H -A9 O EG , GKD9 W9-AZs;:8VZ O ?CD , H/E7%9D6b;\E OAO 9 O0O ?CG:QX6A8K9`;:-0E;=9-A6%Z[E#9H ,O 6A?RD?F6%Z!u O ;K-A?CG:Q?CG:9 OAO v
Kg Kg<'& $I<NU$Uk U(*7[q*'&< [q$j
l<
8 ,OU, Gs?CG:8:9-A9G36U-09 T:9G\DZ , 6UL#8:?RD8[?F6L#?CHFH);:-099-U6AEdW3?C:- , 609 < 8:9f60T:G:?CG:QÈ-AX? O, Q-A9 , 6<9 , >@;:HF9JE
6A8K? O&O 6A-0?C9P?6qEGKD9 , GKB?F6 L#?FHCH\DEG36A?CGVT:9m6AEbWV?C:- , 6A9 , 6 , 6AEGK9 O ;=9D?=Dm6AEf?F6 O HC9GKQ6A8 EG:Q9-&6ATKG:?FGKQfE-0 O
8 , W9HCEMLq9-P-A9 O EG , G36P-A9 T:9GKD?F9 O 608:9?C-P6AEG:9 O L#?CHCHY\9fHCEMLq9-PEGX6A8:9f>T O ?CD , H O D , HC96A8 , G O 8:E-p609-mE-0 O
> , Q?FG:9 , -AEMLEq;:-0EQ-A9 OAO ?CW9HCZ O ?C9BX60T:G:?CG:QXE-0 O(, -A- , GKQ9B O ?RB79 VZ O ?CB:9 8K9Z , -A9 , HCH+>@ET:G36A9IB
EG , DE>>@EG! ,O 9S , GKB608 , 6` ,O 9d? O WV?FK- , 6A9B , 6_608:9X-A9 TK9GKDZE(6A8:9]>@9 ,O TK-A9IB WEHF6 , Q9uEDTK-A-09G36vUVZs>@9 , G O E , G~9HC9D6A-0E> , QG:96 ( 8K?CD8:9W9-U60T:G:?CG:QXE-0s? O DHCE O 9 O 6?CGx-A9 O EG , G36<-09 T:9GKDZ]60E
6A8K9-09 T:9GKDZ_Ec608 , 6#WV?FK- , 6A?CEGL#?CHCHn6A9G\B`60E O 8 , 9<608:9y>@E O 6fuE-m6A8K9(HCET\B79 O 6v + c6A8K9E-A O 6A?CG:9 O Lm9-09
K?C> O Zs9G:ET:Q8aSYLm9DET:HRB O 996A8:9@-09H , 60?FW9J>@E60?FEGEq9 , D8~VZ]6A8:9HF9G:Q608~E/6A8K9KHFT:-yLm9LmETKHCB O 99 ,O
Lm9f?FG O ;=9D5609B]9 , D8]EG:9y-0E> , G]9G\B WV?C9L;\9- O ;=9D560?FW9 q 9HFHSK> , 9 , DEHFHC9D6A?CEG]E+M60T:G:?CG:Q@E-0 O ET:6
E ,Ò 6A-0?C;sE O 8K996>96 , H)DT:6?CG , ; , 6A6A9-AG , 3?CG]6AE , - , 9S , GKB]ZETs8 , W9y6A8:9` 1M
4 2 A -09 T:9GKDZ
>@9609-
to AC voltage
sheet metal reeds

shaken by magnetic
field from the coil
8:9T O 9-E+6A8:? O >@96A9-WV?C9L O 6A8:99G\B O E , HCH)6A8:E O 9T:G:9 T , H&HF9G:Q608[-A99B O(,O 6A8K9Z , -09JDEHCHF9ID56A?CW9HFZ
O 8 , 9G , 6q6A8:9U-A9 TK9GKDZE=608:9 , ;:;:HC?F9IB WEH6 , Q9P60Ef6A8K9DE?FH 8:9UEG:9UDHCE O 9 O 6 ?CG`-09 O EG , G6+-09 T:9GKDZ
6AE608:9 , ;:;KHF?C9B L#?FHCHYWV?F:- , 609(6A8:9f>@E O 6SKHFEVEV?CG:Q O E>96A8:?CG:Q@HC?F9y6A8:? O
Frequency Meter
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
120 Volts AC
U?C:- , 60?FG:Qs-099IBx>96A9- O ScE3WV?CET O HCZS , -A9@G:E6J;:-09D? O ?FEG~?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O S&:T76b608:9Z , -09@W9-0Z O ?C>;KHF9 , GKB
6A8K9-09E-09(9 ,O Z6AE@> , GVT7 , D56ATK-A9U6AE@\9y-0T:QQ9B 8:9Z , -09E6A9GdETKGKBEG O > , HCH=9G:Q?CG:9 B7-0?CW9GQ9GK9- , 6AEO 96 O E-f608:9`;:T:-0;=E O 9_E O 96p6A?CG:Q[9G:Q?CG:9 O ;\99B O E]6A8 , 6f6A8:9`-A9 TK9GKDZ? OJO E>@9L#8 , 6bDHCE O 9@6AE u]?CG
l3l
UU(j KgR![jq#"%$J&"%%(')"j+*
TK-AE;\9ovq}U9-A6A
8:?CHF9_-099IB 6%Z3;=9@>@96A9- Of, -A9@?C>@;:-A9ID? O 9SY6A8K9?C-bE;=9- , 60?FEG , H;:-0?FG\D?C;:HF9_? O G:E6 ` GxHF?C9TEm>@9D8 , G:?RD , H
-09 O EG , GKD9S\Lm9> , Z O T: O 6A?F6AT76099HF9ID560-A?RD , H)-09 O EG , GKD9 , GKB~B79 O ?FQG , -A9 TK9GKDZX>@96A9-yT O ?CG:Q , G[?CGKB7TKD6AE, G\BbD , ; , D?60E-a?CGf6A8K9/E-0>E , 6 , G:yD?C-DT:?F6mu; , - , HCHF9H?CGKB7TKD6AE- , G\BbD , ; , D?60E-5v &. G:9 E-c=E608DE>@;\EG:9G36 O
, -09<> , B:9 , BM%T O 6 , :HC9S , GKB , >@96A9-m? O ;:H , D9B_?CG`608:9yD?C-0DT:?6q6AE?FGKB:?CD , 6A9(> , 7?C>JT:> , >@;:HC?F6ATKB79EcWEHF6 , Q9
, D-AE OAO 608:9]6%LqEDE>@;\EG:9G36 O 8:9 , Bo%T O 6A>@9G36`VG:E)u O v , -09XD , HC?F:- , 609B6AE O 8:EML-09 O EG , G36-09 T:9GKDZ
E- , GVZsQ?CW9G O 96p60?FG:Q\S , G\B[608:9@-A9 T:9GKDZs? O -09 , B[-0E>{608:9> , 609-y6A8K9@B:9WV?CD9@8 ,O =99G , Bo%T O 6A9B~E> , 7?C>JT:>?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CEGXEGX608:9f>@96A9- O0O 9G60? , HFHCZS3608:? O ? O#, 60T:G , :HF9y\H609-UD?F-DT:?F6<L#8:?RD8d? O<, Bo%T O 6A9B , GKB
6A8K9G-A9 , B~?FG , > , GKG:9- O ?F>@?CH , -y6AE , :-0?RB7Q9_D?C-DT:?F6uL#8:?RD8>JT O 6b=9_ , H , GKD9BE- , G3TKHFHR]DEG\B7?60?FEG
, G\B`608:9Gs-09 , BKv
Resonant Frequency Meter
Sensitive AC
meter movement
variable capacitor with

adjustment knob calibrated
in Hertz.
8:? O 609D8:GK? T:9? Om, ;=E;:TKH , - EGK9<E- , > , 6A9TK- - , B7?CEbE;=9- , 60E- O uE- , 6qHC9 ,O 6m?6mL ,O =9E-09<608:9 , B7W9G36
E m?FGK97;\9G O ?FW9B7?CQ?F6 , H-A9 T:9GKDZs?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6 O D , HFHC9B 074
vSY9 O ;\9ID? , HCHFZ[=9D , T O 9?6bB7EV9 O G 6f-A9 TK?F-09
B7?C-A9ID56 DEG:G:9ID560?FEG60Ey6A8:9D?C-0DT:?6 EfHFEG:Q ,O 608:9<?CGKB7TKD6AE- , GKB\ME-+D , ; , D?60E-/D , G@?FG3609-D9;:6/9G:ET:Q8 O 60- , Z
K9HCBu> , QGK96A?RDfE-U9HC9D6A-0?CDSK-09 O ;\9ID560?FW9HCZ7vP-AE>608:9JD?F-DT:?F6TKGKB79-U6A9 O 66AEdD , T O 9y6A8K9J>@9609-6AE`?CGKB7?RD , 6A9S
?F6<L#?FHCHaLmE-0
Gy-09 T:9G\DZ ,O ?CGbE608:9-Y6%ZV;=9 O E79HC9D6A-0?CD , H>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36S6A8:9/>@E O 6 , DDT:- , 6A9+>@9 , G O EV>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36
-, 09]T O T , HCHFZ6A8:E O 9sL#8K9-09 , GT:G:VG:EML#G T , G360?6%Z!? O DE>@; , -A9IB , Q , ?FG O 6 , VG:EML#G
1 4n 1 A SP608:9[ ,O ?RD
?CG O 60-ATK>9G36B7E?FG:QG:E608:?FGKQ>@E-09@6A8 , G?CGKB7?RD , 60?FGKQL#8:9G6A8:96%LqE T , G36A?F6A?C9 O, -09`9 T , H/6AE~9 , D8E6A8K9-
8:? O ? O 608:9< ,O ?RD#;:-0?CGKD?C;:HC9U=98:?CGKB@608:9 u 8:9 , 6 O 60EG:9ov:-0?CB7Q9UD?C-DT:?F6 , G\B_?6m? Oq,bO ET:GKB@>@96A-0EHCEQ?RD , H
;:-0?FG\D?C;:HF9 , ;K;:HF?C9B6A8K-AET:Q8:ET76U608:9 O D?F9GKD9 O J qLm98 , W9 , DD9 OAO 6AE , G , DDT:- , 609b-09 T:9GKDZ O 6 , GKB , -Bu ,
O ET:-D9/E WEH6 , Q9/8:EHRB7?CG:QUW9-0Z;K-A9ID? O 9HFZ6AE ,UO ?FGKQHC9+-A9 T:9GKDZ:v5So6A8K9GJ>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36)E , GVZyT:G:VG:EML#G
-09 T:9G\DZ`VZDE>@; , -0? O EG O 8:ET:HRBX\9f-09H , 60?FW9HCZ_9 ,O Z
E-<608 , 6(-A9 T:9GKDZ O 6 , GKB , -0BaS\Lm9b60T:-AGET:- , 6p609G36A?CEG~ , Dd6AE6A8:96ATKG:?FGKQÈ-0nSnE- , 6HC9 ,O 6 , >@E-09
>@E7B79-0G]W , -A? , 60?FEG]E?6D , HCHF9IBX6A8:9 1
5o
1M kT , -p60f? OU, G , 60T:- , HCHFZÈ7DDT:-0-A?CG:Q@>@?FGK9- , Ha;=E O0O 9 OAO ?CG:Q
, W9-0Z]?FG36A9-A9 O 60?FGKQ;:-0E;=9-A6%ZsD , HCHC9BX I
5
M ^ ?F9EV9HC9D6A-0?CDf> , 6A9-0? , H O ;:-0E7B7TKD9 , WEHF6 , Q9 , D-0E O0O
6A8K9?C-/HF9G:Q608_L#8:9G_;K83Z O ?CD , HCHFZ O 60-A9 OAO 9BYS , GKBL#?CHFH\;:8VZ O ?RD , HFHCZJB79E-0>L#8:9G , G@9V6A9-AG , H:WEHF6 , Q9P? O/, ;:;:HC?F9IB
, D-AE OAO 608:9?C-#HF9G:Q608 O / 8:? O B:9E-0> , 60?FEGd? O W9-AZSVW9-0Z O HF?CQ836#?CGX>@E O 6<D ,O 9 O S7KT76<?6UB:E39 O 97? O 6
kT , -p60_-AE7D? O 9H ,O 60?CDsu O ;K-A?CG:QZ:vyL#?F6A8K?FG608 , 6 O > , HCH - , GKQ9_E#=9GKB:?FG:QL#8:?CD8 , G9V6A9-AG , H WEHF6 , Q9
LmET:HRB[;:-0E7B7TKD9SnL#8:?RD8>@9 , G O 6A8 , 6(?F6fL#?FHCH8 , W9 , >@9D8 , G:?RD , H)-09 O EG , G36<-A9 T:9GKDZsE ?F6 O EML#GxD , ; , :HC9
Eq\9?FG:QX> , G:?F9 O 6A9IB ,O(, G[9HC9D6A-0?CD , HWEH6 , Q9 O ?CQG , H ( G~E608:9-yLmE-B O S=?F , D8K?F;~E T , -p60? OyO 60-ATKDnSn?F6
L#?CHFH-0?FGKQ@L#?F6A8[?F6 O EML#GsT:G:? T:9b-09 T:9GKDZ]B79609-0>@?FG:9IB]VZd608:9JHC9GKQ6A8E6A8:9D8:?C;aS , GKB]608 , 6(-A9 O EG , G36
E O D?CHCH , 6A?CEG_L#?CHFHn;:-0E7B7TKD9 , G`9 T:?FW , HF9G6mWEH6 , Q9 , D-0E O0O >T:HF6A?C;:HF9(;=E?CG6 O EY6A8:9 T , -A6A(D8:?C;`L#8:?RD8dD , G`=9
6 , ;:;=9B_?CG36AEbVZL#?F-09 O :79B6AEb6A8:9 O T:-A , D9<En608:9D8:?C; & G`-09D?C;:-0E7D , HK> , G:G:9-S6A8:9 T , -A6AUD8:?C;_L#?CHFH\6A9GKB
Kg Kg<'& $I<NU$Uk U(*7[q*'&< [q$j
l
6AE@WV?C:- , 6A9(>@E O 6PL#8K9G]?6#? O 97D?609B:VZ , G , ;K;:HF?C9B WEHF6 , Q9 , 6#;:-09D? O 9HCZ_6A8:9y-0?FQ836m-09 T:9GKDZSI%T O 6
HC?F9608:9f-099B O EG , W3?C:- , 60?FG:Q -099IB@-09 T:9G\DZ`>@9609-
8:?C; O E T , -A6AP-0E7DbD , G@=9#;:-09D? O 9HCZbDT76+E- B79 O ?C-A9IBJ-09 O EG , G36)-09 T:9GKD?C9 O S , G\Bb608 , 6 D8:?C;@>@ET:G36A9IB
9O DTK-A9HFZ`?CG O ?CB:9 , ;:-0E609D6A?CW9 O 8K9HCHYL#?608XL#?C-09 O 9V609GKB7?CG:Q@E-<DEGKG:9D6A?CEGd6AE , GX9V6A9-AG , HY9HC9D6A-0?CDyD?F-DT:?F6
8:9G`; , D , Q9B ,O O TKD8aS6A8:9-A9 O T:HF6A?CG:QJB:9WV?CD9<? OqO ?F>@;:HCZ@D , HCHC9B , 5o
1KuE- O E>@960?F>@9 O
1M 3v5S , GKB@?F6 O
O D8:9> , 60?CD O ZV>J=EHYHCE3E O HF?C9(6A8K? O
crystal or xtal
HC9D6A-0?CD , HCHFZS608 , 6 T , -A6A(D8:?F;d? O 9 TK?FW , HC9G36q6AE ,JO 9-0?F9 O -A9 O EG , G36qD?F-DTK?6 8K9(B7?C9HC9D6A-0?CDU;:-0E;=9-
6A?C9 O E T , -A6AJDEG36A-0?FKT76A9 , G , B:B7?F6A?CEG , H&D , ; , D?F6A?CW9b9HF9>9G36U6AE6A8:99 T:?CW , HC9G36(D?F-DTK?6IS , GKBs?CGs6A8K99GKB
?F6<HFEVE O#O E>@9608:?CG:Q@HF?C9(6A8K? O
Crystal equivalent circuit
capacitance
C
caused by wire
connections
across quartz
C
L
characteristics
of the quartz
8:9D , ; , D?6 , GKD9 , GKBe?CGKB7TKD6 , G\D9 O 8:EML#G?CG O 9-0?F9 O`, -09[>@9-09HCZ!9HF9ID560-A?RD , H<9 T:?CW , HC9G36 O Ef6A8K9
T , -A6A O >@9D8 , G:?CD , H\-A9 O EG , GKD9<;:-0E;=9-A6A?C9 O 608:9Z_B7EG:E6m97? O 6 ,O B7? O D-09609UDE>@;\EG:9G36 O L#?F6A8:?CG`608:9D-AZ O
6 , H / 8K9(D , ; , D?F6 , G\D9 O 8:EML#Gd?FGX; , - , HFHC9HnB7T:9(6AE6A8K9fL#?F-09(DEG:GK9D560?FEG OP, D-AE OAO 6A8:9fB7?C9HC9D6A-0?CD@u?CG O T:H , 6A?CG:QVv
T , -A6AU\E7B7Z@? O -09 , HS , GKB_?F6q8 ,O , G_9n9D56mEG@608:9U-09 O EG , G36/-A9 O ;=EG O 9#EY608:9UL#8KEHC9 O Z O 6A9> TKHFHYB7? O DT O
O ?FEG[EGD-AZ O 6 , H)B7ZVG , >?RD O ? O G:E6G:9ID9 OAO0, -0Z8:9-A9Sn:T76L#8 , 6yG:99IB O 60E=9JT:G\B79- O 60EVEVB , =ET76yD-0Z O 6 , H O ? O
6A8K? O -A9 O EG , G36<D?C-0DT:?F6U9 T:?CW , HC9GKD9 , GKB]8:EML?F6D , GX=9b9V;KHFE?609B]L#?F6A8:?CG , G]E O D?CHCH , 6AE-<D?F-DTK?6<60E , D8:?C9W9
, GXET:6A;:T76<WEHF6 , Q9(L#?608 ,O 6 , :HC9S7VG:EML#Gd-A9 TK9GKDZ
-0Z O 6 , H O S ,O -A9 O EG , G36&9HC9>@9G36 O So6%ZV;:?RD , HCHCZ(8 , W9 >TKD8J8K?FQ8:9-ak(u 1M
v&W , HCT:9 O 6A8 , GJ6 , G:fD?F-DT:?F6 O
:T:?CHF6d-0E>?CGKB7TKD6AE- OX, GKBwD , ; , D?F6AE- O S#;:-0?FG\D?C; , HCHFZB7TK9[6AE!6A8K9~-09H , 60?FW9 , O 9G\D9E O 60- , ZN-09 O ? O 6 , GKD9S
> , V?CG:Qy6A8:9?F- -A9 O EG , G36-A9 T:9GKD?F9 O W9-AZB79KGK?609 , GKB;:-09D? O 9 t 9D , T O 9m6A8:9<-09 O EG , G36-A9 TK9GKDZJ? O/O EHF9HFZ
B79;\9GKB79G36 EG@6A8:9U;:8VZ O ?RD , H7;K-AE;\9-p60?F9 O E T , -A6Abu , W9-AZ O 6 , :HC9 O TK O 6 , GKD9S>9ID8 , GK?CD , HCHFZ:v5S6A8:9U-A9 O EG , G36
l
UU(j Kgb![jq#"%$J&"%y(')"j+*
-09 T:9G\DZW , -A? , 60?FEGEMW9-P6A?C>@9fL#?608 , T , -p60bD-0Z O 6 , HY? O W9-0ZSKW9-0Z_HCEML 8:? O ? O 8:EML 1
J 4
L , 60D8K9 O E76 , ?FGs608:9?C-U8K?FQ8 , DDT:- , DZ VZd>@9 , G O E , G[9HF9ID56A-0EGK?CDyE O D?FHCH , 6AE- O 6 , :?CHC?F9B]VZX6A8:9-A9 O EG , G36
, D6A?CEGXE , T , -A6AfD-0Z O 6 , H
E- H , =E- , 60E-0Z , ;:;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG O S608:ETKQ8aS39W9G`Q-A9 , 6A9-+-09 T:9G\DZ O 6 , :?CHF?F6%Z@> , Z=9B79 O ?C-09B + E , D8:?C9W9
6A8K? O S 608:9sD-0Z O 6 , HP?FG T:9 O 6A?CEGN> , Z\9];:H , D9B!?FG , 6A9>@;=9- , 60T:-A9 O 6 , :?FHC?C9B!9GVWV?C-AEG:>@9G36]uT O T , HCHFZ , G
EMW9G\v5SV608VT O 9HC?F>@?CG , 60?FGKQ@-A9 TK9GKDZ`9-0-AE- O B7T:9y60E@6A8:9-A> , HY97; , G O ?CEG , GKBXDEG36A- , D560?FEGE)608:9 T , -A6A
E-`608:9~TKH60?F> , 609?CG , -A9 TK9GKDZ O 6 , GKB , -0BN608:ET:Q8aS<G:E6A8:?CG:QNB7? O DEMW9-09B!6A8VT O , - O T:-A; ,O0O 9 O 6A8K9
, DDT:- , DZ_E ,O ?CG:QHC9y-A9 O EG , 60?FG:Q , 60E> + 8:? O ? O 608:9f;:-0?FG\D?C;:HF9fEc608:9 O E D , HCHF9IB~1
S\L#8:?RD8dT O 9 O
, G , 60E>Em>@9-DT:-0ZuE-fD9 O ?FT:>`v O T O ;=9G\B79B~?FG , W , DT:TK>XSY9:D?F6A9B~VZsET76 O ?RB799G:9-AQZ]6AEX-A9 O EG , 609 , 6
?F6 O EML#G`T:G:? T:9<-09 T:9GKDZ + 8:9-09 O T:HF6A?CG:Qb-09 T:9GKDZ@? O B:96A9ID5609B ,Oq, - , B7?CE L , W9 O ?CQG , H , GKB_608 , 6mE-0> O
6A8K9b ,O ? O E-#608:9b>@E O 6 , DDTK- , 6A9fDHCE7D O 3GKEML#Gd60E_8VT:> , G:?F6%Z P , 6A?CEG , H O 6 , GKB , -B O H , =E- , 6AE-A?C9 OP, -AET:GKB
6A8K9bLqE-AHRBX> , ?CG6 , ?CG , 9LE)608:9 O 9b8VZV;\9- , DDT:- , 609yDHFE7D O S , G\BdK-AE , B:D ,O 6#-A9 TK9GKDZ O ?FQG , H O ,O 9IBdEG
6A8KE O 9 , 6AE> O WV?FK- , 6A?CEG O E- O D?F9G60? O 6 Of, GKB~6A9ID8:G:?RD? , G O 60E]6AT:G:9_?CG , GKB~T O 9@E-y-09 T:9GKDZD , HC?FK- , 6A?CEG
;:T:-0;=E O 9 O
EMLLm9sQ96_60E6A8K9[;:- , D560?CD , H<; , -A6 EGKD9sLm9[8 , W9 , 7A E , DDTK- , 6A9X-A9 T:9GKDZSP8:EML{B7ELm9
DE>@; , -09#6A8 , 6 , Q , ?FG O 6 , GT:G:VG:EML#G@-09 T:9G\DZ6AEJE76 , ?FG , >@9 ,O T:-09>@9G365 . GK9UL , ZJ? O 60EJT O 9 , ,O
, -A9 T:9GKDZ DE>@; , -0? O EGB79WV?RD9 q , 6A8KEVB:9y , Z TK\9 O 6%ZV;:?CD , HCHFZ_8 , W9y>@9 , G O E&B:9K9ID56A?CG:Q@608:9f9HC9D6A-0EG
=9 , >|?FG608:9P8:E-0?FEG36 , H ,O Lm9HCH ,O 608:9#W9-p60?CD , H , 7? O ) =>@96 , H:;KH , 6A9 O+, -A9PT O 9BJ6AEf9HF9ID560-AE O 6 , 6A?RD , HFHCZbB79K9D6
6A8K9`9HC9D6A-0EG O Sc608:9-09_L#?CHFHq\9 , ; , ?C-bE#;:H , 609 O 60Es6A8K9`HF96 , G\B-A?CQ836bEP608:9`=9 , > ,O Lq9HFH ,Ob, ; , ?F-JE
;:H , 609 O#, =EMW9 , GKB=9HCEML608:9f=9 , >
CRT with horizontal and vertical deflection plates
electron "gun"
horizontal
deflection
plates
(vacuum)
viewscreen
electrons
electrons
vertical
deflection
plates
light
Lq9 , HFHCEMLeEG:9 O ?CQG , Hn6AE`B79K9D6<6A8:9f=9 , >TK; , GKB]B7EML#GuDEG:G:9ID56#608 , 6 WEH6 , Q9 O ET:-D9(60E
6A8K9yW9-p60?CD , HRbB79\9D560?FEG;:H , 609 O v , GKB , G:E6A8:9- O ?CQG , H\60EB:9K9ID56P6A8:9(=9 , >HF96 , GKB`-0?CQ836(uT O ?CG:Q6A8K9
E608:9-q; , ?C- EcB79\9D560?FEG`;:H , 609 O v5S3; , 6A6A9-0G O L#?FHCH\=9(;:-AE7B7T\D9B@EG_6A8K9 O D-099G_En6A8:9 ?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CW9UEY6A8K9
1
Eq608:9 O 9@6%LmE -09 T:9GKD?C9 O 8:9 O 9_; , 6p609-0G Ob, -09_D , HFHC9B R 1 VU 2 7A , G\B , -A9 , DE>@>@EG
>@9 , G O E+DE>; , - , 6A?CW9U-A9 T:9GKDZ>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36m?CG]9HC9D560-AEG:?RD O
P6A8:9`6%LqE]-09 T:9GKD?C9 O, -09@6A8:9 O0, >@9S)Lm9`L#?CHFHqE76 , ?CG ,sO ?C>@;:HF9`KQT:-09_EG608:9 O D-099GEm6A8:9 S
6A8K9 O 8 , ;\9@E 6A8 , 6fKQT:-A9=9?CG:Q[B79;=9G\B79G36bT:;=EG~6A8:9_;K8 ,O 9 O 8:?F6b=96%Lm99G~6A8K9@6%LqE O ?CQG , H O }U9-09
? O#,O0, >@;:HC?CG:Q@E ? O0O0, %ET O \QT:-09 O E-P6%LmE O ?CG:9 L , W9 O ?CQG , H O E)9 T , Hn-A9 T:9GKDZS O 8:EML#G ,O 6A8:9ZLmET:HRB
, ;K;\9 , -ÈG!608:9s , D9sE , GE O D?FHCHCE O DE;=9u , G WEH6 , Q9 >9 ,O T:-0?FG:Qx?CG O 60-ATK>9G36`T O ?CG:Q , ,O ?F6 O
>@EMW9>@9G3603v _ 8:9@K- O 6b;:?CD6AT:-09@? O Em6A8:9 ? O0OA, %ET O \QT:-09E-0>9IBVZ6%LqE WEHF6 , Q9 O ;=9-A9D6AHCZ?CG
;:8 ,O 9yL#?F6A8]9 , D8dE6A8:9-
Kg Kg<'& $<NU$Uk U(*7[q*'&< [q$j
l3
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
V/div
trigger
DC GND AC
timebase
X
s/div
DC GND AC
Lissajous figure: same frequency, 0 degrees phase shift
U608:9X6%LqE WEHF6 , Q9 O, -09XG:E6_?CGN;K8 ,O 9dL#?F6A8N9 , D8!E6A8:9-S ,xO 6A- , ?CQ836@HF?CG:9]L#?CHFH#G:E6_\9XE-0>@9B
, 6A8:9-SY608:9 ? OAO0, %ET O KQT:-09L#?FHCH6 , 9@EG6A8:9 , ;K;\9 , - , GKD9E , G~EMW , HSY\9IDE>@?CG:Q];\9-p9ID560HFZD?F-DTKH , -(?F
6A8K9f;:8 ,O 9 O 8K?6<? O 9 , D56AHCZU\96%Lq99GX6A8:9y6%LmE O ?CQG , H O S , G\Bd?F&6A8:9?F- , >;KHF?F6ATKB:9 O<, -A9y9 T , H
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
V/div
trigger
Y
DC GND AC
timebase
X
s/div
DC GND AC
Lissajous figure: same frequency, 90 or 270 degrees phase shift
?FG , HCHFZS?FY6A8:9#6%LmE U O ?CQG , H O/, -09#B7?F-09D6AHCZE;:;=E O ?FG:QfEG:9 , GKE6A8K9-/?CG`;:8 ,O 9bup O 8:?65v5S3Lq9UL#?FHCHK9GKB
T:;]L#?F6A8 , HF?CG:9 , Q , ?CGaSVEG:HCZ`608:? O 6A?C>@9f?6<L#?CHFHc\9fE-A?C9G36A9IB`?CGX6A8:9fE;:;\E O ?F6A9fB7?C-09D560?FEG
l
UU(j Kgb![jq#"%$J&"%y(')"j+*
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
V/div
trigger
DC GND AC
timebase
X
s/div
DC GND AC
Lissajous figure: same frequency, 180 degrees phase shift
8:9GLm9 , -A9J , D9IBsL#?F6A8 O ?CQG , Hc-09 T:9GKD?C9 O 6A8 , 6 , -09JG:E6608:9 OA, >9S ? OAO0, %ET O \QT:-09 O Q96 T:?F6A9 ,
:?F6>@E-09`DE>@;:HF9 EG O ?RB79-f6A8:9EHCHFEML#?CG:Qs9 , >@;:HF9 Ob, G\Bx6A8:9?F-Q?CW9GW9-A6A?RD , Ho8KE-0?FEG36 , H)-09 T:9GKDZ
- , 6A?CE O
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
V/div
trigger
DC GND AC
timebase
X
s/div
Lissajous figure:
DC GND AC
Horizontal frequency is twice that of vertical
8:9b>@E-A9JDE>@;:HC9d6A8:9- , 6A?CE`\96%Lq99Gs8:E-A?CEG36 , H , GKB]W9-A6A?RD , Ha-A9 TK9GKD?F9 O SK6A8:9>E-A9DE>@;:HC9X6A8K9

? O0OA, %ET O KQT:-A9 EG O ?CB:9-m6A8:9(EHFHCEML#?FGKQ?CHCHFT O 6A- , 60?FEGE , (-A9 TK9GKDZ_- , 6A?CE=96%Lm99GX8KE-0?FEG36 , H , GKB
W9-p60?CD , H
Kg Kg<'& $<NU$Uk U(*7[q*'&< [q$j
l
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
V/div
trigger
DC GND AC
timebase
X
s/div
DC GND AC
P# , KG B , lJ-A9 T:9GKDZ`- , 6A?CE]u8:E-A?CEG6 , H) S7W9-p60?CD , H)lv

Lissajous figure: Horizontal frequency is three times that of vertical
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
V/div
trigger
DC GND AC
timebase
X
s/div
DC GND AC
GdD ,O 9 O L#8:9-096A8:9-A9 T:9GKD?F9 O Ea608:9(6%LqE U O ?FQG , H Oq, -A9G:E6P9 , D56AHCZ ,JO ?C>;KHF9y- , 6A?CEJEc9 , D8E6A8:9uKT76@DHFE O 9ov5S&6A8K9 ? O0OA, %ET O KQT:-09`L#?CHFH , ;:;\9 , -J6AE~>@EMW9S O HFEML#HCZxD8 , G:Q?FG:QsE-A?C9G36 , 6A?CEG ,O 608:9d;K8 ,O 9
, GKQHC9=96%Lm99G`6A8K96%LmEL , W9E-0> O -0EHCH O =96%Lm99GX3 , GKB[I & )6A8:9(6%LmEJ-09 T:9GKD?C9 OP, -A9(HFE7D9B_?CG , G
9 , D56U?CG36A9Q9-- , 6A?CE`\96%Lq99Gs9 , D8sE608:9-IS\6A8:9 ? OAO0, %ET O KQT:-A9JL#?FHCH)=9 O 6 , :HC9JEG]608:9JWV?C9L O D-099GsE+6A8K9
y
8:9;:8VZ O ?RD O E ? OAO0, %ET O KQT:-09 O HC?F>@?F6 O 608:9?C-fT O 9T:HCG:9 O0Of,Oy, -A9 T:9GKDZ3DE>@; , -0? O EG]6A9D8KG:? T:960E
D ,O 9 O L#8:9-09y6A8K9y-A9 TK9GKDZ- , 6A?CE O#, -A9 O ?F>@;:HC9f?CG609Q9-#W , HCT:9 O u% Sc l7Sa SKl S \S7960D v q 9 O ;:?F6A9f608:? O
HC?F>@?F6 , 60?FEGaS ? OAO0, %ET O KQT:-A9 Ob, -09 , ;=E;:TKH , -b>@9 , G O EP-09 T:9GKDZDE>; , -0? O EGxL#8:9-09W9- , G , DD9 O0O ?C:HC9
-09 T:9G\DZ O 6 , GKB , -Bxu O ?FQG , HYQ9G:9- , 6AE-5v+97? O 6 O
d
E>@9P-09 T:9G\DZb>@9609- O LmE-0bEG6A8K9<;:-0?FGKD?F;KHF9#En>@9ID8 , G:?RD , H7-A9 O EG , G\D9SM?CGKB7?RD , 6A?CG:Qf-09 T:9GKDZbVZ
-A9H , 6A?CW9(E O D?CHFH , 60?FEG , >@EG:Q ,O 96<E)T:GK? T:9HFZ6AT:G:9IB]-099B O O 8 , 9G , 6P6A8:9f>@9 ,O TK-A9IB`-09 T:9GKDZ
. 6A8:9-y-A9 TK9GKDZ>@9609- O T O 9_9HC9D560-A?RD@-09 O EG , G6bD?F-DT:?F6 O u 6 , G:xD?C-0DT:?6 O S&T O T , HCHCZ7v60Es?FG\B7?CD , 609
-A9 TK9GKDZ . G:9E-(\E6A8DE>;=EGK9G36 O ? O > , B79J60Ed=9 , Bo%T O 6 , :HC9SYL#?F6A8 , G , DDT:- , 6A9HFZsD , HF?C:- , 609B
Lissajous figure: Horizontal/Vertical frequency ratio is 3:2
l
UU(j Kgb![jq#"%$J&"%y(')"j+*
, Bo%T O 6A>@9G6(VG:EaS , GKB ,O 9G O ?F6A?CW9J>@96A9-(? O -09 , BXE-(> , 7?F>T:>WEHF6 , Q9bE-DTK-A-09G36 , 6U6A8K9;=E?CG36
E)-09 O EG , GKD9
-09 T:9G\DZD , G\9X>@9 ,O T:-09B?FG , DE>@; , - , 60?FW9@ ,O 8:?CEGaS ,O ? O 6A8:9]D ,O 9dL#8:9GT O ?CG:Q , 60E
Q9GK9- , 6A9] R 1 MVf 2 7A5 #99-A9GKD9d-A9 T:9GKDZ O ?CQG , H O D , G=9]> , B79XL#?608 , 8:?FQ8!B79Q-099dE
, DDT:- , DZXVZ[E O D?CHCH , 6AE-yD?C-DT:?F6 O T O ?FGKQ T , -p60D-AZ O 6 , H Oy,O -09 O EG , G6yB79WV?RD9 O E-yT:HF6A- , ;:-A9ID? O ?CEGcS
, 6AE>@?CDfDHFE7D O ?CQG , H O 6 , GKB , -B O u ,O 9IB]EGX6A8K9b-A9 O EG , G36P-09 T:9G\D?C9 O E?CGKB7?CWV?CB:T , H , 6AE> O vPD , Gs=9
T O 9IB
y _0 w
&
ÊMLm9-#>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G6?FG U D?F-DTK?6 O D , G[=9 T:?F6A9 , :?6(>@E-09JDE>;KHF9X608 , GL#?608 D?F-DTK?6 O E-6A8K9
O ?F>@;:HC9-09 ,O EG@6A8 , 6#;:8 ,O 9 O 8:?F6m> , 9 O DE>@;:HF?RD , 6A9 O 608:9y> , 6p609-m\9ZEG\B`>JTKH60?F;:HCZV?FGKQWEHF6 , Q9<VZ`DT:-0-09G36
KQT:-A9 O E76 , ?FG:9IBL#?F6A8>@9609- O | 8 , 6]? O G:99B79IB? Od, G?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6 , :HC9[60E!B796A9-A>@?CG:9[608:9;:-0E7B7TKD6
u>T:HF6A?C;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG\vcE 4K
1 4
1 4=MV WEHF6 , Q9 , GKBJDT:-0-A9G36 c E-A6AT:G , 6A9HFZS608:9qDE>@>@EGb9HF9ID560-AE7B7ZVG , >E>@96A9>@EMW9>9G36PL#?F6A8]?F6 O<O 6 , 6A?CEG , -AZ , GKBd>EMWV?CG:Q_DE?FHaB7EV9 O#, \G:9P%E]E)6A8:? O
8:-099(;:8 ,O 9y;=EMLq9-m>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36PD , GX\9 , DDE>@;:HF? O 8:9BT O ?CG:Q6%LmEB7ZVG , >@E>@9609-#>@EMW9>9G36 O L#?608

D

E
, >@>EG O 8 , 6JHF?CG:V?CG:Q]6A8:9@6%LmE]>@EMW3?CG:QsDE?FH O 60EQ96A8:9- O E]608 , 6 ,sO ?CG:QHC9@;\E?FG36A9-b-09Q? O 6A9- O ;\EMLm9-fEG
, >@96A9-_>@EMW9>@9G6 O D , HC9 N 8:? O SmEVWV?FET O HFZS/> , 9 O E- , - , 6A8:9-97;\9G O ?CW9 , G\B!DE>@;:HC9>@EMW9>@9G36
>@9D8 , G:? O >]S7:T76<?F6<? O<, LqE-A , KHF9 O EHFT:6A?CEG
G_?CG:Q9G:?CET O >96A8:E7B_EaB79-0?FWV?CG:Q , G_9HF9ID560-AEG:?CD<;\EMLm9-/>@96A9-uEGK9#6A8 , 6qQ9G:9- , 6A9 O+, G_9HC9D6A-0?CD O ?CQG , H
-09;:-09 O 9G36A?CG:Q(;\EMLm9-?CGJ608:9 O Z O 6A9>i- , 6A8K9-&6A8 , G@>9-A9HFZf>@EMW9 , ;=E?CG609-5v&? O ,O 9BEGb608:9<} , HFH79=9ID56 8K9
} , HFH+9=9ID56f? O(, GT:GVT O T , H&9=9ID56fK- O 6(G:E6A?RD9IB[VZ } } , HCH?FGN KS=L#8K9-09VZ , WEHF6 , Q9J? O Q9G:9- , 609B
, HCEGKQJ608:9fL#?CB76A8sE , DT:-0-A9G36pD , -0-0Z3?CG:QDEG\B7TKD560E-P97;=E O 9B6AE , ;=9-0;\9GKB7?RDT:H , -#> , QG:960?CD(\9HRB
voltage
The "Hall Effect"
current
current
S
N
8:9#WEHF6 , Q9PQ9GK9- , 6A9IB , D-0E O0O 6A8:9<L#?RBV608_E=6A8:9# , 6S3-09D56 , G:QT:H , -+DEGKB7TKD6AE-+? O B:?F-09D6AHCZJ;:-0E;=E-A6A?CEG , H
6AE\E6A86A8:9> , QG:?F6AT\B79UEY6A8:9yDT:-0-09G36/6A8K-AET:Q8_?F6 , GKB@608:9 O 6A-09G:Q6A8ÈY6A8:9> , QGK96A?RD#\9HRB , 608:9> , 60?
Kg :g [q*'&< [q$j
l
D , HFHCZS?6q? O/, ;K-AE7B7TKD6Uu>T:H60?F;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG\vEn6A8:9 O 9P6%LmEfW , -0? , :HF9 O & 8:9 , >@ET:G36/EY} , HFHK+EHF6 , Q9(;:-0E7B7TKD9IB
E- , GVZsQ?CW9G O 96fE#DEGKB7?F6A?CEG Oy, H O E]B:9;=9GKB O EGx6A8:96%ZV;\9_Eq> , 609-0? , H+T O 9BE-y6A8K9 , 6S)-A9ID56 , G:QT:H , DEGKB7TKD6AE- m 6U8 ,O \99G]ET:GKBX6A8 , 6 O ;=9D? , HCHCZ;:-09; , -A9IB] O 9>@?CDEGKB:TKD560E-J> , 609-0? , H O ;:-AE7B7T\D9 , Q-A9 , 6A9} , HFHcWEHF6 , Q96A8 , GXB:E_>96 , H O S , GKB O E>@E7B79-AGs} , HFH =9ID56UB79WV?CD9 O#, -09y> , B79yE&6A8K9 O 9
6q> , 9 OqO 9G O 9#6A8:9G`608 , 6m?aLm9ULm9-09#6AE:T:?CHCB , B79W3?RD9UT O ?CG:Q , } , HFHF9n9D56 O 9G O E-/L#8:9-A9U6A8:9(DT:-0-09G36
6A8K-AET:Q86A8:9_DEGKB7TKD6AE-(L ,O ;:T O 8:9IBVZ U WEHF6 , Q9J-AE> , G~9V6A9-AG , H+D?C-0DT:?6 , GKBs608:9@> , QG:96A?RDK9HRB
L ,OmO 96mT:;dVZ , ; , ?F-mE-mL#?C-A9yDE?FH O 9G:9-0Q?C9IB_VZ@6A8:9yDTK-A-09G36PEa608:9 U ;\EMLm9-PD?C-0DT:?F6S36A8:9f} , HCH=WEHF6 , Q9
LmET:HRB\9X?CGB7?C-A9ID56;K-AE;\E-p60?FEG~60E[608:9>T:H60?F;KHF9XEUD?F-DT:?F6DT:-0-A9G6 , GKBWEHF6 , Q9 } , W3?CG:Q[GKE> ,O0O 60E
>@EMW9suTKG:HF?C9 , G9HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , H+>@EMW9>@9G36vSa6A8K? O B:9WV?CD9_? O, :HC96AE[;K-AEMWV?RB79 4:
1 4
1 4n0V ;=EMLq9>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G6
A Hall effect power sensor
voltage
Rmultiplier
AC
power
source
Load
E6#EG:HCZ`L#?CHFHn608:9fET760;:T76<WEHF6Q9Ec608:9b}HFHY9=9ID56UB79W3?RD9y=9y6A8:909;09 O 9G36M6A?CEGdE&?FG O 6G36GK9ET O

;=EMLq9M6 GVZ;=E?CG36q?CG@6A?C>@9SV:T76m?6PL#?FHCH!H O Eb=9 O ?FQG"H$# 8K? O ? O \9ID%T O 9U6A8:9(}HFH\WEHF6Q9#;=EH&'0?6%Z
? O B79;\9GKB79G6yT:;=EG '(*) 6A8:9;=EH&'0?6%ZXE+608:9J>+QG:960?CD,K9HRB-GKB]608:9B7?.09D560?FEG[E DTA9G6U6A80ET:Q8s6A8K9
DEGKB7TKD6A/E 0 n=E608_DTA9G36 B7?109D6A?CEG2GKB>+QG:960?CD3,\9HRB;=EH&'0?F6%ZA9W9 O 9 O54 O ?F6/LmET:HRB9W9+8"HFDZ7DHC9
E&6A8K9 U ;=EMLq9 4 608:9fET:6A;:T76<WEHF6 Q9(;\E.H 6A?F6%Z_L#?FHCH O 6 oZ_608:9 O >@69 0
cWEHF6 Q9 GKBDT 709G36P?FG6A8:9y;=EMLq9 mD1? DTK?86 '09UET76PEc;K"8 O 99u J;=EMLm%9 q: D5606E PE)%9 0EKSV>@9 G:?CG:Q
; A<9 H&;\EMLm%9 (B79HC?CW%9 09BX60E`608:9HC/E BKv5S\6A8K9 H60%9 0"G M609b;\<9 O E } HFH+B79WV?CD9D"T 709G36 GKBs+> QG:960?CD ,K9HRB
L#?CHFH7G:9W9 DE?CGKD?RB79PL#?F6A89 D8E608:%9 L#8:9GEG:9m? O 6?F6 O ;=9 nSo6A8:9#E6A8:9 &L#?CHCH7\9P9 A!E 0 66A8KE O 9m;=E?CG36 O ?CG
6A?C>@9S6A8:9} HCHKET76A;KT76 WEH6 Q9mL#?CHCHKHC?F9L#? O 9#=9<9 AE\S=9?CG:Qf608:9<; 0E7B7TKD56Uu>JT:HF6A?C;:HC?CD M60?FEG\v+EnDT 709G36 GKB
+> QG:960?CD ,\9HRB O 6 A9G:Q60=8 0 t 96%Lq99G@608:E O 9<;=E?CG6 O ?CG_6A?C>@9S6A8:9(} HFH=ET760;:T76mWEHF6 Q9PL#?CHF!H >KTKD6A"T 6A9U<9 ?3"T HCHFZ
=96%Lm99G;=E O ?60?FW@9 GKBxG:9/Q 6A?CW9S)Q9G:%9 M60?FG:
Q ?FQ"G H/D6E A9 ;=EGKB:?FG:QX60E]6A8:9_?CG 6 G36 G:9ET /E A;:6A?CEG
G\AB 09HC9 O 9(E;=EMLq9 q608 0ET:Q8d608:
9 09 D6A?CW9(HFBE CB O 0 8K9fG:96 O ET760;:T76<WEH6 Q9O L#?CHFHc\9f%9 0EKO S7?CGKOB7?R%D M60?FGKQ
9 AE76 0T:9f;=EMLq9 P?FGX6A8K9bD.? 0DT:?<6 0
GVZ;:"8 O 9 O 8K?6_=96%Lm99G!WEH6 QA
9 GKBDT A9G6?FG6A8:9X;=EMLq9 D1? DT:?F6HC9 O0O 6A"8 G!@L#?CHFH 09 O T:HF6?CG
l
EDUU(j FKgbHG[jq8IKJJLI%yNMOIjP
`} HCHcET:6A;:T76(WEH6Q9y608"M6E O D?CHFH&M609 O =96%Lm99Gs;\E O ?F6A?CW9QGKB]G:9Q/6A?CW9S\:T76 O ;=9GKB O >@E609f6A?C>@9b;=E O ?60?FW9

6A8!G@G:9QBM60?FW960 EG O 9?3T:9G360HFZf608:9%09#L#?CHFH:=9(G:96 ET760;:T76/WEHF6Q960 EGKB7?F6A?CEGK9BJ6A80ET:Q8+HCEMLP;" O0O
,KHF6A9 /D.? 0DT:?6ISM6A8K? O G:96 WEH6Q9PD%GJ=9 O 9;"'M609BbRAE>6A8:9 U >?F79BL#?608?F6S6A8:93,KG!H7ET:6A;:T76 O ?CQG"H
09Q? O 6A%9 09BEG O 9G O ?60?FW9 >96A9#>EMW9>@9G36<0
S * TA9G!1? T_? O T O 9T:8H TAE"8 oWU9 ~>@V9 T0%9 2TAWE T0'E THF?C9];=EMLq9 @T O Q9XEMW9~;\9A?CE7BET0?F>@9XYTA8K9%TA8"G
?CG O TBG TG:9ET O HF/Z 0 8:9EZT T0;:ZT T E O TKD@8 y>@V9 T0%9 m%D G_=9 O V9 T ?CG_T:G:?1T O E=[ET:HC9 O SE/TAE6TH:9G:9AQZDEG O T:>@9BYS
O ?FGKD9y Y \ ? O _>@9 O T 09fE+Lm6E 0=9?CG:QB7EG:9y T:GK]? TTA?C>/9 0 S S\>@6E 09bDE>@>@EGKHFZS TA8K9JET TA;:ZT T(EE TA8K9
>@V9 T0%9 <%D G]\9 O V9 T#?CGXTKG:]? T O E YT^TA}UET O 0
s9ID"8 G:?R%D HP><9 G O /E @><9 O T 0?FG:Q YT7Tp}<E"T O '09]T O "T HCHFZD9BG TA9 A9IH
B 6AET:GK_
B TA8:9sDEGKD9Z; T_EN TA8K9
>@'E T06E KT:?FHR`
B G U >6E TA/E TA"8 'T O ;:?CG O 'T'TA9@E O ;=99IBx; AE;\/E ^T0?FE"G LH T0A
E T08:9`?CG O TBG TG:9ET O ;=EMLq9
?C
G D.? DT:1? TZS T08:9G]"8 oW9 T0"8 YT#>@'E T06E T0T A
G G]E7B7E>@V9 TA9 0 T%Z3HC9fDET:BG TA?CG:Q@>9ID"8 GK?
> TAE_99
; QAT:GKG:?FGKQ
TA6E THaE9G:9 AQZDEG O T:>@9CB 0 8:9b>@'E T06E T O 9IBX?FUG TA8K9 O 9b>@O V9 TA9 O "8 O 20'E T06E #+> B7O9fEE T08:?CaG HCT:>@?FGVT:>
B7? O nS7L#1? TAU
8 TA8K
9 A6E TYT0?FGKQ+> QG:%9 TA?RD ,\9HRBd9 O T:HC? O 8:9IBVZ O V9 T O EDE?FH O 9G:9 AQ?F9B3ZdHF?CG:9fWE1H TQ9 GKBXHFBE B
D"T 709BG T O E T0"8 YT8T08:
9 A6E T'TA?CE"G H O ;=99BdEL TA8K9bB7? O `? O B79;\9GKB79BG T<EGd='E T08XWE1H TQ9 GKB]D"T 709BG T0
y_Kb w cdne
&
TT O^f<g T7h fji8k T7l-m.67n f Upo h i3f q7rZqKT f%s q8Tl"YTy o h itf ?Bu"'m k TKr7 i 6q'vXuvl f ' g whyxVh/v"x f o Tz{6q k&gZf
Rh s o h i3f P:6xVT7h/0 m s hBqKT6m1m=m.h/ g q i3f f hET7l f 6m k v f 60|Y' k.f TKr6z s2f 'v k vn2T7l!YT8T7l f r gZk.g vh6T gZk qKTh67T
T7l f q^l" o f h! Tl f |/h6m1T'n f q k v f8i }| f zYh/yx%'u!q f vh/v7~q k vu"q^h k.g 'mZxVu f vBTqLTh>"h i_k vT7l f x k xVu k T<0 l k q k qvh6T
T7u f 'vr s h6 f 0 h/ g q3xVh6vBT7h/m1m fg r_' v"h6vm k v f ' f m f xT7h/v k xxVh s o h6v f vBTq3' f f x%h s2k vn s h6 f o f |Y'm f vBT
vs! h6T7llh 6v v u"qKT7r/z 6v vn2T7l"'T8T7l |6h6m1T6n q36v xVu vBTq vT7l o h q7rZqKT qq v"n
T7k l f q f m.h/ g qs2'f f gUk xl k kg vl!' s s2h/v f k x%q k i l"'Tq^lh/fum g f v f k x f zOxVg m f 'vq f k v f i k }| f f |6h/m]T'i3n f f q6v g f%sXxVu f vBf%Tf<qgZk' f
f xVh s2k vnQl k n6lm.r gZk q^T7h/^T fg z i l k xl k q f ?Bu k |Y6m f v/TtT7hQT7l f o f q f v"x f h5 6v k vZ,"v k T f q f k.f qth=l k n/l7rR f ?Bu f v"xVr
q k v f
i }| f qt'T s um1T k o m f q8h5 Tl f R uv g s2f vBT6m o h i3f m k v f R f ?/u f v"x%r60
x qq | l"6 h6v xq v-6v Up o h q7rZqKT x%'vhY| l 'T3T6v"qpR h6 qz"x'u"q x vn/m1rAl n/l
v f uZT7'm6f x%h6v k g f u"xTh65s x%u7k f vBTk q k vTl f%f o l"i3/fq f q7rZqKT f%f%s s q%zYx% f YT fEf f m f f xT7h s 6n6v f T sk x+f ' vh k q f k f
vf T7l f fR fh/gZ ks h kgZk h
f%h6s2uT k o q7quZk T<h6z/v"6qv T7l!xY'Tjvx%6 v k vBT f xVAu f m1Tf2T7h i8o k TlWv o q h f v!vBq Tk 0T k | f2Tf l m f oxVT77hh6 v m k x f qL?Bm u k o s2T7l f vBq TzOo m.f<6g n6u"u x f2vn f m o f hxT7 k x q7s rh'q^T Th6q%lz h/vq fn o v h itfq
'v g T f xlv k gx k 'v!q8 f f8?BgZu k1k fNi }rZqtT7h k o f x k k q f m.r gZk f T f xVT'v gUf%s s2f /k qû"f f fT7l f f q f x%h6v k gk T k h/v"i3q%0 f fs f k ff
' \ U P" * ( qTl n v 6mCT n | vThA o q vBT6v U o h q7rq^T qUR h R 7h l!'A
hs 6v k x8xVh/vBT f vBT<0 k o h i3ff ?Bf u"6f m k TKr7 f ss f T f k k qyf h6v f Tl"f YTyf n k f| f qq7h s2f R h6 s ithf l"6 s fh/s]v k x x%h6fvBfT g f v/s T k v gZk sx%'T k h6v=0
q o m }r`R h6T xlv x 'vUT7h T v o h ?/u!'m TKr vUT7l q^rZq^T
Tlh6uTq^h o l qKT xYT
?f Bu k o s2k1f s vBT f
k q2i T7hx%h s o 6 f f |6h/k m]Tk 'n f f ggZf k vf n/s2qk f f T i3f%fitvf T i h6k xxVuk YT f f|/k h6m1T s2f f%T fsq i8sk f 6q7u k vnWTkl f k q s2fg f
q7rq^T fs |6h/m]T'n f h6v fQs2f T f y fk vn'vx6 }| f 'n k vn3j TKr o f h uv k T q7u"xl-/qN6v f m f xVT7h s2f xl!'v k x%6m s hY| f
s2 f vBT s2 f T f + Tl"'Yv Tg / T7}l | f h'6Tnl f v#n a f%TKk vr n@o _Y T7T u f q@ ' Q x%'TKm r o f 'hT L u"v q7khWT T7 l"qû!'xT@lT7l/qAlq7xk n6'l7m ~ q ?Bu"v 'm k TKx%r YTgZk n |6k Th/'m]mTq`s2 f T f 0z
ofs _fs ; f (R): M05 U (f ; k (R)'((*)K fXQ_s2f M f (~%3bf ; k M5f<7g A JR5 ; VMf: k / 0 C f Tl fk |6gZh6k m1T6n f f8k qt6vr/Tl k vn
uZTq k v f%i }| f w q7l" o fg z6Tl f }| f 'n k v"n s2f T f i8k m.m ; Y ( f n k qKT f 3T7l f o 7h o f 8|}6m1u f z i l f f 6qtT7l f T7u f
s2TKrsf T f T 6m i }vrZq T7l i8k m.T m$z!h f nB' T g m f q%q7z{q Thl i }h/| f q q7l" Tol f 0 o h l f u?Bm u"f 'hm E TKr T7lu qsz5'a v l f T7 l fk q8n/Tl Yk q T T7l Tf qn/l" 6f YT f h/8v TlxQfjxVh/gZv/k q T o 'vBAT 0
k o h f itffq7rq^T f i T7lWs2n6f hfh ?Bu"'f2m TKi r o h f
f q7lh6ui3m f n v k 'T k ?Bu"6g mL|/h6m1f T6n f f k vn/q s T k vT7l f T h
i3f fsi8k g k i3f
g f f ff
f f gZk f itff f i
s2f T f v"q%h'zT7Tl h Oi8?Bk Tu"l 6k mvUTT'l T f | 'T f<g6q7f u7 h63T7h/vBmT5f h6 v"o x h f hLOT7?Bl u"f 6m T i TKr h q5k v!T7qKl T7u h/s2qx f v/m1m.Th/q%q0 xVh o T q^T x%h6vv xTE'vhBq7x m.m.h/qxVh o
f k k fys2f fs2f
i3f k k f k f f f
k f
T7hTl f U |/h6m1T6n f 'v g h" q f | f Tl f q7l" o f hC T7l fi }| f 0 vr/Tl k vnjh6T7l f yT7l!'vx%m f 'v@q k v fi }| f
F" M)=I%<HG[qPEM&<G[tJQ
K
xVh/um g f 'v k v gZk x%YT k h/vAhOT7h/u:m f
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
V/div
trigger
DC GND AC
timebase
X
s/div
DC GND AC
T m.m9z ?Bu"'vBT T'T | 6v"'m.rZq q ,"v T z{vu x'm=,!n6u q qv x q7q'r6z"T7l qvhq7u:"q^T T7uZT Rh/
'v k v"q^k T7u ks2f vBT
q o k f x k ,k x%f'm.m.r gf q k kn/v 9fgZg f Rh6k T7f l"'T o s2u"f o k h/q f 0 u"xf lW'kv k v"f q^T7fu s2f vBT k qNf x%f'm.km fg _ '\ _k "f *(
V( 'v g_k q+q7h s2f T k.sf q f T^T f `vh i v k v f m f xT7h/v k xAx k xVm f q26q2m1h i R f ?Bu f v!xVr %(r5 ; 0
l"'T8T7l k q k v!qKT7u s2f v/T g h f q k q o hY| k.gf n6 o l k x'm{ f o f q f vBT'T k h6v@h/vU h/ gZk n k T'm gZk q o m.}rAq7x% ff v
hT7l f U |6h/m]T'n f qR f ?Bu f v"xVr/q o f xVT7u s 0 W[/u"qKT@/q+ o k q s q o m k Tq+x f s h i l k T f m k n6lBT k vBTh k Tq
xVh/v"q^T k T7u f v/TxVh/m1h/xVh s o h/v f vBTq l"h is u"xla fg z{h/6vn f z"r f m1m.h i zn6 f%f v5z!'v g m.u fQk q k vXTl"YTm k n/l/TzT7l f
q o xT7u 'v"6m1rV q o m Tq R ?Bu v"x%rq n/v"'m vBT7h Tqx%h6v"q^T k T7u f vBT#R f ?Bu f v"x k1f q%z!'v ggZk q o m.}rZq3T7l f
f q7f um]T k vUs T7l f R h/ s f hE k l k q^T7h6s2n/k fs]g f f k k k
This is a moderately ugly "sine" wave. Definite harmonic content here!
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Total distortion = 43.7 %
Power Quality Meter
/xl2vBu 3h6v+Tl l"h6 h6vBT6m"q7x'm hCT7l q T 3 o q vBTqtl"6 h/v xhCT7l Ruv vBT6m=R
B? u f v!xVr60"h6 s s2f f k x'v f o h i3f k tq7rZqKT f%s qz6Tf l f K
k s2f o f f f q f v/fTqf f < Tl f <qKs T3l"'k s h6v k x'f zBh6 g ; s2/ f ; (w f z
T7l f 6(Rh6
U T7l f ' g l"' s h6v k xVz'T7l f (Rh63
U T7l f }T7l+l!' s h/v k xz'v g q^hh/v=0 l f m&6x
f xT'vn/m f q f o f q f v/TT7l f f m&YT k | fs 'n6v k Tu gZf qth f 6xlAh=Tl f q f l"' s h6v k xx%h s o h/v f vBTq k vTl fNsf 6q7u fg
B
EDUUN F"bHG[q8IKJJLI%yNMOI%P
U |6h/m]T'n f 0
o u" f z@ <q k v fji }| f
i h6u"m g
"6q8q7lh i8k vn+YT'm.mChY| f 3T7l f h6T7l f PR f ?Bu f v"x%r
q7lh i h6vm.r2T6m1m&m&6xX"'hY| f T7l f : i8k T7l-vhm&6x

' 0 f q3h/vTl f qx%'m f z7 f x'u"q f o u f q k v f
i }| f l"6q v"h
s
l"6 s h6v k xxVh/vBT f vBT<0
Eh 8?Bu"'m TKr T qq7u"xla6qT7l q n6lBTU T7T T7hA/q YM( T qz\ x'u"q Tl r
' f8gZf qi3k n6f v f<g Th k gZk q s2o m.f }rf h/vm.rT7l"h/q f R fk ?Bu s2f kv"x k1f qf vh fi vf T7hf f f f n f f<v g f YT fg rT7l f ; o h i3sf f yf q7rZqKT f%s f 0 v2f T7l f%f f
o l"/q UWo h Lq7rZqKT q o h v"6vBTcRh6Em&'n o h E oo m x%YT h/v"qz | v7wvu l"' h6v x%q5T v
T7h@ f f x%6v"x f m f<itg f h/uZTz6f%v s g q^h2h/fvg m1rs2l"k' s h6v k x%q f k qKf T k v"n i3k f vXq k n6v k k,!x'vBk T s2f 6f q7uf f ' fs Tl f f fh g gg wvBsu s k f fg f 0 g
T qm Tl q 6 | rAu!q Rum vXTl l!'v qh Apq m1m T xlv x 'v5=z x'u"q vBTTKr o qh
vh/vm k v f f 'f 8m.h/k g f q3T f f v g f T7h+f n f vf f YT fNf gk f k f vBTf q o f xTg7u s 6q k n/v"k YTfug f 0q f i l k k xk lXx%'vXf x%m1u f fjTl gZf k Tf 7h/f :u m f q7lhf h'T f
T7hT7l f q^h/ux f hT7l f o h m f%s 0 l f q f-sf T f q i h/A !Br| f 7r?Bu k x m.rq s o m k vnT7l f U |6h6m1T6n f 'T
s 'x%v7r h o gZk h x f qf q^vBh/T o qh k vB6Tm1q m'xVm.h h6v"no uT7Tl fNOi T7}h | fo Rh6A Rs h6 q^l"v ou f z gZ k n x%k6T mk k h6v"u"nQ Tlh/6q f v"'o m.h rZk q vBTq q3Th l k 7v Rh6o s( YT k7h65v5z6v : g 7 u!q k vMn2
s2h6qk jf 'm.n6h6 T7l s Lh6vsTlh/q f 'T o h f v/Tqs Thj's2 | f k 'Tl"' h6k.f v mx R ?Bu k v! xVr fN 6n6v T7 u q0 l o ; 7hZ x qq
E
k s
fg k
k f s k f f s k gf f f
k'qQv!'v"m.h'rT q sqth/u"vXxlHuq vm k ufAm&YTi l!YxT2T7x%l u f T |/ h6 m1T6 n o h68h6n/xVu s vBT T f m.m&q}| WRxVh6h s o 0 uZT f T7h g h i l f v o f p Rh/ s2k vnWWh/u k1f
k
k.s fg k k
f
f i f s
y_
ydVXj dV+<XdL
q q Tl 6q7u vBT3x xVu Tq%zBT7l x xVu T x%h6vZ,!n6uYT h/vvh vA6q3 5:%3 x%'v | 7r
u"q f Ri3uf m i }iri8T7h k sf 6q7u sf f uv:vf%h s2i fv2|Y'm.ku f qkh= f q k fq^T6k v"x f 0k l k q k qyT7u fk i8k T7l Ui /q itf m1m$z'v g2i3f x%6f v@ ofo m1r
T7l f | f r@q s2f o k v"x k o m f T7hTl f 6xxVuYT fNs2f 6q7u fs2f vBT3hLu"v:vh i v k.s o f<g 'v!x f q0
h | z'T7l n x xVu T h60 Zqy6qt o h{T hwx%h o h/v vBTy|/h6m1T'n | qtxVh6v"v xVT /xVh/qq
T7l f q7 s2f f q7k1fh6i u"x f f|/h6m1Tk.6g n f f z i8k k T7lXk i ; %( %( ks2f T f i s hY| f%s s2f vBTf xVh/vv f xT f<g f gZf k T itk&gZff f vUT7l fs f Th fgk v gZk xYT f
2xVh/v gZk T k h6vh "6m.6v"x f Q'PT f h2|6h6m1Tq
R3
R1
null
R2
R4
vrh6v h Tl Rh/u q qKTh6q v-T7l hY| " n x%'v T7l q q^T7h6hyuv:vh vX|Y6m1u zC'v Tq
|Y'm.u f x%6v] f fjgf T f f s2k v fg f rUk 2'T k k hhOf Tl f h6T7l f f 8T7k&gl f%f f z i l k xf la' f f 6f x%6k m k YT fg z jh/ ii lhBq f f f q k q^T6gXv"x k f q
' f vh i vT7hj o f x k q fgZf n6 f%f 0 l f v+T7l f k&g n f8k q k v@y"6m.6v"x f<g xVh6v gZk T k h/v f h
|6h6m1T6n f 6q k v gk xYT f<g
r+T7l f vBu"m1m gf T f xTh6 s2f T f zZTl f 'T k h i h60Zq3h6uZT8Th f T7l k q
F"bHmIK#LI%fNM5I%P
/
In a condition of balance:
R = R
S v hT7l |Y6v/T'n q8hyu"q vn n x xVu TTh 6q7u q q^T6v"x q8Tl"YTNT7l |6h/m]T'n hT7l
o h itf f q^h/ux f+f k q g k f m f |Y'vBf T0Uy6kxT k x'm.m1rk.q g o f f kk vn!z=k T7l f l s2k n6f l f
T7f l f f qûk o"o m1rWf|6kh/m]T'n f zCTl f f@f /q k.f f k T k qThf
gZq f v"T fq xVT T | QxVh/T v gZk T m.kUm h6v@ h0 k1s "n/' m&'Yv"T x f @ q^f u T oi3o f%m.f r_v@|6T7h/l m]f T'Rnh6u3m f q k q2q^T7Th/hq T7i8l k T7lo hBT7lq7q f vum m1TKm rgZfhT f xv"T7h/xVz/'q v g T7lu"q6q7T7ul fNs h6vB fT
o f f x kk q kk h/fXv=0 k i8h i3k f | f fzTl f fi8f k m1m)f f vh@Ruv g s2f vBf T6mf f g h6 k v/T7fh g u!x fg k /k qk 2 f q7uk m]Thfy2f<m gHf q7q s2f f h6n/f s2f Yf T f
o h itf q7u oo m1rA|6h6m1T6n f uvm k f h'T7l f TKr o f q8h E f q k q^T6v"x fNs2f 6q7u f%s2f vBTqxl f%s2f q0
o 'v!x " n q h60 jTl q z/h/vm1rTl "6m.6v"x ?Bu"'T h6v q T7l 0 <n ?/u!'vBT T qzB/q h'Tl
s 'n/vs k Tu f<gZg f 'v f g o k&l!g 6q f f i /xVh/qqTf l f xVs2h f s o h6v f vBTqf hT7l f fT i f h gZk | k k&gZf k q i8s k u"q^T_ fXf ?Bu"'m k vh/k k.gf f Rh62T7l f
vum.m gZf T f xVT7h6 Th k v gk xYT f f h"0 l f vBu"m1m gf T f xTh6<zZh xVh6u"q f z s u!qK<T f gZf | k x f x% o m f h gZf T f xT k v"n
| f 7rq s 'm.m U |/h6m1T'n f q0 vq f v!q k T k | f h/qx k m.m1hBq7x%h o fAk q2h *T f vu"q fg Rh62T7l k qz36m]Tlh6u"n6l| f rq f v"q k T k | f
fq7h6m f uxVT7x h s2R f x?Bl!u 'v v"k x%x%r 6m q s2f T Tf l vs 6hYu | f%s2h2f vB6TvqQn 'v 0 gf | f v`l f g o lh/v f q q s 'm.m3q o f f ql!}| f f%f vu"q fg`k T7l f
f f f k i8k k gZk f
1
2
3
4
General impedance bridge
Z1
Z3
null
Z4
Z2
A box with a "Z" written

inside is the symbol for
any nonspecific impedance.
h/Tl k qn f v f 6m/Rh6 s h

f ?Bu"6m
Z1
Z
= 3
Z2
Z4
U " k&g
n f T7h~"'m&'v"x f zETl fAk.s o f<g 'v!x f YT k hBqjh f /xl'v"xl s u"qKT@ f
nB v=z T u"q^fT q^T7 qq T7l"'T

T7l o 'v"x ?/u!'vBT T q vT7l !hY| ?/u!YT h6vN V( xVh
o m f CzO/x%k x%h6uk vBT sk vnXRh6ff h'Tl f s f6g n6v k T7u gZf 'f+v k.g s o l"f</g q f 6f vn6m f 0 T k k.k fq
vk h6Tn/hf h gWf vh6fQuf n/l-Tl"kYT
Tl f+k.s o ffg 'v"s x f
s 'n/v k Tu gZf q
'm.h6v f f !'m&'v"x fgCLi8k Tlh6uT o l"6q f 'vn/m f q k vx"'m&'v!x f 6q i3f m.m9z=T7l f f+i8k m1myq^T k m.m/ f |/h6m1T6n f

6x%7hBq7qtTl f T f s2k v"'m&q hOT7l f vum.m gZf T f xVT7h/'v g T7l f " k&g n fi8k m1m5vh'T< f "'m&'v!x fg 0
3 n x xVu Tq8x'v] xVh6v!qKT7u"xVT Th 6q7u Ku"q^Th6uT86vr | x |Y'm.u q z7 Tx o /x
T6v"x f z k&gk v g f u"xk T'v"xk f zZ f q k q^T6f v"x f zh6 f | f f<vdg Q0 s2 f q86m fi }rZq k vX k&g n fs2fgZ/f qû"k ffsf vBT f
x gZk f xVu k k Tf<qg zT7l f
f k uv:vh i kv
?Bu"'vBT k TKr k q'm i }rZq("6m.6v"x f<g U'n/ k v!qKT
vh i vq^T'v g ' g zChT k v f<g Rh s Ul k n6l7~?Bu"'m k TKr6z=x%6m k YT fg
xVh s o h/v f vBT+T7l!YTAx'Nv f g Ku"q^T f<gk v|Y'm.u f uvBT k mTl f vum.m gZf T f xVT7h/ gZf | k x fXk v gZk x%'T f q`xVh6v gZk T k h/vh
"6m.6v"x f 0 f o f v gZk v"nah6v`lh i Tl f k.g n f@k qjq f Tju o zLT7l f u"v:vh i vxVh s o h6v f vBT q|Y'm.u f@s }r~ fUgZf T f A
s2kYv Tfl ggkY T f xVxT7'm.nm @r Rh/R7 h s um.T"l 0 f q f T^T k vnh CTl f x'm k "'T fg qKT'v g 6 g z/h/ gZf k | f<g Rh s T7l"'T q^T6v g 6 g Tlh6un/l@
s f%xVs h/u o k m hEq s o m n x x%u Tq8' q^l"h v m.h zh6v Rh/ v u!xT6v"x 6v h6v Rh6x o /x T6v"x
f k.s f k.g f k k f i f i f k g
f g f
k f
unknown
inductance
Lx
Ls
standard
inductance
null
unknown
capacitance
standard
capacitance
null
o m 6q7r
T7 x'Rm # n qOqû"xl/q=Tl q 6 q^hv" x%'u!q Tl r l TEq^r T7r 7h6A
k.s 6n k.f s q k.s2f k m&' k TKsrZs2yRf h s k m f *T8T7h2k.g k f n/lBT0 l f T i f hf k.g f n f x k xVs2u k fTg q8q^lf h i vUf hYf | f f%' f k "6k m.6v"s2x f<s2g f r@ g Rs2Ku"k qKT k v"n
T7l f x%'m k 'T f<g f 6xVT k | f xVh s o h6v f vBT L h/ 0 l f r-' f d k Tjq k1s o m k , fg Rh s Tl f%k
f 'mF$m k f x%h6uv:
T f o '7Tqz!6q o 6xT k x'mLq^r s2s2f T7 k x%'m) k.g n f x k xVu k Tqh'*T f val"}| f @x%6m k YT fg z!|}6 k "m f f q k qKTh6 k v-q f k1f q
h6 o 66m1m f m i8k T7lAT7l f f 6xVT k | f xVh s o h6v f vBT3Th!'m&'v"x f h/uZTqKT}r2 f q k q^T6v"x fk vAT7l f uvKBv"h i vAxVh s o h/v f vBT0
F"bHmIK#LI%fNM5I%P
B
3uZTz k vT7l f lr o h6T7l f T k x%6m i h/7m g h' o f ^ f xTjx%h s o h/v f vBTq%zOT7l f q f q k.s o m f+ k&g n f x k xVu k Tq g h@Ku"q^T,"v f Th
k m1m.u"q^T7YT f Tl f
6q k xNx%h6v"x f o T<0
v fV s o m f h'OQm k T^Tm ff% TQxVh s o m f%k TKr@ g"gZfg T7h2xVh s o f v"qYT f Rh/ f 'mF i h6m g2f f xTq3x'v !f Rh6u"v g
kh6v+uT8T7l 6f vq7uh~v:x%'vm.mh fgvUq : ; q % x% %o 6 xz i Th6l Ak $x lq u!qKq Tf h6qt x%ho ''m.v!m f Ym!T x%h6 v5o 0 6x k Tm1mOh6Ax%$ o f q6k x qKTT7h6h/qtqKTl"'}v | g 'q7g+h k1s o fg h66u"v"v/x T8f h6T7h vB'T m&'v"v"x 6f m
f q k q^T6v"x f z f@i k TQm k f T f k.f 6mh6 f ?/k u k |Y'm f f vBkT :k vTl sQf Rh6k s k h6 gZk1f m f xT k x2l k f 'T k vnXm.h/f qq f qs2 f i l s k xlT f v g kT7haf q o h k m
T7l f%k
h'T7l f i8k q f o f 7 f xVT7m.r- f /xT k | f v"'T7u f q0 l k q k vBT f v"6mL f q k qKT'v"x fQs }r f h' k vBT f f qKTT7h s2f /qû" f z
'v g q^hTl f k.f v k&g n f 'T^T fs o TqT7h g hq^h r o 7hY| k&gZk vnX 'm&'v!x k vn k1s o fg 6v"x f T7l"'T k q7v T o u f
f%k T7l f
The Wien bridge
null
vn@Tl"YTNT7l 6 T hUqKT'v 6 xVh o h6v vBTqT7h Ku"qKT A q qKTh6N'v x% o 6x Th6 Tl q
k.g n f%fk i8k m.m"T f f m k fT7T7m ff s h6i f T k1s2f g T7h g 'm&'v"s x f T7l!f 'v+Tl f h6!T7f l f g q itff| gHf q f%f vAf q^khj:'<0L g l f xVh sjk v k f<g+f f xVk T
h' 'v g k qTh'm1T f jTl fUs 6n6v k T7u gZf 6v g o l"/q f 'vn/m f uvBT k m3T7l fA k&g n f 6xl k1f | f qQ-x%h6v gZk T k h6v_h'
v6m.h 6v"q%x z/f T70 l S v!o x6f 6Tm1l"m Ym T 6o m.6v"6x fNv"x k q3/h'x=l Tk.l f | f<T g z/h T7l f T q f T^T k v"v n/q3h'OY T7 l 'v g YT x 'm.xm1'r/vz6!v f Tf l g u"R7v:h s vh T7l vfk 8x% x%o 66m k.x T'Yv"T fx g
'v g f q k q^Tf 6v"x f
gZf f T f k1s s2k v ffg gUs fYTl f%s Yf T k xi 'm.m1r@gZf R7f h s sk T7l f<f
g+ s 'm&'v"x f%fNs f ?Bu"k YT k h/v w=g { f { i 0 k f
T q26qq7u
vTl h o YT h/vh'Tl v n T7l"'TTl qKT'v 6 x% o 6x Th6jl!6qv n/m n m
vk /T f v"'k mL f q k q^Ts26fv"gx f k zh/N'f TNm f /f qKTNT7k l!YT f q k qKTf 'v"x fjk1f k q'm. k&fg g f r]vh i v-f q7hTl"Yg T k gTx'v f k :6xVT7h6 fgaf k vBT7khAk.T7 l ff
m 6m.6v"m x fxTf 7?Bh/u"m1rB'T T k x%h6qv=z 0 l k. f v T7 l k&g vBn Tf q
7v"' 6f mu" q q f RqûTmE'v!Rh6x gqf T f m&s2YT k v | k vm.rUnUlT7l n/f l=|Y0+'m. u l f qr-h'm6 6m1hB'q7m&q7q7r7hAu"xq o /x6k qNT7h6R gZ?Bfu q k v"n6xVv!r q
k ff f k i f f fk f f k fk f k f k
f f
fg f f
s2x% f o T 6f x q%Tz h6qf x'' u"q f Tl f, 'm&'v"x f'v h6yT7u!l q^fu"6 m1m. rUk&g h'n fk ?Bqu"R6 fm5?B|Yu 'f m.uv"xV3r 'gZv f o f Tv l gZf TvBh To 0 T lh@f vq u"q^q T7f<h/g-q8k va6 Tl k qN :6q7l |Yk h/'v= z{ T7l m f
fjs gZf k f
'v g 6k f g Ku"qKf
T fs gU gZr f s2Zf f6g`v"q h'Lg T7l f q s2f vfh 0 f g f i f k
v k vBT f f qKT k vn`|Y6 k YT k h/vh/vT7l k q+Tl f%s2fk q@Rh6uv gk vT7l f v f% T k&g n f x k x%u k T<z8u"q fg T7h o f x k q f m1r
/

s2f qû fk v g u"xT'v"x f q0
/
The Maxwell-Wien bridge
null
l k q k vn f v k h6u"q k&g n f x k x%u k T k q vh i vU6qT7l fQ \ ] A: ; % % q7h s2f T k1s2f qqvh i v o m. k v"m1r@/q
T7l f2 \ V z{'v gUk q u"q fg T7h s2f /qû" f uv:vh i v k v g u"xVT'v!x f q k vUT f s q8h6Lx%6m k. YT fg f q k qKT'v"x f
'v g x% o 6x k T'v"x f 0 'm k. 'T k h6v7wn6 gf
k v g u"xTh6q6 fQs h/ fgZk1 x%um1TNTh s 6vBu:6xTu f T7l!'vx o /x k T7h/qh'
q k1s2k m.6 o f x k q k h6v5z6'v g q7hTl f u"q f h'CNq k.s o m f /q^r s2s2f T7 k x%'mR k v g u"xT'v"x f3 k&g n f k qvh6T6m i }rZq o /xT k x'm$0
f x'u"q f Tl f o l"/q f q7l k *Tq
h' k v g u"xTh6q'v g x% o 6x k Th6q6 ffV 6xVT7m.rah o"o hBq k T f2f /xl-h6T7l f z5Ux% o 6x k T k | f
k.6s q3o Tl fg rU'v"'x f x%l 'v 0 6m.6v"x f h/uZT'v k v g u"xVT k | f
k.s o fg 'v"x fk LT7l f r' f m.hZx%'T fgAk vXh oo h/q k T f m f n/q h6E k&g n f z
f f ff
v"h'T7l f g |}6vBT'n f h6Ou"q k v"n22a Zitf m1m k.g n f T7h s2f /qû fNk v g u"xT'v"x f 'T7l f tTl"'v2q^r s2s2f T k x%6m
k vv g u"u"xVxVTT7h6'v!qx 0f2a 'k.n/g v n fjT k xqNT7, l f2m f qNm k.x%s26vk v"'T k h6vh'x% us2m]TNf 6T7hUq7uq^ l fs2m f vBz{T 'f v 7h6 | g vau f T7q h s 'm.umOT7 u"6m h/kuv vBg Tu"h6xT'xVv"h6x u fQo mvf T n i3f%f Tv-T i vh
kxVh g m&q va n xf 'k v vBf T7g h u"x q^!u fgZqKTk]' vBT 'm 7h6q k1f vXg x 7TgX fvXxVf h/v T s h6v"q0 s TlXvh@q xVh/v k v u"fxTi3h68f%f Th
k f gAk g
f 6k xVT k i8k Tl k vUk&g T7l f f - Zk itf m1m g k&f g n f zB T7l k q o k h f m f%sk q k f m k.s2f k v!Yk T f<g 0 gZk k
h/ 6q q^Th o 'T h6v=z{Tl qKT'v ' x o /x T7h6 'v T7l q q^T7h/ v o ''m.m m Tl T N'
s gZf |Y'f k k. f m f z6v f g h'k Tl s u"fq^T !f g g Ku"g q^T fg T7h@k /xl k.f | fN 6m.6g v"x f 0Ef hf itk f | f z/k T7l f
k&g f n f i8x%k6v k f
s gZf Th f
i h6q 0 q^ T7h/k E Tvl f o 'x%'o m.6m x m k Th6 T7lQk q8T7, l Zfxg o v/h6x 7v T7wh/|Y'zY 'k v m f h/ v 'v h6gA"Ts l h/ h'f T7l T7l!L'vXT h6hv f 0L f h q k qKTh6| s z vjgTf l |}6m.'k T^ T myf+xVh/'vZT,"m n/f u6q^'T8T T7h6l v f
fk k
f i8k f k g f f f i
i3f f k f f
k
k TLv T ' m&f 'q v"s x h/v n f T7 'k 6n/m v ~'Tv u g f 76v h6O o g l"K6u"q q^T s20 f v/TLT7h6xl k1f | f 'm&'v"x f zY6qOT7l f3gZk f f vBTL|Y6 k m f f q k qKTh6q k vBT f 6xVT
k v"m k Tl s o m& vk gZf v g n zf T7l 'm&'v!x h'LT7l a m.m v n q v o v v/Th'q^h/ux
R f ?Bu f v!k xVr6f z/'v f gk v2q7k h s2f k1x%f /q f qLk&T7g l k qf k&g fn f x%6v f f8s gZf f Th Z'i3m&'f v"x f k k.vf T7l f ok&g f f
q f k v"x kf h6gZ f s2f k1gZf<gf R f ?/u f v"x k1f fq
Rh s Tl f U |6h/m]T'n f q7h6ux f zBT7l f m k1s2k T k vn2:6xVT7h6 f%k vnT7l f
k v g u!xT7h/ q qKT k m k TKr@hY| f 8 i8k.gZf R f ?Bu f v"xVr
'vn f 0
l ' h/ |Y' YT h6v!q r/h6v T7l q q n/v"qz uZTU-Ru"m1m qxVu"qq h/v q2vh'T ''vBT l 0
f v f 'f mF f o u" o fUh/sq f8k1s f o fg 6k v"x k fN k.g nf f x k g xVu k Tfq3'fa fgZf s k 'vuZ:/xTu f<g+i l k xglk x%6v k f q i8k k Txl fg@i k vBT7h s h6f<g f T7l"f 6f v
h6v f x%h6vZ,!n6uYT k h/v@Rh6 s k.s u s > f%k.k m k TKr@h6Lu"q f 0
_AV
F"]Bb_IKJP=MOGJQ\LI%
J <JPZAMmqP

U' T hN h6 k. g n f o x k x%6u v"k x Tq q i h6Y0TXl h6yvWT7T7l"l 6f v+q7 sq qKf2T' v"/x q k x q o k v"m.m"x k o q7m fum1/T q v@ b 6 k.m.g 6nv"f x x k x%xVu h/k Tv q T Tl"h6v@YTj6q v 'm&'xv"YxT fg
k k1s fg f f
f k f i8k f k f<g gZk k k gk f<g
r@T7l f vum.m gZf T f xVT7h/ gZf | k x f 0
q7x%uh m.o m gZq f T f xVET7 h/qqRz6h/l U o l h/ v k&g qn f q s o }m r , f h6q Lf v"uq v"k T k | f+o m f ,m f xT7hz's2h/Lf 6xvl"rN6v h6k T7xl 'm s2f T | f x s x%hY |o f s2m f vBh6T"qz= h/n qx qKk T m.m1hA
f f g f s k fg
s k f<g
f gZf k f f f k f
k6vx%nQx%u| f 67xVr2r q s q6Ym1#T m U h"|60 h/m]T'n f m f | f m&q0 k f vum1m gZf T f xT7h/qz k Tqth/vm.r f ?Bu k fg o h k v/T h'5x'm k1 'T k h6v
k f
UrA + qK Tk.g 'nv f 6x k xVu k Tqo x''v v"!x f h6h'"Tq l f 6m&q7'r s2TKr so f T7 h6k vUx'TRm l TKr q7o f8i l q f f 'v2Th uo :v h6 vh i h6T^v T7h k.s o 3fh'g L'T7v"l x f8k q 'n m&'0 v"xS f<g z
T7 l f r_x%6v g f gA'vk.s h/v"q^fr g s2s2f f T k x%6k.m9s2z ak u"q k vn o f ''m.m f m f k1s o s2ffg 6v"k&gZx f@f q T7h 'm&' v!x f q s f k.f q k.s fo f g 'k&g v"x f f qzth/
f | f vUx o /x k T6v"x f q 'm&'v"x k vnh6uT k v g u"xT'v"x f q0
U U o k&gl"n6fq x 'k vx%n/u m k TqQh'u"*qKT T f vl"}o | f@h o s h6m1r f T7l!'T'xvl h/v f Th g K'u"m&'q^Tv"s2x f 0 vBTzyq k v"x fA h6T7l k.s o f<g 'v!x fs 6n6v k T7u gf
f fs f f s f<g f
q h v"s2q fjT k.| s o TKf<r g o 'v!q x fj}r k&g n f u"x qk x%u k /TqQq6R f ?/uR f v"?/x%u r f v"x%r ~6q q7f uv" q k T k | fvBT i l k m| f x h'Tq l f Nq6m16m8 fxVh vh'oT<0Nh/v l vBf T2R|} 6f m1?Bu u f q2v"'x%3r
s f
f f
6f x%x%uk Yk T ff m1_r vf h i s v50 f fg f f sf f%s2f gZf k f k
_ d% 5LyXLNd QL La8
[/u"qKT/q gZf | k x f ql"}| fN!ff v s gZf Th sf 6q7u f x f 7T k v o lrq k x%'m=?Bu"6vBT k T k.f q8'v g f o f 'T T7l"'T k vZRh/ s 'T k h6v
kl"vA}| Tl f Rh6 v s h6 T7l"f 'm T f xTh k T7x%l 6m=q qk n6v"6m.q T7T7llXf s hZ0 xVh/u o m f qz"qKT k vUn/6un f q%z o o 7h !f q%z f Tx'0z!q o f x k 6m gZf | k x f q
wfT k qf%f h'*T s f vgZv f f x f qq767g r2Th f f s2 m ff i8Th k gf T f xT6v g T7'v"q s2k T T7l f o lrq k x%'m o h/q k T k h6vh' sf xl"'v k x'm o 6^Tq
| k f m f xT k x%6mtq k n/v"'m&q0a l k q k q f q o f x k 'm.m.rT7u f@k vT7l f , f m g qQh''uT7h s 'T fgs /xl k v f T7hh6m xVh/vBT7h6m6v g
h h'T k x%q0q k.s o m f 'v gAf /q^r i }r2T7h g hQTl k q k q i8k T7lX o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f
potentiometer shaft moved
by physical motion of an object
+
V
voltmeter indicates
position of that object
h | <z o h6T v/T h T qyl"}| Tl h v2uv ?Bu o h m q0Eh6h6v z'T7l r m1rQh6v o lrZq x%6m"xVh/vBT6xVT
Tf i3f%f i3vaf T7l f f i8k o f f 0Ak s2'v f g f T7l f f q f k q^T'f%v!k x f i q^T7 k o z k i l fk xl s f 'fv"s qT7l f rXqû: f f Tfl ff f f xTqh6 o lk rZq k x%6m i3f 6
hY| f T k1s2f 0`q o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f q itf '<zOTl f%k o h o h67T k h6v"6mh6uT o uZT2| f q7u"qQq^l"'*T o h/q k T k h6v f x%h s2f qm f qq
'v m qq x 7T v50Oyh/u n6lBT8l"}| 'm. r o v"x T7l q xVT l v u!qKT vnTl |6h6m.u xVh6vBT7h/m
h6vg 6vf h6m g f gZk k h i l f vs2k T i8k q^T k vnXf Tl f f vg h f%zO r/h6f u k.fs2k n/fl/g TQl f k 6Jf 6f qxVYi Txl f k v"nUg} q^h/uvk g qQxVh f s2k vnXs2h6uf Tjh' T7l f
q o f f q0E lh/q f vh k q f q8' f T7l f f q7um]Th6 o hh6 i8k o f xVh/v/T6xVT k vUT7l f |/h6m.u s2f xVh6vBT7h/m o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f <0
m&q7h"z{T7l q o lrZq x'mxVh/v/T6xVT T v o
'v qKT o xV YT qT7l o h/qq m TKrah63'x vn q o '0 vn
Tf i3f%f vTl f k T i h-/k qT7l fAi8k o f k q f s i3hYf%|f fg i80 k f k Tl s g h/q^T k o h6T f f v/T k hf s2f T ff Qx k xVk.u k k Tqk zLT7l f xVuk f vBT k qQq^h-k m1h i
-

EDUUNEF"bHGaEt8IKJJLIKyNMOI%P
T7l!YT i8k o f j'x k vn k q
v f n/m k n k. m f z uZT k T k q o h/qq k.k m k TKraTh !f x%h6v"q k&gZf fg 0w3Tl f o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f k qTh
h o 'T v'v v| h6v vBT l xVh u"q^T m |Y o h/th/ g u!qKT k q o f q f v/T<zBT7l k q o h6T f v/T k 6mRh6 'x k vn
T7f 'v!q^m&f YT f q f<kg+vBTk h@ o fh'T f vBk T k 'm{sRh/f 'vi fVf o f m.h/q k sjh6v= # k. f
q vnQ v"q^T h' z ' m T7hxVh o m T m.r+}|6h q7m vnQx%h6vBT/xT T v o 6^Tq u"q
YY k ($7 ; k RVY f g k v"q^T f g ith'f C f o h6T f fvBT k h sf s T f 0 f f f | k x f q k&s g gZk&f gZkRh6Tl k q o u o h/f q f i36f%f f x'm.m f<g k it f q%f z
i l k xlq^T'v g qRh/t k v f ' ' k m fk f f vBT k 'm{
'v"q^Rh6 s2f q%0L l fgZf q k n6v@h6='v m1hhqym k f T7l k q
The Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
AC "excitation"
AC output
voltage
voltage
S | k h/u"q^m.r6zBTl k q gZf | k x movable

RV' Tl"6q8+q vn6m o 'r v vn o h rA6v T v"6m
q (9 ; core
f
k
q7h6ux f h6C |/h6m1T6n f z/'v g T i hjq f xVh/v g 67r i8yk v k gZk vnBqtx%h6vk v f xf T fg2k1k s v@q f k.fi8qpk gZu"k x k vn:it/f q^l f<k g@h/v= 0OwT k q f%} ' f
q f xVx%h/6v u"q 6f 7Tr l f xVv h/ fNvkn/q qR6 f f T7xVh h/vs v hY|xT f!f0T itff vvAn+T7'l f
6i8vk n v gZk vT7nBh2q%h0Eo"wTo hBk q q /xl ;h6T7( l f x%6u"q f h6uZh'T85Th6l f
o l!i 6}q r2 T7l f T 'i v!h q
T7l!f YTyTg l f h/uZi8T o k ugZTk h'{T7l k q f gZf | k x ff i8k f<m1gm !f T7f%l k f ;f< g f T i3f%f v2T7fl ff |6h6m1T6n f f h6u T o uZTth'{T7l f T i hq ff x%h6s2v g f 'r
i8 k q7v ugZm]Tjk v'n/T
q0 T7l l h/f uZv-T o TuZl Tf T xVh/ fkv"q
'm&x q f vBT f m1 m f<g 6v gahX h'|6Th6l m1Tqi80+k v wTgZk vqnBx%qN66m1m f h6 uT o 'uZ T7T k vnUx%'T7u!l q f qT l s2f xVh/|6 h6m1Tq6n R f z{T7l h f v fh'T
f
f
f s2k i8k !f+f
k fg ; !f f f f f%f<g s
s h'T k h/l v k q q^T7|6 h6k m1n6TlB6pTn wm k h6v uZf T 0 o uZT rj6v v xYT qLT7l o h/q T h6v2h'!T7l hY|Y m xVh/ 0 7h|6h/m]Tq 'v!q
T7l!YT8T7l f f xVh6 fk q8x f fvBT f f<g 0y l f Ru7T7l f i k }grQk Tl f f xVh/ ff k q Rk h sk x f vBT f f8o s hBq k T k h6 v=f zTl f f n6 f 'f T f o f x f s2vBfT'n f
h' v o uZT x TYT h6v\/t|6h/m]T'n m1m q vYT8Tl h6uT o uZT<0y l o l"/q h6OTl h6uZT o uZT|/h6m1T'n f f m&YT k | f
T7hkTl f
fV x k TfV' T k k h6v|6k h/m]T'n fk v gZk x%fN'Ti8f k q i l f k xl f%f gZk f xT k h6f vURh s x f vBT f f T7l f x%h6f fk q8h f {q f T<0
l o 'r` |Y'vBT'n h'6v hY| o h'T vBT h T QRh6 o h/q T h/vHq v"q v"n qjTl q v"x
h' o lrZfq k x%6mLk.s x%h6vBT/xT g !f T itff f vT7l f2s hY| k vn'v g f q^TYT k h/v"'f r k o s2'7f Tqf 0j l f x%h6 k fk g h f qf v"h'kTxVh/kv/T6xVTf Tl f2fi8k ff
i8 k o v h6gZT k vv/n/T qzh uZT8T q^m k.z"gvf h6q k vUq 'T7v l g h6uZTT l i8k o Tl hBk q7vUq jv"m TKh6r@v"x%h'h6v xVg u!'xTT k vvnjn+T7'u v'f 0yx' 0 lu"qz6Tl f g h f q3vh'TP i3f 'm k f
f x k Tk YT s2k h6f v+f h6CT7l f k f f k qTKr f o k x'm.m1r]k.Ik
k |6h/m]Tqtf k h6tm f q7qzZYTR f ?Bu f v"x k.f q6vn k vn
Rh s o h itf m k v f
T7hTl f l k n6l6u gZk h ] 'v"n f 0 S v f o h'T f vBT k 'm gZk q g |Y'vBT'n f h63Tl f k q k Tqj f q o h6v!q f T k1s2f z
i' l k xl q k q s h/z!q^T7T7l m.r gZR f o ?Bf u v gZv!f xVv/r Th6vAu"q^T7T l f R l f ?Bn/u l f v"xVT7r@hAh66Om1Tm.h l f l"Y|6T h6| m1T6n |/f h6q^m1h/T6un x f~q 0Ewv"Eq | v"f n27r@x ?Bu xVuk x@Tq f vq o h6h/uv"n/ql-f xVT rZk1s2x%m f qq
h'fj gZ f Tk h fg gZf T f f s2k v f f |6f h/m]T'n s f m f | f mtf 6qk T7l f f xVh/ f+k q sihYi | fg 0f 5f h k m.m1u"q^T7Yf T f f Tl fk o h'T k f vBT k k 'm o f h m f%s l f f f z
F"]Bb_IKJP=EMOG-JQ\LI%
JE<JPZAMmEtP

k.s hY6| n k v f vaT7l 'k vq f% h/'uZn6Tn fluYv T fg qx q8f v"h''E T k h 6q v o q xVh/o v h i30 f fl g h/rjuZT
o u
T h'E T7|6l h/m]q T' n f q7h6 ux h6f uz mi8kv T7lT T7l | f vxVh6m1hf h!fm k v" n
s2q v f<gAk }| g x%6u"q Tl g f<xVgh/ h6k1us2m f f hYf| Tg l7h/un6f l"h6uZT Tq8'vn k h6 h6T h6iv Rg h6 T7f l f q^h/uk x f
|6h/m]kT'f
n f i xVh6u"fNm !g f x%h s o f m f T f f aq k fvn/i m f x%rZgxVm f f
#s wT i f<h6g um gf 'm s h/q^k T k1s o h/qf q k. m f s Th k gZf T f ! f s2k v f fk v"f q^T6vBT'v f h6u!fq
xVh/ f o h/q k T k h/v k k T s hY| f qt:6q^T f Tl"'vUTl f
k v!qKT'vBT6v f h/u"q q^h/ux f |6h6m1T6n fg h f q0
|Y6 k YT k h/v
h6vT7l f k q5T7l f a z}h/ h6T67r ' k m fAk f f vBT k 'm
'v"q^Rh6 s2f <0= l k q gZf | k x f
iq^T7h60n6qtlBh6T3vm 'v m s 0h/cq^ T T7l f qq x%s2'v f o k v"xVxh6k v!o qKm Tf 7z u"f%xV T x f o RT3h/T8l"m YT8TT l f xVh/ h'f T h6f v|6h/h6m1L| f 6qt h6vRuq7m.l"Fm w'x *T xVk mv"q^ T f h'g T h'h/ v=s 0 hY| k vn k v
k kf
f
f<g k.s2k fgUs k
k f s k
h6vBT k vu k vn i8k T7lUTl k q o k v"x k o m f z i3f l!}| fi l!YT k mq vh i vU6q @ ; )7 h/ ; z i l k xl k q gZf | k x f
xVh/v"q^T7u"xT fg 2m1h6T m k f i h/uv g wh'T7h/ o h6m.r o l"/q f s h6T7h/8h68n f v f YTh6<0L l f 7h6T7h6 k q R f%f T7h+ f |/h6m.| f
QRum.m=6 3}z u"q^T8m k f s h'T7h/0 S vAT7l f h'Th6 k q8q k vn/m fi8k v gZk vn+xVh6v"v f xVT fg T7h22q^h/ux f h'L |6h/m]T'n f z
sT7l"u! xlp o m kl" 6f q T7l Qf z"o6m] Tk1ls h6'un/r lUi8q7rk v v"gxklvnHh/q h'j6T7lv h6 Tl"0 ' vUl Tf l qKTYT7o h/l" 6i8q k q v gZl!k }v| n/qU' f v u"q7u u"6m1T m1m.r k vTl f Rh6 s h6j
ff f
i8k s f
ff f f!ff k
Synchro (a.k.a "Selsyn")
AC voltage
source
rotor
winding
stator
connections
three-phase
stator winding
rotor
connections
modern schematic symbol
f h' Th6 v q n fV x k TT7'l T k h6v 'x% uf ; Yv/( Tto l!'6T7ql f ~q^l T7l"k *6T f<vg r
'v g T7l f q^l"'*Tq o uv-x%h6vBT k vuh6u"q7m.r6zTl f vaT7l f |/h6m1T6n f q i3i fh/u8f m g f f f Tk.7%u ff g2T7i8lk f%f o l"6q f 083f uZTTl k q f k qvh6Tlh i
2q^rv"xl"7h k q gf q k n/v fg T7h f h o f YT f<g 0YTl f <zBT7l k q k q8J M ( ; ; ; gZf | k x fs u"xlm k f 'va z
fV xv f o vTnTl"|6Yh/T m]T'k Tn qjq h/uZT o m1m uZTq ok n/7v"h 'o m h/k^q T h/s v"u"'xm l v s h/' fn6v gTf u ,"v k T Tf h
0 T7 l k T7'`l vn/Tul m.f 6 h'o ThBh6q T f h6v v+f h6n {k.%T7f<l g h'rTh6 <z o z=l"T/l q f q^TT'l T7h/
i8
k h6gZJk I3q^l *Tf i8zk m !f @ n6um&' k k s h6Na k gZf 0!yh6uax%f h6um T7l v:h6k k TN/q2Tf 6v"q^Rh6 f8Tflak h6v f
o k1s 67r i8k v gZk k vnf<g 6v gk fTl f%f f q f xVh6v g 'r i8k v gZk vnBq%z f 6xlq f x%h6v g 6g 7r i8k k v gZk vnQk h/ k.f vBT fg 'T jsuv f k ?Bu i8f k 'vn/m f f 0
qTl h'Th6 qq7m1h m.rUT7uv z /xl v v"n vaTu7v m.mEm v u o xVT7m.r TlaTl h'Th6<z o 7h g u!x k vn
Rum.m=|6h/f m]T'n f z i k l k m f iTl f h'Tl f f<g i8k vf gZk vn/i8q k i8kgZm.mk o h k g u"x f q7h i8s2k f Tl k k v"f n+m f q7q3gZTk l"f 'vARui8m.m5k |6h/m]T'n f f 0
rv"xlh/q' h6*T v-u"q v o q%0 T7lWT7l Nh'Th6qx%h6vv xT v o ''m.m mL6v v n
rT7l
q s2f |/h6m1T'n f f q7h6u"f x f zBfT7lgfkk q^l"'k *Tq i8k m1km s 'Txf%l k o hBq k T k h6vUTh2f l k fn6gal kgZf n6 f%f h'f 6xxVuga6f x%r f k.%f<ga f
h6m1T6n f q k v g u!x fgUk vUT7l f q^T'T7h6 i8k v gZk vn/q8R7h s T7l
< /q k v f 6mT7l" ff o l"6q f n f v f YTh6<05wCTl f h'Th6

EDUNEF"_bHGaEt8IKJJLIKyNMOI%P
Synchro "transmitter"
Synchro "receiver"
The receiver rotor will turn to match position with the

transmitter rotor so long as the two rotors remain energized.
u"x~
l YT7'v!q T^T 5Y x | o ql"}| v-u"q h6v-q7l o qTh m&}rAu o hBq T h6v=z{h/T7hU m&}r
v"}| k n/YT k h/v"'m!n6rs2h k o hBf q k T k h6f vAfkhY| f f y: k k m1r2m.h6vn fgZk q^f%Tf 6v"x f q%f0g l f h6v"k m1r gZk f f f v"x fgf gT i3f f%f vT7kl f k 'T7'v"q s2k T7Tf f
'v g T7l f 6 f x fk | f k q i l k xl-h/v f n f TqTu7v fg ra6vah6uTq k.gZf Rh6x f 0 l f ' f x fk | f @x%6v u"q^T
6q f /q k m1r
o fh/q u"T q fh/g v=0 /q8T7l f YT6v"q sk T^T f rRh/x k vn k TqNq7l"Y*TT7h+Tu7va6v g m f T7T k vn+T7l f q7rBv!xl7h+h/vT7l f m f *T s YTxl
kk
wCT7l x | qEh'Th6 qm *Ttuv o h z T m.m{6xT36q o hBq T h6:v 7h6 T xT7h/z/n v YT vnQ'v@
|6h/m]T'n f f YTf T7l ff k 7f h6T7 h/ k T7l kf q7l"f Y*T k q6i3vBrBf Tlfgk v"nk h'i8Tl k f T7l!'v~ h/kk BM f q^l k *T gZff g f Rh s Tl f f f q^l"'*k T o h/q k T k h/v
h'Tl f T6v"q sk T^T f <0 l f f x f%k | f h'T7h/ i8k m1mLvh@m.h6v"n f n f v f YT f 'vrUT7h6?Bu f 6v g xVh/v"q f ?Bu f vBT7m.r i8k m.mOv"h
m.h6vn f 8'uZTh s YT k x'm.m1r s 'Txl o hBq k T k h6v i8k T7lUT7l f T7'v"q s2k T7T f q
Synchro "transmitter"
Synchro "receiver"
AC voltmeter
AC voltmeter registers a voltage if receiver rotor

position isnt exactly 90 or 270 degrees shifted from
the position of the transmitter rotor.
l qyx%6v Tlh6un/lBTyh'='m h/q^T/qy

q7h67TEh6 n x xVu TyTl"YT/xl | q 'm&'v!x h6vm.r {T7l x |
q7l"Y*T k qk h6un/!l/f T Thh/v f h'LT i s h :s 'Txl k vn o h/q k T k k&h6g v"q f i8k k T7lUkTl f T7'v"q s2k.fk T7T f f q^l"'*T0 f k f f f%k f
S v 'T7l vn v h6u!q+ oo m x%YT h/v_h6T7l q^rv"xlh q vHTl xV 'T h6v_h6N o l"/q f wq7l k *T k vn gZf | k x f z
o hY| k.gZf<f g Tl"YTf Tl k f qKf TYk Th6 k q f v f k 7n k1k fgA r@T7l f f%f o l!6q f k k f f k
F"]Bb_IKJP=EMOG-JQ!LI%
JEJPZAMmEtP
K
three-phase AC voltage
source (can be Y or Delta)
Synchro
voltage signal
output
full rotation of the rotor

will cause output voltage to
smoothly shift phase from 0
degrees all the way to 360
degrees (back to 0).
qyT7l q^rv"xl"7h! qEh'Th6 qTu7v z/T7l 7h6T7h/xVh m m.m o h6n/ q7q | m.r'm n6v T7l 6xl+qKTYTh6x%h m9z/T7l
f q o f xT k | ffs 'n/v f T k xQ, f m g q k f%k vnf<g of l"6q f ~q7l k *k T fi8g k R7h s h6v f f 6k vf h'Tl f <k 0j~v i8!k f T itf ff vT7lhBq f o h/k q k T k h/v"fkq%z
T7l f q f o l"/q f wq7l k *T fg , f m g q i8k m.m s2k] Th o h g u"x f @7h6T7h68|/h6m1T6n f q7h s2f%i l f f
f T i3f%f v['z)}<zh6M3
q7l k *T<0j l f o 6xVT k x%'mL f q7um]T k qN gZf | k x f x% o m f h' o hY| k.gk vnU'v k vZ,!v k T f m.rX|Y' k m f o l"6q f |/h6m1T6n f
i8k T7lUT7l f T i8k q^Th'L2vh W YT7T6xl fg T7h2T7l f 7h6T7h68q7l"Y*T0
hj:'3T7l T7'v!q u!x q qxVu"qq l!}| 6m1m vAh'=Tl v u"xT | |Y6 TKr/0Lh | <z T q o h/qq m Th
s ' f T7'v!q g fu!x f q i g l k xflAh o gf k YT f h6fvg |Y6 k f m f x f%of /x k T'v!x ff k /q g i3f m.k m$zf k.f f%k vnu"q fitg f ThQf q f k v"q k f Tl f xk.l" 'f vn f
k vx o /x k T6v"x f 'v g n f v f 'T f Q|Y6 k m f h6uZT o uZT|/h6m1T'n f 0
ETl"YTTl x% o 6x T'v"x T vQT h

xVh/v u"xVT | qû"^:/x qL|Y' q T7lT7l h6L:6xVT7h6q
T7l f hY| ffs7m&f sjoo fk vn
6 f h6f {T7lhBq f k T i hq^ftu"^:f /x i3f f%qfzYTl fi gZk q^T'v!g x f8k f T f i3f%f v2Tl f f%s z'k.v f g i8Tl k fgZk.f m f f%xVf8T7 s k x8x% h6v"q^T6vBTyh'
T7l f
s 'T f k 'm k v !f T itff vAT7l f qû7:6x f q0EwLT i h2h6uZTh6OTl f%f h'LT7l f q f |Y6 k m f q8x'v !f , Zfg q^T k m k.%fg
'v g Tl f T7l k g 'm.m1h i3fg T7hX|Y'r6zCTl f v`6vBr sf 6q7u f%s2f vBT
h'8x% o 6x k T'v"x fQf T i3f%f vTl f q7u^:/x f q i8k m.m f
q7h6m f m.r k v gZk xYT k | f h6Exl!'vn f q k vUTl"YT T7l k g |}6 k m f 0
x'm= q 6xl qtl!}| m.h6vn u"q h'yx o /x T | q v"q vn@T7h T xT o lrZq h/m1h/n x%'m=xl!'vn q v
m k | k vn f< gZh k gZk.f q0yf f q f 'f m.r6yq IfBZzZ s f gZs f 6vAf f q f 6xl f 3k v"k f s2ff g jk 0 fs2gZff f o m&6x fg T k i h s2k f T'm o m.'T f f q h/k v
f%'km1T7T l 7f v!
Yq T k&gZm1f r,"h'tm.m vnf6Yv T k v"nRo TKh6r nAvl n f 6T^q Tm1'v h'g- sm.hBf h 6q7u0 fg Tm&l 'f x% o 66q7x uk T 6v"x f vBTxqCl"l!'v}|n f q f q^v u"o m]T k ^vRnh/ R7h s h/T7v
l f lBu l f '67v T
f f k gf%s k k f g k.sk s2f fs2f
ff%f f s2fg s
f%k 6vv"n/qq i8h'tk T7xl o s2/f x TT'6m v"o x m.'T xf l"q 'o v"m.n /x qf<0Qg "h/h6v Tl f h6 xl f o qK Tx6v q gAx% 6o x{6x zT f | x%h6 gZk v"/nQqû" f q o k 'vBT7Th6qNh'r+3'h6v g n/'xv' 6gZxk T /x| 6TKr6xTz k h/v T 'r m
s2o f h qOl"}| kv v"q f 7T v/Tf hh/7nB'v"q s q fo x f'm.m.k rf Tl l 6k ^Tk =fjh/v
s2T7f l T o fqLsh'f "xYTl T LT7u qz'x%k k o 6x s2T'f v"x
f f!ff k f f<gk
Rf f k f f
f k
f f f
k f
f%xk vTn YT s2h6f v6q7Ru ?BfugA!v"f xVT rit'fv f vAqT7l v"fjq sT f | T6m vo h/7uh !n6l2f |/6h6v m1g T'T7n l f
h T g xrTh6h6<Oz'Tvl h6f T qû u"Zq^TyKf T7xVl T0yo u k T7lXo +vnq7u 6 xVT x h6k.f v vBT7m.uZr@Ttl 6k m.n6q7lXhT7l
fV%Y k o k h65Tl f 6xVf T | l 6g ^Tf x'v k k f8 f m.r vBT o f8T gZf 0 f
f s k k
f
f kf f
!f f gZk k f f fg
;
v u"xT | T6v"q u"x qzCx% o 6x T | T7'v!q u!x qNx%'v'm&q^h T7h q m1 wx%h6vBT v u"v Tq%z
uvm k kf fQT7l k fg gk f xVk T f o lrq k h6m.g h6n k x%f 6m f% s o km f k q fgZf q7x% k.!gf<g f hY| f 0 h sf !Tf26s v"q g gZu"f x f q i f h6f r s 6 k k vfn2g h/v f k h'
T7l f x o /x k T7h6 o m&YT f q s hY|Y m f z f%k T7l f k vq7u"xlW i }r/qThA|Y67rUT7l f hY| f m. oo k vn' f @h6T7l f2gZk qKT'v"x f
T v@T7l o m.'T q%0 S T7l tT7'v"q u"x q h/7 r hY| vnj m xT7 x YT 6m v'v h6uZT T v+T h
,Zf fi3g f%o f m&YT f qf f f g f i s k gk1f f k s f k k g !f itff i
B
EDNEF"_bHGaEt8IKJjLIKyNMOI%P
capacitance changes with

changes in plate overlap

changes in distance

changes in dielectric
O6v"q g u"x f q i8k T7lAn6 f YT f yq f v"q k T k | k TKr+'v g2k.s2s uv k TKrT7hxl"'v"n f q k v@h6T7l f |Y' k m f qyx'v f h T k v f<g
Or 6i v"qK}Rr+h/ h' gZk V 0Lf f v/ T k 66m gZf Qq k n6 v=z s u" xlo m k m f q Th'l f x% h6v" x f vBo T T 6m=f x%l k o v 6g x T7T l | f 6T7 ' v! q u! x k v f q' 8y6 k m fj ; ( '
s2f f f f f%ifV s f gZk f f k
kkf g f
Differential capacitive transducers

changes in plate overlap

changes in distance

changes in dielectric
qr/h6u_x'vHq z'm.m3h'Tl vBT 6m | x qq^l"h v vT7l hY| m1m.u"q^T7YT h6vHl"}| (*)Z
xVh/vv f xT k h6v!q+'T7l ff%2f T7l"6vT i h!fXagZh6kv fXf i8f k f k Rh6g f f 6k xflh'T7li f-'k f v g f o m&YT f q@f'k v g h6v f k Rh/+T7l ff xVh s2s i8h/k v f
o m&YT f 0+qTl f x% o 6x k T'v"x fQf T i3f%f vh6v f h'tT7l f@6f v g" o m.'T f q
6v g T7l f@ xVh s2s h6v o m&YT f xl"'vn f qzCT7l f
x% o 6x k T'v"x ftf T i3f%f vjTl f h'Tl f 'f v g o m&YT f 6v g Tl f8 x%h s2s h6v o m.'T f k qqû"xlQT7hxl"6vn f3k vQT7l f h oo h/q k T f
gZk f xT k h/v=0 l k q k v g h'OT7'v"q g u"x f 8m f v g q k Tq f m]| f 7r i3f m.m{T7h k.s o m f%s2f vBT'T k h6v k vX k.g n f x k x%u k T
F"]Bb_IKJP=EMOG-JQ!LI%
JEJPZAMmEtP
/
Differential capacitive transducer

bridge measurement circuit
Pictoral diagram
capacitive
sensor
Schematic diagram
l fN k.g n f x k xVu k T k q v"h'T3T7l f h6v"m1r i }rT7h f f xVT k | f m.r k v/T f o f T3T7l f

gZk f f vBT k 'mCx% o 6x k T'v"x f h/uZT o uT
h'=q7u"xl@NT7'v!q g u!x f <z uZT k T k qyh6v f h'{T7l f q k.s o m f q^TyT7h k.s o m f%s2f vBTt6v g uv gZf q^T6v g 0q i8k Tl2T7l f 6 z
T7l f |6h6m1T6n f h6uZT o uZTh6"Tl f k.g n f k q o 7h o h/^T k h/v"'mBT7hTl fgZk q o m./x f%s2f v/Tyh6"Tl f T7'v!q g u!x f /xT k h6vQRh sk Tq
x f vBT f o h/q k T k h/v=z''v g T7l f gk f xVT k h6vjh6"hCq f T i8k m.m !f k v gZk x%YT fgQ r o l"6q f q7l k *T0 l k qL k v g h' k&g n f x k x%u k T
kxVqh/v q k1s2T k m.h66v k'vXm.mRT7ul v"xVT T k h6vXTz h@uZT7lT8f ' T7k l v g 3u"T7l q fgi8n6k T7 lq^h'T7 k vXn/'6m&'uv"n fx q% k T o k qq vh'vBT Tqk vBTTl f v gZf<'g n6v T7h Tu !fQk vh'O T7l ' 6?Bm.u"66v"v/x T f<gTKr
gZk k
f k1s2f
f f
gZf f%f k.sj f f f f fs k gZf f k
f%k vn s2f 6q7u fg 0

EDNEF"_bHGaEt8IKJjLIKyNMOI%P

!#"%$'&)(
l f rq+*}r-,7l.*/,jv f x f qq k ,Kr k q0,l f@s h/,l f1 h6 k v| f v2, k h/v435,jm f */q6, k v7,7l f x8*6q f h'5,7l k q hh6{z4,l.*9,'* g *'n f
k q:rB, 1 A u f q633,r q;* *'v h'k Cv g, u"*6q<x, l 1k *'vm nDf 3Um f Xx=, r1 h6q<v ,7k u xq k vEv!,q6q, 1 u"x>,7h 1 z* im.r-*6q Ru"h q<1 , x f*9g , ,7hu"q ,f l7*+,7lq7u @? q<,+*'*'vv r g ,K* r 1og h6, n fV * , o l hh6x8*'m g u 1kh vn q
s'* v h 1 qxVu f 1 o mG'* f v.*/, h6k v"q v!, l q gZhh/f z!l.i3*}| f1v"f@n@g q o k vE, 1 u"x1 l!, fgWi8k*9,l"h fAs q6, u"n6n6m vnH,71 hx%h k o f8l1F1 v 1
,7o l fNh g s m */, fq81 3k 1 '* fm fVi8 k , vl n k vI3v"q7k umJh ,:1 ,q hfk r v f , u k itr f8 17f */,7q5l f,7l s *'k vr k v!xVf h o 1+1f x s x=,C3 *'v"q i3k.s2f1 f q k v,l fs2 f *6x21 h'I,7l k fN hh/H,7s h2q f1mf f x=f , f<gg
1 R h6f%svE,S6* x=, v"gnLgZk , l k o u m q7l k o hY1 | i 7, h fL6* K@v M8NONQP x 1q k f vRu@, m ,Kr23y| vT,7lh/un6l!,l o * , x%umG* , ,
k f k f1 1 fg !f fVZf1 k fNk k k f
f 1 k 1 fV
i 6**6qNqX,7u"l q k vAnl.q<,X* g-,l f%r{f v k v | o 1 l k vE,U* '* v 3jgXk v r o h o uu"mV* q61,u",7h q f Rh| 1 * x%,7h6l u o m f *'h'[3,Nr Rhf * 1 ,7ql zW,7l v f r, x%mV* k1s2, fh/gv-s h6\r,7xVl h s o mG* hk h6vE ,
i 6* q f , 1 7, l f q vEg-, f q6f8, 1 h6v]f 7, 1 l g o * ,1 f8zZY 6* v f q71h6f m.| k1fi 7, h^"A f2v gZ1 6* v-'* m_, 1 v.*/f , | f% , f<gZ,`3 k k
f%kVN1
i s2v f v"i8nLk j* q7gZu k ,+k * f8m 71 f '* m_, v.*/, f%| kV1 6* 1q h g 1 f xVum_,af<, g l.'* vl.g * '* n f1v 3ck b f u fVzE7, l
, f%hB h/,Zq kq8k v h gZok 71 k,<vE, ,z 2*u@k ,)m1hO,7 ,l f\fh'1 f *'vZf8m.Rm.h1 rn/hB*9kh , g
fh6 ivhth6Z s q5m_,q f%1ffs26* gZq fk1g * o h k ,d,S,7'* hvEh,83Cl fb *}h |rgh/k1h'ves f,7, l l ftk s fg *9,q<l', *'v1hf g h/,7ql f f1m ffq7i3q fkh6v21uZ,f , k1s2o h'm k&f g vEo *9K, , r2k vEv"h', n z
'* v , lh/s2q k 7, l.f<*/g , q<, m1k m 1 s vn o k v2, f i k.u s , 1 o v!q | s23 f ff itf871 f
1 k
g g, /* fqth/u@, h'it5 f871 u"f q<, k*9, h/vhf%k 7, l.*/8, 1 k xVh fgAo itm f871 feY k f
9k f% kTf 3l k f h v"h/,F<n qC'* v.oqpVo@n`6* q3#r.*2o
i
1 1 k
s k fg-5i >jSj Nj m m j 1 s
r.6*n%nv.vo qfx>'ss2t_tVn x>rQ,F.p vq6, n@u.o@us %n 1 vE, rOq%n8z * 1 u@q8
3,\*Xq<r <n x>o /s 1 v.p soZ* * 1 rrnOnOsEsE*/*/t@tdvCv56* /*qdq;,Fs ,+s o '* u@2,na,+1 rZn8*2n oZ* sE /s t_/n'zW6* r.qc1p n2*/rwW?gs Y u.o.*O* t_p_K, tVr!n5/* 1p vq uo s Bs1 s q7qF*/p ,Ft_pVn26s 3cvBx 1p vE|2,Fn s],F,Fr.r.nn
rOn`* 1 q%z":r.s *Oo!n o n 1 pVn%v"xn8 oT,Fr.n n%vZnAZ,1 s6 1 n<x>np.|Qp1v"n2 1 s n8n'p.v"q6, 1 u!x= ,FpVs6v *6v.o!n%v!1 x>s6u 1 *6nOn s nv2,yp.v s r o u 11 q7uZp_,
's dt_n`* 1 vZ1p v"nLn8t_<n x=, 1 6s v..p xqy 1 s s s '* vr o ns o t_/n z@1p v!x>.t u.o@.p vnqF%n |2n 1 */tD,Fn`6* xSrZn 1 qa's s .p vZn01p vTntVn s n v2,S* 1 rh'* v.oqrZ1p n2r
qxSrZsQsOtzL3 CrZn8p 1 q<n8tJ{Dn qqa/* q7qF.p q<,+6* v"x>n o tV}* r2n8oh
* 2%n r 1 s2t_ny.p v s r^s98v v@q<7, uDo@p_<n q%z o }* |Q.p vne,+rZn;vC}* rus 1 * 1 nvC* 1 o@.p vn
v:x* r.1 */n8,:n 1 ,FrZ*'nvDr@on2|*/}* q7|2xn;p1vD,+s*9,Fsp.vnHnH3:rZs 3:3 rO3ywfs6vZt.r x>s/uZtGo]n ,Fn%vDoq,+rZn
nOp1[,;s6d,+rZnp 1 rZn8t o rn2p1|Qp.vn^,Fshs/,+rZn 1 o ns o tVn
bQ!s zXo@n xpVo@nò-,+s '* 2nU,+rZn sQ6s nn81t r-}* |9*/pVtV* tVnO
3 -s nU,+r.'* v},Fr.*/, zC;oZn x>pGo@nò-,Fs '* 2n'p_, s o %n v=z
usOtVtVs9v:p1vn,+rZnqF* s nyo@n%s |2ntVs o s n%vE , s s@o@n1 tu!q<nòLp.v^,FrZ n s *6Ep.v1nes6! 1 nn8qFs'[,6vC* 1 n :s s/q<,yvZs/,Ss * t.re,Fr.n8 |~* 1 pVs6u! q
;
u@,+p_tVpJ,+p_n` ntVn8*OFn8o r ,+rZ@n nnqbQ6s [,6v5* 2n Z/s uv.oZ*/,FpV6s v=z)'* v.oB,+rZ@n 4.p vu s2Dn */,F.p vZ-<@<,Fn zdv:rZs2Fn
|* s n:pGf 1 s9v:1p v.;1 %n |2%n vH*OE ) v 1 p_,F}n =E3 C1 rZn:OsE*/tQvC1 *Od,Fs xsOQ 1 pVOrE,),FrZn5,Fn ,fUFse*O ),+s 1 1 sO,Fn x>, s '6* u@s ,Fr.s 1 <rZpV
p_ .u@p ,Un 1 's n`DFt_Fn8t_2B*/*/tEtVnt_Ds9v> *6vQOs6*Ov..n'>n2,+O3 s Co@rZpV<pGf, 1 v:p pVt_u@1t u,FZnhtZ*6*/v.DoD
o ~us s 10 */s@t o@p1n8u O/s ,+ErZpVnHZy,Fn6s W,e<,+,F*Os .oZFZ* pJ,eoU,+o@rZpGn<p, 1 p s9v:Z,F%pVsOZ'ntVn`p oZ0p_,+v:*/,FpJ,+pVsOr.*

Q Z1
1+ 1
1 1
N
fE`_0^ f;<AeeC
ZT.oZ*On Z1 W>ns2.Eo@ pVZ1 p_q2rE*H,X.pG0s/,Fv:pG>rZnUp ,FshFpV,+8r.*/*9tVt_,;!n,+wWn n`1+= ,n8sOo ! ,FSr. n p v5m 3+s ;WE2sO@Z,XnHFn2*On */ t5>IsOQpVQntV.Vn [F, n8 y,F*OrZt n8n8p 1*2o@ q1 n`n *9,+pVp_<2,8n'Wv5>s9s O1 n !pVFZp ^ ,F.r.t_ n
A. ZneCtVnrZEnq*/tA W<sO,hpVE<,+.CSrpVT4 pG1 >n`n8*9.,:<nAo@n>',S*/*/pV.t3 Zt_pVn8o,Fs 71v5s %1 vC*O ',Fr.n 1 t nZn *O3t 1 \ tVpVU 4pG>n8.<n71 6s y,Fr.n
1 nnTbQs'[,6vC1 * 1 n@Zs2Z.oZ*/,FpVsO X>3LCr.n \I1rZs9v5n2n 1 IpG'pVE,Fn8.o@n8o,Fs}1 sOQQt_n%[ ,'vas 1 @es6y>s ZZ,Fn 1
pGF*/:s'.[ZD,6vCs/n`,;* * 1*2p_nOZ:Oh>*OtVv:.n8*ohp_,F1 r.*/*Ot_p_,F!CrZp_,+s2,;rZZ>n
OsOrH .tVp_no,+n'\ Fp_Es'n,[,6u1 svCs@1 o@* .,+r.ne>*9,F>s,;s 1 *O'ZtGZ*/ZtV.pVZ8O*9p_.,6,F*OOpVsOO"In:C3 pGS rZZsE1rZ<s2nen*2-s2o'ZsOn8ne,FZrZs'sOn fZ1 ,F@2r.rHtVn8n +,Fys'F[D,Fs9r.nÒnL>n p_1 ADXvaen8sF>p_1s22@E}fQ'stVb@Vn >[,pV,+nn .4 pG,8>nEn8pJ.4,S#FpG>n8v5n8 .s <1 nn2o@E.pVZ*/s
0bZd C1 *25>sO,FQrZQnetVnVs [ ,FpVZpV *Ot,FZrZs/pG1,+#pV,+nn us,81:c 2.1 * 1 */s EH ,Fn8n8>n8,8o^3 ,+r.*9,5ZsUpV.6, D=,Fs v5sO. tVo nXtVp p_,Fnò h*0,Fn ,CpV.< p_n8E,1
us 1 ,FrZn8 p 1 ZnnòZQ*Oy) rD*Oo nnhv:p_,Frhn 1 1F1 s 1F?g1 pGoZo@n8',+n , sQs61 @E 1 s 1 * s 1 . tVpVFrZn 1 8 3O F 1 nC,FrZpG sQs6
pVn>Tws p_,+y,+;p_Z,Fp_s!,FpG*/FZ{t pJu,0s 1F9 * pVv:*OEp_tV,tZ*/sOD,;o FpV*/.,Fo@pGKpVEupGo@n8.O*On t 1 2nsOZ.n2p n @,;nE*/,SQO
3 s2ZZns r.*O,+rZ5n ,+rZn n8O 1pVZn8n8Zo@pVZs T <,F,FsDo@SnrDE*/,0Z2's nX\n8p_,8t_n`Z=tV,n2sOn .1 */pV82p_ZtV n8*
v:pVZ r.us */1 ,02*9sO,F7pVsOI*OL3 aC rZ1 n8s 1 4 Q]p ,+4rZ2pVsOh sQ.s6*2F\4pJn`,Co@sOp_,FHpVZ,+!sL1 pJF,'Y s *2X1 ns22 ZsOnyn8utVnFn8nOtcEZOs2n81 hn8v:+Fp_* tVt1 -n;p1a22p_QsOpV7Ze>s ,+rZn nH*OF s1 sEFn>0,+*]rZp_..<1n%uZn>t#,<,+Zn pVn8,FnHr.*O1 s'
v:r.*/*/Q1+,;. *OOts2E *OoZ1 n8o@pVZnpVeOn8s o4t3 n8o@Zp_s ,F1 pVZ,Fer.nU,+sep_DO6s2, 1 .>rZ,Fn`s * 1 ,s 1 # n8>t_s2n`2=,+, n1 Es2,8Z3EpV8CCrZ ny1 's s2uZn8tV+ Fp_s28. *9*/,StzSZ r unn8pV=t # ,F1 rZnpGn0%),+ shp14.O<sO nUH,FZrZtGpG*/;^*2y,+s' * o@1 pG%n 6u, n1 1p n.@,+nn
Os2 1^ s@o@p_A.nòOn 11 FpVsO6s :,FrZpG^,Fn 1 ,`#Os21 D6,hOpVOnT 1 n8o@p_,Lv:r.n 1 nT 1 nò@pJ,HpGôZZn%u,Fs nOc,+rZn!s 1 1 p_2 p_.*Ot
,FZ*/rDZn *9,F,arZ,;s v:S1 rDr.4*/sE*O@n8.,+OoBn n 1 *O>OQs9s2O2hsOn .O#n'pVO,+nn:rZtGFpG,+:n^rZnyv:,+r.sQn s2 n8F,#n+5,FsLp_ s@pVao@*~p_ADv5s * */ne1 ,Fn:o@pVsOn>s6.,S*/e,FpVrZt* 3 n81 nHp 1 > s21 n82n8,So@*/spVZ n8o},+s'p_%Fp O s2pV tV* 1 1 tVO^n 1 FFr.p_s2* 1Dny=4*O*O..oho n8oZ2pJsO,a ,FrZ n;.,F<n ,e ,`n3E.FC r.1 nn
g, D6, 1 n nE1 ,FpVsO.n8o],F1 r.*/,X*/t_,Fr.sO Z21Ar C6, pVOn0,+s */pV2,S*/pVq,+n8SrZ.pV8*/tI*2> *2>pV-*/tVt4's ),FrZpG sQ6s {
Q>s2p_tVEtG0,Fnv:E ,`pJ,+4rZ,FsOr.@n,U< s9 2n8sQ=8, *9 ,+p_s2*/4,<,Fn */1 .pGo% Zo@1n8s2Fn*OoBOn`*/y.o%,+rZr.nh*1 @71 , s 1 sE 6, */n8QF}Dn`W=,`s/Q3 ,+n0E,F6pG, */t#s2ZoZO*OtVZ!On n1 .81 3@sO #tV*/n82>,nL1 pVn pJ,6D n p *Onp E ,+e*/,F*OpV.sOo
sOntVn8>,F, rZnXpV'.<* rZ1 s@,a6s Z,F1A rZn n2.1 n`n *Oo@Zn tV1s2FpV sO@4,CDsOn>Z,+OtVH3v:y1 pJpV,+Orqr >Wp 1s9>vaZn p_,+a nDtVn8s9=v5, n 1 pG1 Un8op >hZp_ ,+ X*O<t_r.t 1 sO Z*/tG,<o ,Fn 1 nLpVn8t_\n%[v:,yrZ,F1 n sq1 ny,FrZ,+nLrZn 1 * n;1nepGa s'Zfs , 1 *OpV7 p_^Zn`'s o
1sE's /s u n`1 FFp_n8s2* .*/*OtG8Q3 Ct_pGrZ1 * n^p_;tVpJ,6n` <pVOus }bZv:>r.pVn*/.,:pVjn y4oZpGsO>Zn8n0.? <v:nLp_,F>r!tVn8*1pJ,S1 ytVT>s2<,+E1 */,F,Fnn8Ey,S,F1 3 r.*/,;Zn8pJ,+rZn 1 C Zs 1 */QTsOE, 1 p 1@,Fs 1 5,+1 s,+rZpV
1
1
!( !&d($LqL
F+xXD>ZpVn`nn->.p_AD6s nq ;n8,FpVr.oZ..n<,+*/ */Dn`,F>pV6sOn8,4]vCf's *~tGe* @^,+varZ,FpVs s7Z2BtV]n8pV* 'va1 s ,Fr.1 QrZnqpVs9Z,v*2,+o@*/rZDpJ,+pVoZp_s22.o@h*/n v5tV1 tVpV%sO1n *22>pGnHn8Z@n,F,Fs1 n`*OotXus2O>t_tVs2n8s9Q.vZ>tVn+.,+rZFusp_n-s2.p_D,F+ r.o@pV.1's=,6,+ Qp_2Dn ,+nTrZ*/s2s'ZyF n tV1 n8sEs * *O SZ<=rn pVZ1 T9D*9,Ff,+s*Op_s2tJs ,+.rZ8FsO3 n .1 OOr n
pVtVn8=,+ *OnQs ,F*2n <n`, HtVsQ* /s * n8 1 *On oZp_o@1Zn`D< pVO*/.,Fn8rZo n 1,Fr.n8*OoZq.,+s*/,F*/s tV1t_s9Hv,+s ,+rZ1 nUn8p_<Z ,Fu.s o@1 n8En!,: ,F1 shpV.tVn81 p_* ZtVqn8qs2T 1 ,FnrZQn8p_ps2.s9Fv:t_]tV1n8,Fr* 1 .sO.n8oOr!,Fr *'1 ,sO..Ot_r
n Z;tVs 1 *~1 *9Q,+pVZs 1 h1 H,S*/Z1 s@2r2n8, +3 1 @Fn1t s21 <,X6s #1 ,FrZn^ntVn8>, sOZpG;,FrD*9, QZs9ve{ ;*/Z 1 n`>pG*9,Fn',FrZ1 nHFn.Fn'6s1 y D6, */1,FpVsO
pV<Z,F.n o@Wn8En.,+ Fp_ 2nO*~@eZr.sO*~,:2nnaOpVn ^2,FsOn8Z*2SnXrZ r.pVZ*O5,+,FrZrZnn Fn8n*OtVO.n`5L s 1 1 s sO .D s sE/s ,+@ZZL3 p_,6yht_,F,FrZshs2FZn>O,:rHZ!ntVn8*L>, tG1 *1 sOZs pG5*9>,+ss HWp_sOTZ,Fn8r.En,+pc* s91 v:n51 q,6QrZZ1 s pV8*/n`tVt_
*'s/cDoHn` o@v:.rZ*/nH,FpVsO,+rZp_. 2s #2sU*v1 o@1n`sOo@Z.0=,+,+p_rZ2nn'1 6nW n cZ< WsUn8s2>Z,FpVn:O/n,+s'\1 ,+*On7 tVtIu,+s rZ1 1 n'rZ<n8,Ft_.4o@3cn8-E,XsErZ6,\s9v,Fn ,Fr., p_ZsQE6s ;@a* 1 <n'n8n F Z1 Z,FWs's2*OFn8ZoT 1 ,+1s2s*OSv5rLs ,Fr.Wny.,F,+rZ*2n8^
*,F/r..n Zt_T<n8,+t_rZ2s2n8F8nU3 C 11 rZp_Dne >p_pVDZo@t_n`.y=,+,+p_sq2nUFD*/n`Z> p_ADsEU*O1 pVS.r4<Q,+*/*ODC>.n8F;Vn u,F.rDtI*9,;*OC,+rZp_,ynLpV<8,FZDpGCo@nr.E* , oq ,F*~sHTA.s .1XoT pVT*~T,F1 rZZnesO, .*O OnLn`*a 6s t_fn'* ,FsqsQn 6s Z1 t_3 s 1 n
ys9v5n2n 1 5,Fn , sQ6s @To@sO5 ,T1 r.*~On-,+s n},+rZpGqvC*~O3 o@pV+>1 s92n 1 n8o,Fr.pVTv:rZn8p 6,S* 1 ,Fnò ,Fst_n`* 1 *
N
`Z ZUfeLU}5tQ8aa\^c
>n8s 1 */s9taQZpV>o@@p nL,Fn Z*/1 .pJ,S *Oe1 t_s2@,+ Fs n81 *:2 *Os6p_#Ò*OQsOt_tVZt_n8,+s9oq*Ov:Ob n2tVn8yDo@>2R nh1Fy1 p_nB3Eg,:,8n8"t_pVn`C =1 *U,n Y ,Fs2Zn Zn pV.,8$? Of*2><n>s n`,So/3NZZ@pVyn8,Ft_n ,FnXrZ6ss2FdpZOF'sZr [tG,6*9.vC,Fs/pV* ,FsO1 r.7nyp_Zp_pGELq,+*OnpV .o@Y n n`ZohpJ,+>nLn8,+st_tV*2nyE,'Os@sQo@*Os@ntJ,+o t4n *2p .1 *9>.,+p_ZpJ2,SpVnOatGo@3*Op_..o
1tVn8* 1 ZpVZ1 'r.s9v,Fs^.FnX,+rZpGCDs9v5n 1 uZtD,FsQsOtzZ 1 *Oo@ne*ô@ pGFs9On 11 {) bZ R sOZtGo n0 .Fn8ov:p_,Fr.p_!1 *U,+n , sQs6
,FvCs!*~O 1 n8,Fr.Fnn E,Un`>*Op o@1 >n Zp_,U><s2p Z tVoBZtGtV*9n8,+* p_s2B.X,FrZ,Fs-nh*/>tVs2tV.s9v>n8@6,+,+0.o@pV.n82o@,SD=,F,FpVs On8 t_s Fn }1 OpVn E ,Fn ,FrZ nhn>.,+rZp_Zn-Zs bZ n .R *u sX1 s2,+@rZ,Fn. @,SF0ntV*2O0n88va32n8Ct_t#rZ*2pV
o@*/Enò@*/pV.4=2,+,Fp_2rZnn81 tV< rZ s2B1 ZtGp_oE,Fn 1n0 * 1 n,Ft_n;pVZ1 ,F s^ Z. o@n n .<,+tV*O*O..oh*9,+rZp_s2s9.v+>,+3 s'.. FnX1 ,Fp_rZ,5n ,F1F rZ n s 1 nOFnItVp_O1 n`1 FEn npVZs9 QpVo@Zb pVZ 'R *LW.n Fn8un8o%=,+s9t_2hn +1 Y* */un .oBn8s9*/ODn 1
s'fn y W.n s/1 ,Fp r. n n82*O,S*9o@,+9p_*/s2E],S */s2Oqn,+ ,FrZs%np 1p_.s9v:t_DTo@p_.s 1 % Zs @,+n Z1 @C,+v:n pJ,+*/r-.>*Op t_1 @FZn8pJU,;pVFp * ZtG,F*9n ,+p_s2, .sQC/s 1s'd,FpVrZ'n8,Fp rZ1 nTs9v:n !Zo@1 p n`<pV8pVO*/4t53 On p_AD*/,FpVsO
p_<,0,+*9*2,+oZn oZ;nE,Fs],SL,F1 rZs2n^>|sO*ODpJ,+>r4n\Z,+, D 61,+n8p_ZFnBE,F,Fn`rDo*9,h3 v:r.p_,F*9 r.,HsOr.@*2,e o@1 n nn8s2.6v , 1 */p_,<,F,FpVn8sO.8pGD^,Fp_rZD n o@n1 n`n`*Ooo@*2n 1>pG t_*/%n ,F[nO,X3,+sC,+r.16* nTOn' ,FsrZnHt_1 n */@,+rZv:s pJ1 ,+r
|*/p_,FrII 's :>s2 1 <n24pV,+r.*91,Up_,UpGesOZtV}*20OsQs@oB*2,FrZn*O@,F1rZs 1 p_,6-pV%v:r.pVSr7p_,UpV01 ZtG*On8o%*/.oB,+1 rZn *O8 > 1 *O
's ap_E,Fn 1 1 n,+*9,+p_s2-,Fr 1 s2ZOrBv:rZpVSrBpJ,epGZ.o@n 1 <,FsQs@o3 yZ,FrZs 1 8t_.p OnH*/tVtfrQ */ npVZE4* 1 nLt_pG* tVnL,FsTn 1+1
,F*/r.Dn8n oD*O ~Zs <p_.n81 t_^2>n8s 6s yHd,F,+ r.rZ*/Zn0,XZ,FpGv:n */r.,y,F*/nTv:,;DpJ,F,+r.sQr!nLs 1 */tVsOOZ.3`,F rZsn1,Fp_n,Fo@rn n8+o@* 1n p Zn`s2tVyn8.86pG3 ;, 1 pV*/.,Fo@pVsOn8.n8o!8c, rZ1 s9Zv5n23;n2Xn n1 d,+sOrZ.n <, 1 1 n`*9*O,+o@p_s2n .1 y8*O*/tVFsqp HFn 1 On8n0o@pG,F*9sT,+n>tVtG* 1 <]p un8]n,Fur.s n1
bZ R pG:pV2, 1 s@ o@D>n8o]pV],+rZn 1 sEs/q n`* 1 t_hs24.*/DoqrZs2Dn%uZtVt_]p_-*Ôn82,+t_n0n8ZsOZ2r!v5*~H,+r.*9,yp_,;o@sQn8F= ,
>1s2n8E*/,+,F*/nHpV.>0s2Z*/%u.Fs9p_Os2n 4j3 QpVZnvs 1 6s ,+CrZs2Zb Fn^ Rv:pVFrZv:pVZp_,FTr ,FsT*/t_n`Q* 1 n * s 1 ZnOt_nh*TSp r.>*/Z@p_,+,+8n 231 pVC}rZ,+n rZnn yVn *~u n 1 nDn >nHs Os2n't_ {W *OnTFrEuOs2ut_ */.n rZpV`
Z>p rZ1 pV>tVZs2p_F,XsOZFp rQ Z6s tV*/I,F,FpVr.sO1 pV! 1 sQsO6s 1 * 2 n CpV-ZpGn>n8t_pG26,+3 n. nO @, bZ R pV1 1 n8nOW*hQp 1 ,F1ZnU s Z tVn nE,+1 p_Z,FrZn'SrD* 1 1 pJ,S* tVn
1
+ #]!$;>( XL(;(;H)&
)p <,8' )v:pVFrL,Fs,Fr.*O Uv:]p un2Ov:rZsE<nC.*/,FpVn.n:o@ 1 p_Z,+rZs2Fn *OQU*/.o^tVsOZn2nZpVZ2C*/.o^v5n%n 2n.o.
's )1 ,6QZpVZHr.*O nn8Tn , 1 */s 1 o@pV.* 1 O3
o@F's n`[*~,6O;vCs *O* 1 tVFnX*/s]tV.tCv:F,Fn8pGr.Foqr}n ,Fs,+ s]s ,+1 6*r.n-O*/n*9"w-,FsrZ,F1 pGrZoZ sE* < sQn^t_6sn!v:*/ZrZD*/sEo.<nHoqZsOtV,Fn8Wr.*2nn < ? n`1 F*<sOW n8t_1 n2>>H3,Fn^pVO<Cn0s6rZ[ ,6Un v5sOu* s21 t_n^tV* s9o@v:np_2.nnBtVsO pG h *%n82t_pG,06,hn>w6s s1 9,+*01 rDpVsO*~.OQ n 1 n*2n!o@n^>s ,F rZpGZ0Zn,Fn 1?
1
1
1 1 H 1
Ec -.n s2Ei . "k aO,F s xXWnnE1 ,+*9p_s2,FpV4Z3 ]b@Q<,Fn U 4pVQ. ds 1 9*/tGoZ{ :pGSr.* 1 o bE,S*/tVt */IW*O.o *hrZsE6,'s cs/,+rZn 1 :,+sQs
1
,Fn ,yn8o@p_,Fs 1 A 1 * sEs2t_n8.*O* 1 */.o]s/,+rZn 1 3
j m o 1 '* [,FpVZH 1 s2 1 * Cp \oZv5* 1 oZ83
@c/ l p 1 >Zp_,y n8E8, us 1+ */,<,+p_ZhF@6,+n q 1 nn'b@'s [,6vC* 1 n.sOZ.o.*9,FpVsOI3
o@s@> nE8, us 1F *9,F,FpVZh<@<,Fn 4n`<tVp_
n d* Ds 1 ,y*O.oqsO,FrZn 1 83
p *OOn */ZpVZZtG*9,+p_s2] 1 s2 1 * h,FsQs */Qq>s2E, 1 p Z,Fs 1 5,Fs nE,+p_s243
f XE`Z_X0^Cf;<]eeC
kW}'yn tV.n8j =Gj,1 n`,+s2>*OZpG*9ZpG,+Op_0rEs2,h6,+pV.Co@n */pVn8tG FesUs pV.n1 nT t_,F.*n8oZ. nLo@s2@n`,+oh,HrZn ,FnstVn8:=, s 1 pGqn n81 o@,3p p_1 ,F\>pVsO.3Z7pJa,S's9s'Q ,+tVr.n8*/<,+*2o*/OQv:7OrZs/sE,+W<rZn;'n 21A L1 69,5sEks/n8Oo@ 3p_,FIpVsOx;)],F5rZs'n nd1 .kp * m Do 8s' 1 ,S>*/ms EY,L Te,+n F n8 ,+> ^s2 .pVo m
n8oZpJ,+p_s2Ts61 f k m 78' >m 9k m Ll3 >m 7/k M8j =Z*/DoT.s 1+1 n`6,:- p G% lCkE k Z j m < 1 3 1 1
Cr.*O@#,+sU,Fr.n<,+*/w!s64,Fr.n5ntVtVp_Z2r.* ;2,+p Zny*2o@p_s^-.Fn @v:rZsLvan nXOn8Zn sO.\nZs2ZOr,Fs^t_n,
n04,Fn v:1F1pG<s rL1 p ,F sen;F,+DrZn`n>p 1p_ADn8<*O,+t_* tV0 tV,FpVrDFr */ UnE2,yn>w v:1 p_n8,Fr # t.QqZ8n * 1 */nDY 1 oL*^*O*/t_.tE,Fo]r.{Ds2F*2n5<rT*/L, Z#Zp_s ,81 3 E,+s9v:'ypVO1 rhb@SrZsQsO1 Bt us L1 npVZ0v:pVt_tVp_.
,Fp_,+sHNrZussE6, *O .oB sQs6sOE,F*2n8CE,8.32* 1 C,Cr.s'*/I ,+@rZenp *O1 tVFxXsqW,+ns-]X5*~sQQs6pGo% bQ1 v5s n n8n>,,8[@@*/Q.2oqC,FFs Q/ E*'Q2Cn;<O,+@rZ@n0~A W1 E62,C@n>\ws 21 Q,:Qp_!5*O>.s2oB2, 51 p n8 @,+Rp_.'s9v ,+s
nv:tVtapGo@un @1+E *OE.Co@FpVQn9.QQn0CusFZ~,FEr.@neZsO/Z@tV9p_.Dn2Q2@n O<apVsOS9]~s/)d,FurZs 1pG: W1 sQs9s6EpGo@3 pVZhnD>sO 1 *OOn n82,`.>s2.<, 1 .=,+p_2nU 1 pJ,+pVpV D*/D1 o-* ?
1 r.*O @;,+s -pGS1 r.*/n8t\bE,F@, us 1 1 o 1 *9[,+p_.Tr.pVUXn8FpVOb@>pVn.+n 4pG>nD<n2d*/Do ,+as :pVSrD* 1 oBbE,S*/tVt */%us 1
C
ZpVsOZIn8*2n 61 ,Cp_.ZL@,+,rZ>nen >,+s2*O.p_.>n8t_h@,yZs/sOf,y>t_n`sO*OQ<Q,8tV n>[,83 */Qh,+r.*/"Q5,+s .* n8E,+:*/Do,+rZs2Fn,Fn8*2SrZn 5s/ pVZnev:rZsh+*~vpV

pV2,+nLntV*t_nòZ=n8,+.Fp */1 tIne*2,Fo@sqO1 t_n8nÈ* ,F1 1 nO*/L3 WasO@r.,;sOZn8t_s n`1 =, 21 sOpG>Tp_,6QOq*/rZ.n8o t_ZpVv:ZrZH@s s/Q,+rZp_Dn o@1 :t_n`*Oo!C1 ,F2rDsO*9T,yr.{D*~* O nn'rZpVn82t_,+Wsqn8o *h .*2nOF3 F1 pVsO!u s 1 o@pGFs9On 1 q*O.o
dsOQ0ZZr.*OtVo@,8.2ZtV] N2NZM
N2

$; )$:$L^f
]f( )$ f
&%$$L
sOpV ].et_,+ *!rZne sOZ*/QZ,+Q.St_r t_npG e[,Fn8pGo@Co}s ,FvarD*O*9s p_,X14 1 n`,+o@rZpJpV, 0 WsQ.s < ,;DpGn'sOOWpVOnnBT,Fv:s rZ1 n n1 QnUpVF pVsO1 n`Bo@*OpJ,X.pVoBynoZ@Z.nO*/3CDC<pVrZsOpGBE j *h*OQsO-Qp_E1 ,FpVOn 1rEn`,+6n8,+o]n8oBvas.1* 1 ,F pVn8p_,;83LpV Ckr. n m
,FspJ,+n}Ws 1 ,FpVsO.s/e,Fr.pVqDsQs pV*v5s 1 s/e2sO 1 s9v:I52sO .6,qusOtVt_s9v ,Fr.nB+* n
g

e
2
s
:
v
V
p
F
r
O.pVo@n8t_pVZn`:*O5us 1 *OQs/,+rZn 1 sOQ 1 pVOrE,Fnòv5s 1 3f;n 1 n0pV:*H+* ZtVn0 1 s ,FrZnUXn8FpVO-b@>pVn.n4pG>n8.<n
@Q".1 Q@' Q~2~@ )EZ ) E@.EO5. 2EO3Z2WEZ/'OO2O (ZE
)@.'EE9..O* Q) "4$@2 .E.2,/O+!Z! Q%2-D95OÈO@@OZE'Z.#OO~.Z"%$@DZE@~.0 /W2/aOE/&
ZOO! +TW 9QW ) $@ZOZEW9 /OO69$Q' Z@O/QE.E~.2EQZa# "%$@E.2Z2/d~78Z1$
WO: OEG~ZQEQ2WZ~EE`Q Z/)OE@?;7+<WAZ/@2Z1D$2~#9$%@O8 $QZ?%ZB8/QQC%22$.2Z@OOD !2/2Q.ZW~~E.@2~,Q,2+
O+]CE1$@ @~O4 ) Z1 $QF$Z`,1 $D+-2OZO> G =S'
H%-Z1 $QZ9$@WZ~E@EZ*ZZ2QO.OZ2KZ$QI @+hZ.'2~!Q/@OE/9J@E+]ZL^Q.2O.O%(@2O,E+M.Z2EF$ @ONO`QZ22.E@Z@12$@OZOE@E2W 9,+
)!"G.T/TG1 $"GSOGH E?%ZB * ) ZQ2EQOC O~4 O :9GP'Q9R4 "GS H !"GTGT"GS GH.UU OE. VE.9//X W>=9?S Q
pV>hs2E,F,+grZD*On >2,F sOn`R ô1 v:3 n8oZpVFpJr^2,S*O,F p_sIFQn8,F>s@rZ,FpVo@nUsOpJquX'n8*O,FFt_rZs2p_2pGZc eWb@v:sQ>spJpV,+n rq.pV2hnsO*/ 4Q1 pGe>.nv5* D *~<n2nO/QO*/s2D oh pVoZ.n8<*/,ctVoZtVOsQEp_ @us n1FE ,c*/,F,Fr.pVsOn:.>*9s2,+.1>nCn 1 sO..p_Z,Fr.'s2rZFns9v Os@sOo@ p_AD 8*9*~,FHpVsOWDn

@$QY ZZ29Q2d%2$ G@E@`.Q9OZ2 /Q[2QZ9@(Z/@'OZQE99W(Z Z) .E2Q,E8D+-0 EO/Z@\ 2@Z/.O9W~.%/./9.QE* /@ /E2) Z$@~ZW E9ZEOO !Q) 2$@W9//(ZOOEZ9)#(Z%.(Z.OI Q2+ Q, +
@Z1 (9@EE.2E.D /@@EEO`QZ295 2Z25
NO
f^ ]^_a `,bdcZ:CLaby6LC:ebI<4
M`N
2W=S7E/B OZO\ ./;+!@29(@29(Z.2QG$ ) .~.23$QZ@OE.Z2/[%/E
E= ).~ZB E.ZOQO,O@+%O.`29(ZO2)!W9(Z.O%OZ452/1Q$OE~E9(ZOE.*..O2Q.+!~W2I+fO~EE.D2(@2~@//.`/2
)2=Q2! E2B8."EQ E)O@$@Z@EOEZ@*WZ/Z#22ZZQ1$,1 $@O+TZEE.OEO.E~`.E.O9Z@EOOWZ`29 (Z2/WQD9 W(ZO9 (Z~.ZO.2CQEM ,E/Q+-212$@DE2$..2OEWD~0 /E/G`@/Q~2Z O /'
.EOZ.2W E.EOZOQ'$@ZO~Z~')D8/`W2O2!QF Q$ZW@2 )E$@DZ0/W2~EEOZOEZ/EO.ZO2/Z~EW2.Q`.*@.`K Z2"%QW$@2EO.222@`Q LT)OQ.E@.Z@1O.$C@O /$@OZZ
W0sEZs Zg rD/pV*/OpJtG,cnoQTpG,S >,+1;3 rZn`j#n'>s s2>^ s * Zn8nO.t_nZo@@sOn8pJf,+oUp_n`,FsOyr. */*/,c.FnOo-OZsOFv5^n8n<tG.>1s pJ,6]n0pJ,\pV,++*Os<E. n8y1 s@nFo@Q pJpGu1+<]1 pVs2sO,FZDr..IpV;o@s pV1DZsQn^@s ,F.rZ*/no@.p F pVn`sO*O=.p_,+Edt_],+,FnsE.T,+*OrZ.n8nC>oZnes pJ,+1 sOp_p_Z2)qp_AD.t_*OOn`tEsOy*O>@s ,Fs9r.v:s T1 1 pG|<WdpVnZsOHQFsOi,+.rZhe*OpV t3
,F>r.s2neQOsOEZZtV@p_.,:nlvak nXva*Os2<,FZn tGoq1 */sOtVQt!6,Sm'*/v:.o1r.n ,Fs^n0D*On8t_tZn>,+rZAZ ne,5v51 ss tV oTOs2*O T1 FsOnn0E, p_1,8pV3 Z@,FpV sOD\1 p_IOs2 1 pVo@n`*Oavan 1 nXp_D>1 s 1 Ws 1 *9,Fn`1 oHp_E,+s
1
1
1
on pc(rqs=)&
.* tVtIn8nÊ, v:1 p_p_n`,FrBy* F1+s 1 *OZnHOo@n`n>oq,S*/pV pVtf*/sOtV-Zr.,+*OrZDnHn.,FpG*9,+*O t4s nL1 s/o@#n 1 ,+rZsOnh#<> s212., * pV Z@n2,+3ap_s2 I*F|St6s=1 oZ*/sO,FEn2, 41 pV>ZsO@E,F,SpV*OsO=D,0ypV* @1 unes.t_pGn<,+,F/n83UoT QTp_Zp_s.oZp_QsOpGEo@,.*/p t
,FZrD@*9,+,'p_s2v:.hrZn8[6,6QW0s- tV>*2s F1+F1p_un8}=,+*-p_s2>.s282D, n,+pV/Z3@,+p_* s21 n^1 *OtVpV
<,Fknò}pVQZ-s . m!* pJ1 ,LnHpVes2ZpVt_!Zus-s 10vC1 *~n` *OFpVsO@.unXs/p_s \ ,F1 s-n8E,+p_rZ,6Onh3^n>#wstVn8*2,U<nLs Z~.*Oo@1 t_n .1 nh<,+s/*O:.1 o* ?
k *9F*,+n>t6suZ1 tVm^tVqsO*OE8,>1 npVZZ,F@n8,Fo4pVsO3uICF * t6.<,p_.1 oZ n*/@tV,+t_n8n o]1 pV,F!sh,F*/rZtVtn^ ,F<r.n8s2.F<1nn'v:s/r.cs^t_n`rDFy*~O,Fnn EO,0pVOSnr.]*/. Onn8no4tV3 1 sOI1Q,FTr.n*Op .o s9v:*/tV tdsO1ZEs9, v:1 pV1 tVZn8@o@,F2pVnOsOQD,+yp * 1 nOn
1
1
*/1Do 1 n8FsO 1 >nà,Fs * n,+ rZpV;*LWn>,F,Fn 1 DsQs
vxwry{zey|v }~,;\yNrrI|r
K!dx0ir%7A9uA7e09 M821 ,FsH 1 n8FnE,
K
!A0s7J%7A0a5d, x 1 p_2p_.*Ot*/@,+rZs 1 3
iA'F<!% ZO!Q%Q$ Q.@OE4~ ZO@Q~5FO~
vxwry{zeyz ;I~,Ga''
K!dx0ir%7A9uA7e09 *~ ? OZ.n0 NONON
K
!A0s7J%7A0a5d, ;:f% us 1+ */,<,+p_ZDZ<s n n F1 1 s 1 s 1+1 n`=,FpVsOD3
iA'F<!% E'9 Z2D94%E2 F@$ 5z$Ga- <OQ
cZ .abr`;;c
M2M
vxwry{zey f~,^3rIr['
K!dx0ir%7A9uA7e09 -s22,+rT*O.oTOn`* 1 s/c>s22, 1 pVZ@,+p_s2
K
!A0s7J%7A0a5d, .Fn 1 ,C,FnQ,yrZn 1 n2Zo@n8+ 1 pVZp_.^r.s9vOs2TsOE, 1 pVZ@,Fnò,+sH,FrZneWsQs 3
iA'F<!% 7 ~.OO @@%( 9@O5gZO
vxwry{zeyw }lJ~~'454~,6I^~I4^[x@|^~'@~,;!'J4~,
W' j m{ k m j |^ kQ 0 7o+ k j k j m k m m 9 k^ F 0 3
Op c*/t n 1 [,6QWs>s 1F1 n8>,FpVsOqs2Ts ZtVnq Q Dn 1y *9,+rD
f^]^_a`,b cZ:CLaby6LC:ebI<4
s

R sOQc n 1 p_2.r2*/, ,Fp >M`s2OEOQ/pV? Z HNON2s/N d,F-rZpVpGSyrDo@*/s@n>tI bQ,F@n8,E,y9pVC%$@W!n !E'pJ,F2,F#n8o4<2.EpV!*OQ nò@pV 3

1
1+

h qc(rU->(
R sOQ p_2r2,0tG*~vOpVOn`n ,+*Op_%n Z>tV.Fp_2n pVOrE,+X,FsT,+rZn*/@,+rZs sOC*]vas pV.>tV.o@pVZ!,+rZn pVOrE,+,+s->sOQ2
s@o@CpJurZ1 Tn^*/pV.oZoTn8*To@s/pG6e, 1mOpV>Zs2@Q,+En0tVn>,F1 [rZ,onemv5pGs 1,F s!v:u,FrZpVt_nt_uZm tV1 1t_n8 1 1 ns@2o@s D =nU,FpV,FOr.n2n^ mnmOZ*2>oZtV.*/<1 @pVQ,S*9pJ,6,+-p_2sOnO\ mL,+1*OrZ .s2oFn m21 o@pVOpG6rE, ,+1 XpVZZ@.,+p_oZs2n '1 1m >1 n pV1 O,SrE*/,+pVS =3 ,+n 1+
v5*/Ds o 1 C >8rZs2QnL.v:o@p_rZEp_,F,FpVt_pVn8nUsOE.*O,X8t_s/t4c<sqsO,+rZZ,FpGpVr.;n8*/ tV,0pV1 n *On E.2F*/n'sOpVTZpG;nLZ,F.sq*/o@BnW1 nL>,FsO*qrZQnU!On8+*/Z* .n oBn*/o@tu,FpGnmO61F,> 1s2pVQZyE@*OtV,+n>.nU[o],o,FmHr.sO,FnLrD.v5*9oZ,spJ,+1 8p_ s2*/. s :1 W*OnL51 *O,+s2rZZDneZn tV1 sp_tVn`T1 o!p_2*/p_,F,<DsT, */1 */tzpVZ3 Q@ ,+n8o}pV.oZo-n sO1 p_#9va*9,+s p_2n
,FZrDZ*9.,\t_pGr.<r.*2n8foT 1 Zs/.,Fo@n`=n ,+p_s2p_,+^5.,Fn.o@n 1 >sOQ*~h 1 Wp_2nUr2>,`s23dZCp_n`rZopGc.tVo@pVpG<1n, .Fp_ZnyZ<,F,+n8*9o4,+n8.f*/,+.rZo s2Fnys@>o@n pJ1 AD,Sn8*/opV^3 sO.oZpJ,+p_s2.cZ.oZn 1 v: rZpGSr*0v5s 11
1 n`<pVO}+1F> pVnD> nAmqpV*T6, 1 */,Fn2qus 1 1 ,FrZnHo@n2ntVsO n82,s/a* 1 ,+pJ|*2=,SX*2*qv5*~T,+s 1 n>us 1F ,Fr.n
Z
r
n
`
n
O
*
O
m
@
o
1
nb@QQp_n8p .1 s2>n 4npG>En8,].uF.n^s/vC,L*OWnvs2ZtVpJn`,F,FUn8*O%.*Oo.oBFZoZ.nFnZY tVs9ZOnnÈo},+t_7*Oep *! <1, s9*92,+nHnO,FrZTn]us ZZpVOn s 1 +*/s/t\,FpV<Z,+]*O.,FoZrZ* nh1 o7 s/s2y tVpVn8E+pVyZs/D:d+,+>rZpVpGnL.Xn^n8F*Op_.2o
1
1 1
1 1
* 1 ,C,Fr 1 sO.Or 1 nus 1+ s/d,F1 rZnen8EQp 1 s2 nE,83
ho n ' J( }
=a $L!&
m1*I.pVs/n,F.pG>FnÂn mhZtGF*Or.*On8t_o-t Q!n`*/,F!r.nL,Fr.v5pVs ;n`X<pV>OsO}QbZ>p_pV2nr2.,Xin rZsO4tGpGo@>nn8.<<n2,+3:*9,+Cp_.rZqin ,+4r.pG*9>,0n8.pJ,0FnUpGX*/Z.ZZtVZpVn8tVpV:FrZ,+sqn8o}*/QZ].o@van s 1 ,+ rZv:n^rZ,FnpVSr XsOs/E#,+*O,+rZp_DpV
Xn8FmFp_2%!s b@p_m n8.F>r.n*/tVIt pVn.n8*/FnO3 <D1 S r */*9us 1 n n8E,FpVsOZn`1 ov5s 3Cr.n IpVn.Fn!*/tG<s%*/ZZtVpVn8^1 ,FsB,Fr.nT1F s2@,F.@,hs/
,F>r.s2<nQ BpVOs rE1 1 ,5 ftG*~sOve.t_3 BpJ; +*/pGo%sO@,+Z@,^sO.<,F1 p_,FZ,Fn8Ls* mOoZn 1 p_9*91 ,+ p_2nhvas 1 mTs/C,+rZntVpVn.Fn86o %s 1 *2Uo@nA.Zn8o7Q
1xX4 t6n8=,cZs 1F m0Fr.*/tVt n8*/H*/Hn Qn`>@,S*/ZtVnCs 1 Wn 1 us 1+ */ZtVn\us 1F s/W,FrZJn %s 1 /Dn8p_.0*OHn Ws@o@p n8E,
E
m
s/),Fm2r.b@n sOB s >1 n pV-*9,S<*1s m Fnr.,S*/*/tVZt 2p_Zn`tV*/n ,+n8rZo@nqpV s pVO3 pV7s/:,Fr.n!xX!t6n`=,L.s fWnpVZ ,+rZnqn8E,Fp n2 *2SrZp_.n n`*OoZ*OZt_n2
1 n>un 1F1 n8o^1 us 1F s/,+rZn Bs 1 us 1 >s2EQpVZ1 L*O.oHus 1 rQ */ s@o@1+p_AD */,FpVsO%u.F.*/tVtVL,+rZ1 n;tG*/ .O.*OOnO2?g1n.s@o@p_.
M
f^ ]_Xa`;b F Kà@:4)`\âÌa`\!`
MA
ss/,+1 rZun s 1F o.*9*9,+,e*^pVBZn`v:>n`r.FpV+S* r7H>s us WpVs2.F<n8,+oB*/tVtGs *910,FpV1sOn8IZs >1 sOo@Zn8o}A.OE *9,F,+rZp_s2n q s Z,F>rZs s 1 ZdpVZtG*9tV,F.pVesOT*OEs/Bd,F*OrZns % s .*OE3 QpVZADt_nÌ+ 1 pV@,+0s 1
1Z* ZtVn8esO^ m21 bQs2 1 1 nX*/,+%* m-p_D>tV.o@nOfZZ1,^* 1 nZsO1 ,'tVp p_,Fn8o,FsDd,+rZnus2t_tVs9v:1pVZ pJ:,+rZnM%s 1 pG'*O
p *9*O,+O*'n^QpJA.dtV,FnqrZn>s % s DsE<n`pGCoB*/*OT.o% n8,o@ p_,Fg nòB3pV tG*~ \On g oZusp_21+pJ ,S*/*/t,8*/I.,FoZrZp_n8s B,+n`rZ>ns so@1 pVZpVO pV.*/tc*2o@an; g s <s2* 1 n^ A. t_nqpVus ,+rZn]*/,CbQ*Os2. o@1 pVsn
A.>s tVn 1 Dn8sE<s n`1 o}o@pV*OZ0q*OsO}a1 */Z%@u*/s .*Ot_*/s2,<q,Fn`<o}s2 .1 tV>M *OnOp_N WE,F,+nrZQn,B1 AD,Ft_rZn2nH,Fs rZ1 pVn8O}pV.,+*/r.t *9 ,0A. 1 tV nHpVADX1 t_n^,+rZpVn^X,F,+rZrZnnbQbQs2sO 1 1 >n^n^X*9*/ ,S,+4*'* d4pJpJaa,F,FrZrZnn 1+ %%ss 1 v5v5*2*2
>>ss DZp_sEtG<*9n`,+op_s2TpV#sOI.*O<d,Fp_n,FLZ,Ff1Fn0,FrZ,Fr.nn'IbQ*OsOd n >neA.tVn2*9,S+*ZH3 *O.o*/Qp *OOnTA.tVn8*O.oD9s 1 >.<1 ,Fs *O 1 sE^Zn8n8+F* 1 1 7us 1
m @,Fr.s 1 mLFr.*/tVt n8*O],+rZnU>s21 Q 1 pVOrE,5r.sOtGo@n 1 |Sas/I,+rZn %s 1 3
CrZn0pV.o@pVEpGo@.*Ot4tVpVn.Fnn`:* 1 n 1 n>un 1F1 n8o,Fsh*OJmOOs243 m
h+ nHLH)&Uq:$L"]LH
C*O'rZn
<W%n8spJAD18 */tVpGt_%>o@s2n8E+ 1 p_pV2DrEn`,LoB,+WrZnn tVs9 ve@3q,+rZCs rZ1 pG3 iI pVt_t n.1 pVFOnrE,+o@Ln`F,+ s7pV,FDrZn`ns,F%rZns 1,F n * 1 n U1*/n8DFo%n 1 OsOn8.ooZQpJ,+p_s2.,FrZen Z.oZ@n ,+rZs v:1 rZapGnSZr7>,Fnr.Zn,
Z,FrZs *O1 o.Do@n pJ1F,+ p_s2p_4,+QCO2s2sO ]1 ,Fs*~ >s2Qn>Oun @o@,FpGse6, ,+1 rZpVZ^n @%,+nUs */.o O,S */t s@o@*OpJuDTs21 @>s2,aZp_,8p_n`@C*O.s/do-,F|rZ1+*2na%o@pGs=,S1*9 ,+3 n8ohQm9|*/p D<ndm2 1 ZsO,Fn: s
1 Y 1
p_,80 t6.<,;*OC2sOTvas2ZtGo] *OE]1 >sOQ1 1 p_2r2,+n8o */1 ,Fn 1 pG*/t ZDo@n 1 sOQ 1 pVOrE,CtV*~ve3
<h , 1 pV>j#;,FsOn8[o j1UcrZq1 pVs9OFvarEn,UnUn8O,+bQn s n81 >dsO,FOpVWsOsOn f 1 *9]o@,+nOs )m2FDs}n \x 1 */u,Us 1FO sOhr 1 1h n8s9 *Ov:o%; s 11 jpG s/m2 ,+C)rZWnD1nn`v:tVs9*OpGve<.nh3 <npVE,F,FrZn 1<n %1 n>,Ls 1 *O .oDs 9 s 1 n8i n Q#n`>6@:,+nhx,Fr.XMn % s 1J jpG' Z 1 h n ??
h h p$L" U qqs>&I)
]I >$^
fn *91+,+ *qpVs/+#Fp_,+s2rZ'n pGcB s1 */E,Fn`p_oe%,+*/sUQo@ pV<, 1 n8pVo@ZpV@ ,Fn2OZ .Zs9t_EpGFpGo@r^n`s o!1 ,Fs/r.,+*/rZ,Xn 1 uv:.t_pVtcFnC>s2 Q1 n8FnpVOErE,c,;OZn 1sO.,FpG*/>,FnHp */.>o s2ZoZp_n`pV+f>s/tG*/Dp ,FrZn nyn8s/E\,Fp vC1 ny* bQs2*O E1 ,6On
v:*/tVrZsOn.1 LnUv:*Op_Z,FZrTtVpV,F8r.*/n ZtVBnO1 Zs pGy3 sO.FZpG>Zs2.<tV Z.1Zt_pGFrZn8o!s2!*Ot_td>sO.p_n`Z*O1 .o-*H>sOQ]s/),FrZpGÎpVn. Fn01 pVXo@pV<, 1 1+pVZ1 @,Fnò
11 */E,Fnò-,Fs oZpV<, 1 p_.@,Fn2IZZ.t_pG<rs 1 s/,Fr.n 1 v:pVFnH 1 n`<n8E,esOZpVn80sOa,+rZn]xX! t6n`=,'Zs 1F s/
f
n
V
p
+
_
p
2
s

V
p
U
+
1
,F,Fr.rDn*9,y%sOs.1 n sOQdp_T,+rZ*/n0Qu sOtV tVs9n8v:o@p_pVZ H *O@o.Zo@.pJo@,+p_n s21 .,F*/rZt4nsO,Fn.1FoZ pJ,+ap_s2u.s :1 *o@pG<n , 1 p_ZnZ, ,FpVsOqsO)bQs2 1 n*9,S*L*ODs92nX*O.oq*OtVFs' 1 s9QpVoZn8o
1noZ pV<, p_ .@,FpVsO4co@pG<, p_ZZ,Fn8o7..o@n ,FrZnq,Fn es/C,+rZpV
|
E
*
0
Z
r
]
n
Q
b
2
s
>

n

9
*
+
,

*
V
p
e
V
p
.
_
t
.
Z
o
8
n
o
V
p
7
F
,
Z
r
]
n
F
*
1
4pG>n8u.WF n1@s v1 p_,<,+n-sOwWn pVyp_.t_Do@n8o!v:p_,Fr!,+rZn'o@pG6, pVZ@,+p_s21 4Z9*/tVpGoTus */,y1 t_n`*O<,:,Fr nne21 n8* Cs 1+u s *Oyt_s2Z
*OÛh^,F7rZn]sOTo@pV,F<rZ, 1ni1 pVZ2@,+,FnpVsOZn>pV,='51 p_v:rZ n 1 nOpVEZ,]us uv:*HrZpGSSr.rZ* n8O2n n1 .pV's/,yt_s2 Z1 On8n */1 ,F>n )v:,+r.p_,F*/rT* , Z*O.ZZ<1 WtVpVs t_,+*/? *O,FpV8sO>!n8+*/F.p_1 Zo tVn*On8o.oZo 1 pV*h1 n`F1]s2<|,+F81..S*/rQO*Os2'Z*n
*~ |`1 n8> n8p_,F2r.np 1 *Ho!.sOQ*1 1,6 s/)C,Fv r.n'1 p_,<bQ1 ,FsOn8 -1 >s/1 n0wn 1 *9u,+s *H1 1 sOsOI@,+,SrZ*/npVZBpVZ1 Hs 1 ,F rZnô@1 pVbQ<, sO1 pVZ1 >@ne,F1 nò!*9*O,S*s*91 ,y1 o@ZpVZs's2,+sH<,8,F.rZ*2nU yFo@n8n`>F,F pVsO1 pV!Dn`*/oTWs9p_-O%n .E* s 1 1 * ?
>s1 */.rn |DpV*Ot*O.D*s92,6nOO5ZpV*Oq.p_oTD>sOtVZ.tVo@n8p_o)2v:sOp_ ,Frn`,F>rZnn}pVOnòZohpV<, ,+1 rZp_nL.@xX,FpV! sOt64n83>,;CZsrZpGs2sO@I,F,+pVsOrZn BpGs 9*Ot_pG*/otVsOsOZZHtVv:p_p_,FUr-O<s2DSrT* 1 *On ]*sOwWZn sO 3 ?
Hj# sO 1 *~ >sO1 Q-*/Do}o@pG6, 1 pVZ@,+n^,F1 rZn %s 1 np_,FrZn 1 1 */,FpG;s1F 1 us 1 *un8nO4*O1 . o}p_ao@n`,FpVsO]us 1 ,Fr.nBs 1 3
0 3c@ce;)a]y)C
M9
,FZr.sOnX,0CsOtVp ,FrZ rZn'np_,F*OnÒv5o s 1 ,+n8s!2c*9p_.,+p_p_qs2t_D],FrZ<sOpVn0sOf%+,F>rZp_sO7nWn;B*]sOsZ1Z,F ZrZtVv:npV8pJ4 *9,+r ,+pG>p_s2n8s/4.,+FrZ4n1n Q1 1 Zs2vas *2s oZ1o@ *2sQC6n8,`v:54rZ<>DpGs SS r}rqZ* */pV1 2tGne*9 ,FZpVnsOsO2I,X*/,F.spV*2sO1 <Hn`s/o!O,+s2rZsOpVn o^!10,+,+ rZrZnXn8nio@,F%pGn *qs -1 \oZsO-sE4n`<,F0.r.ZSnr s/4,e*2pG>:n81 Z.pVZ@Fn,
1
1
1+
us 1 ,+rZn% 1 s 1 13
h o $<qssJ a $L
f*/Dn o'1+ ,+sepV+Fo@p_pVs2<-, pVpVZ@ ,F1 nC*/,+ErZ,+n8nyoTo@n,Fs pV9 *9,Fs@pVo@OpJnCu-v5ss 1 +Z* .o@Zn tVnL,F r.1 snC ,Fn *T>#s2o@Qn`TFsOcpVD,FrZnò'npV% ^s ,F1rZ nyWF n8>1 s@,FpVo@sO.Lup_s.]oZ*qpV<oZ, n p_1 .p_9@*9,FpV,+sOp_2Hn'*/v5Ws9s O1 n2
1 1
1 s9QpVo@nò,+r.1 *9,C,+rZn0usOtVt_s9v:1 pVZ^,Fn 1F :1* 1 n n>, 1 1+ 1
|*E5CrZneZnveDo@n 1 p_9*/,FpVOnvas 1 pGCZZ.t_pG<r.n8oTZ.o@n 1 ,Fr.n0,Fn 1+ Cs/d,FrZpGr4 pG>n8.FnO3
,Fr.nuB Was C1 r.@n0s 1oZn v:1 p_p_9,Fr-*9,+*^p_2nXOn v51 Fs pV1sO qpGsOCdO,+pVrZOnnT% *^s Z1 nv@pV!.* */ QnOZvCF*~sLO,F3 r.*/,Cp_,+CD* n0s 1 ,Fp_,FtVnU*OqZsO,CWnU>s2@u.Fn8o]v:pJ,+r
o@n n 1 pV|9*/`*9pV .,FypV O*/nXZ,< va, 1 s s2pVZ1 @1 Q,FpG*9n`*/,+oT@n,+,FrZ*/sHs@,+1 ,+rZFrZrZnUs p_1]s FrZpVpVCOp_7pV*/.,< */, 1 t1 n8pVoZZpJ@@,U,F,Fn`pGr.eohs O,+DpVsLO*/n82. sO 4Qs2usv: 1 rZpV,FpV*/t_rZ,FnXn0nq,FZr.oZs/npJw,+ pVn 1 n*9n,+.n 1 .n8pV*Oe<tW,;W+Wn>* nU,6 v5pVZ.nn8tV>n8%tVoq.o@,Fs rZn`1 n<o!.% v:Fn8pJsoq,+1r- 1 ,Fs rZ*O .n'oBZ,+rZn,FvnrZnBva.ss n1v
1pV.o@ pG*9,+p_.L,+1rZne.*/,F 1 nU*/.oq,Fr.1 nUoZ*9,+n8Cs/c*/Q1 s@o@1 p_AD1 */,FpVsO.CsOI,+rZn B s 1q *2o@neQOs243
1
h H $ c(y&I)5 a> $^!&
j#n8sO<, pV>,F*~pVUsO.ZCsO,fo@n`p F DpVsED<n`n:oT*OEp_TU,Fur. pV1 J,+rZI n pV1cn1 .n8F<,nO1 3 pG=,FpVsODds2',+rZnJ% s 1 s 1 */QUsODp_,+co@n 1 pV9*9,+p_2n5v5s 1 IWn2sO.o',Fr.s2Fn
1 1
1
h h J: (;"]aU : (
pV*/R QsO *hQQZpVpVOZnrEv.,+Q)v5o@ pGs 61,*/ 1 EpV5Z,+n8p_@.oe,+oZp_,+ZpVs08^*9O,Fs sOn`15^; Q*2s@e>o@,Fn8pJr.@uQne,+pV*OIZ.LpV>nen,FrZ.sOnFfn:% ,F* rZs n`nC1< neE.,+|t_p_n tZD1+*O> tV..o'o@3JpV2gZsOcLpGOo.s23f@-C,:o@rZZsn:s/,C>ZsOsOt_pQ,y QupVpJsOZ,+tVn8.t_oqs9/vo@,Fs^pG,+<,rZF*nep_Z,FZn .,F1Ft_pV pVsOZH;Ls/s 1fs ,F rZs@pG^,+o@rZpJI AWnpVB *9n,+.s p_Fs21nO
s/),Fr.1 nB s 1 1 s2@,+FpVoZnes/I,+rZn0,Fn 1F yoZn8+ 1 p_Wn81 o]p_T,+rZpV^4 pG>nD<n0pG:n@ 1 n8+<tVh 1 sOrZ1pVZp_,FnòqQqtG1f*~ve3
4pG>n8gg .fcFu*/nOs Q@1 qO*/s2.Q * ,y1 n8*~sO*2f<s2,F.rZ4s/pG.,;r>4 sOs2pG.Q>o@n8Op_.@,FFpVo@sOnepGD6pV, yy1 pV*uZsO1 @ZnU,+.pneoT s W,+1:shs2 FDn8s@n'o!o@p_s2pJ u-qO,FsOrZs2@n!{.pG%,F=r.,ys */v:1,y p_u,Fs r!*/1,:Z,+*OrZpGo!t_nUtz3 OtG*~sOve!@,+,FshrD*9uZ,;t_A..tV* tI,+,;rZFnLr.*OsOt_t4.Wo@nUp_,FpVpVsOED,Fn ys/ fn>,+,+rZn8pVo
pV]p_,+5 1 s2*2o@n81<, n`*/ZpVZH>sOD<pG6,+nE,Cv:pJ,+rq,+rZnXtG*~ve@*/.o]Zs^s/,+rZn 1 .* 1 ,SasO4,Fr.nI pV1 n.Fn0<r.*Ot_tWne*91wn81 =,+n8o3
h H $@e cIU^
:# ^,Zhr 5 bZxb!yh x>hX< b76 },,yh [xrâ '6 D\ ; xm : b#< b# Xm J a X; R ,x;fyh a
b6 :#J6 \ : ; j :b.x\,; 5J R ; ej 5*x 7hr6 h R X5X Lj
6u 6 :g ê5 ;bZbT )xxh 5 6
fh6Je\ R ^; x h :,^yh 65 x0,b!5; \3 hrh Xeabxs;h R X [6j xh ?

f^ ]_Xa `;b F K à@ :4)`\âÌa`\!`

Md
h h &y(; $'
8=
66; 0xNhr R 0\7;6R b@6 a;B : # b@ ;; :R 0 x\h7\xh \R }x,; J hrh6jLXx;h xRh;xbHeb!K 5 \eX5e f xh r j g ahrb R 60
R^5 R X5^b 6I )g x0)bZebXx N x!b @yc[6
6 J a\ x ;h xL, )hy,xhyu x 6yR ^b chrx ah s\ XGb 6^ x5bZb!Ob ;6:Xb@J e,6hrJheXXJ\ eg FxxeXx'0bxrxDhb!,,h h ??
Rx ;X54b 6x\jLD: x^ Xh\ ;xx!b h) xr 6j :R :r 5^ <;b 5x6hx jg hyxH^#x g [[ ag a56 6R jLJ xh<^!b x\\: : x,,h5h#:6<^ b!aR 5x x0XhJb.J <Gb b!h 66 R g[06 64 j b@J xhJJjZR !b R [j ?
g y3
\XxJ ;hy}b ; R x; 6e FxXb
: a 7 2cG -Q, +( I @ @ \ 5 G-E

"$#
DR < s2t_@,+ne9*/tVZnO@2n8=,+s 1
t_R ,Fn >M pD1 *9,FZpVpJZ,yh*O>. */tV@n<EpG,8 M`NON
t_,Fn 11 Dn>*9,+n,Fs D1 .%Z .1F1 M
H ZtVp_A.n 11 D M`
ZZtVtVp_p_A.,F.n o@1 2n */2Zn>,+pVO.O N

ZZtVtVp_p_,F,F..o@o@n2n2D.W*~2M 2 M8n n* 1 */ On2 M
ZZtVtVp_p_,F,F..o@o@n2n2.7Why8n B * 2b? ,FM2s M? Wn8* M2M
D*/ZtVQtVp_F,FpG.o@ n2 .R 2n8>= p ,+s 1 ZZMp_,8
DD*/*/tVtVQQFFpGpGZQ.sOn 1Zp_n8n 1 .1 >qM oZ s M8N2N */pV4
DD*/*/tVtVQQFFpGpG@Z.F1 n * 1 Y p_*On`t_tV nzt O M
DD*/*/tVtVQQFFpGpGZQ,+Fpn 11 p_nUn` o@? .s * 1 O*O* t_p_tVIn tz @ M`NON
D.O*/tVtVnOZ8n21 n8Z=<,+Ws n8>, 1 M M
EE,+,+np Zn8.FsO*..D*O .N >1 n2
Ep_,+,Fp r 11 n8FsOn>,+.pV*OO.Z>v:n2p_ ,Fr-M n`>M Ss r.*/..t_pVn8] */tzQ M Wn 8
,F11 s,Fp_|*O pV>e,8t_ s@ n`*O.F 1 n n E,8 MA 1 2N
,<Z,+,Fns/Q, .*O*/.,FpV<sOu4s M n 1M Z
2n 1 */12n* .1+ t_p_,F.1 oZnO N R M @Z%
CC*/*/..oo ? n8.t_*2p Fap_.A.*/t_,F,Fn pVsO]A.t_,Fn 1 M O
CC*/*/..oo ??z1<,Fnt6s2n`q=,CA.t_A.,Ft_n ,F1 n 1 MAO/ M O
?
1 M
55s@sQs2o@<ne,FpVZZtV.s/,8 M2R MOM O sOM t_,+ *O@O n0AM Z<s2M >n88.O

5 sQpGs2o@<2,Fn0pVZ.p Q>, .1 *OpJ,`..6us 1FZ n 1 sOZ1 .n8=,+p_s24 . N
11 pGpGo@o@22nOnOZZ F1 *FQv5n>n,tVt ? pG*OpVtn.4N . 1
11 pGpGo@o@22nOnO!!HrZpVnn`4 *9D,+< ,F1 s2ZnO. F
511.D <r4p_.@.2 nZ n R 1 */O,FsOs %t_1 ,+Z *O On0<s2 >n88ZO
5. p_..Q, 1 */D6us 1F n 1 sOZ1 Zn`=,+p_s24 . N
RR */.tGF> . t_.W8sO tus '1 8*/.*2>p_,+*O.>n27 N
RR */*/DD*O*O>>p_p_,+,FpV*OO.neO>Nn2sO7 Z ZNN tVpVZ.
RR */*/DD*O*O>>p_p_,F,FpVs On ' 1 n8*2=,+*O.>n2'M N 7O9M /
RR */*9,+DrZ*Os@>o@p_,Fns 11 hyQ*~9*N 1 dpG*/ZZWtVnOnOW NZ1M
RR rZtVsQs 1 oZ */ ,Fs .FpVpGO/ .M
RR sOsOpVtVtzs . I n`<tG.*ZF.pG */MAt[ = F %
RR ss H1ZtVsOn T ?zQ s@o@Wn0n OMs2 tJ,S*/O.n2 M8Z
RR ssOD<Zn tVn 9T*9,+Qp_s2 q sOWa n 11\*ZM81n p_,FOr 2 G nd,F*~pG/v 2sON6
M8
RR ssO1.n02,+t_1sEn F8. M M 1
RR sOa.bZZt_ZpVZZ1 Dp_,8. < pVOD*/tz M dM /
RR 1 n8s2<+,8<s92MOn M Z n>,6v5s
RR 1hfQ0<,+D*O%t%. 1 1 dM ZM
R 10D dM Z
M`
RR 1+1 n8n8EE,5,8@, tV1 p_*OZ.n2<Du s 1+ n 1 Z Md Z
RR @,+1+1+s/11 n8w E,8 @n Zr.Z*2n8<.n2>.E2 E
R @>tVnO7 1 Y MAF MA2
R 1 FsOQ9*/t n>,+n 1: s9On nE,8 MA .%
XnR t_,+n*hM Y >.s2p_9@*/A.tV2nE,`*/ ,F pVsOR 4Z n8*2 < 1 n n8E,8 M
XXn>p_n8,Ft_n`n`==,+, s 1pG0. rZ n8 */1 ,FpVZ.
XXp_p_s@Wo@sOtVn2nU 1 */M E ,Fn8 ZM . *. .. % . M
XXps 1 n8>*/,;pV4>@1+1 n n8EZ,8n8.M >2M
XXss/,; >*/s2pV4QO@n,+1Ep ,+Y p_nOs2 4ME , */.M <us n @
1 1+ 1 NON
nOyEZ<F DWs2sOt@tusus 1 pV.O<sO,+t_*/,+*OEO,S*/n2Z n8sO.7 f 2sOt_,+*/2nO E ON 2
\\o.o.o@o@qq >> 1F1 nnEE,8,:1 t_sE1F8 Z%O 2
c#wtVn8n8>>, ,FpVpVOXn 1FA.11 n8n8tVFo4pVD<,+ *O. >n2M %M
##tVtVn8n8>>,, 11 sOs tVE,F*/pG2XZ8n>*/,+.pVNX*2>pV.M`p_,FNo@s .1 > ,F pVsO 4D
##tVtVn8n8>>,, 11 ss2<,+*/*/,F2pGZ n>,+pVXn>,+vCn *~OnOs9Z2 n N nE,8Z 1
##..nn 1 OO1 OOQ WpVs/Z,+n>n,+EpV ,FOpG */M8tz N 1y
Y ..1 *O*Ot_t_pp nn 1 QdM Z*OM ZrZpG/ M8N
YY ZpV9*/tVn1E,8 1 R ,Fsh M R M
6..*2F= ,+s W@sODts9uv5s 1n Z1 n Y Zn8.>2 Z' /
..**216,y*2o.1 7 sO N p_n 1 *//D 6us .
ZZnn 1F1 p_s ,FnOn8 FsO1 D*/1 E,\1, *O.6us 1F n M Z
f)p_fn81F0tV1 o4 Z1 M n tVn8 >Z, pV O . 1 1F 1 N
))p_p_n82tV o4 nO4 4*/pGO+.F1 F* n>t6,FsOpG/..N8 ZN M` N M`N
)p_t_,Fn 11 MOMd MAZM F
6`
&%
))p_p_t_t_,F,Fnn 1 ....*/*/..oo ? n8.t_*2p F8p_ .*/,FpVsO4 M /

))p_p_t_t_,F,Fnn 11 ....*/*/..oo ??z1<,Fn t6s2n`4= ,8MA2OM /
))p_p_t_t_,F,Fnn 11 ..rZt_s9p_v2r .? ?.*O*O+8+ dM M 1
))p_p_t_t_,F,Fnn 11 . Zn`s/<,Ss2S? .r4*/ EM ,8O dM
ZZs2s2 1 p_p_1 nn 1 1 */ .*/*O.t_@<FupVs 8 M M
1 nn Y 1 ZZn8n81 ..>>2 1 Dn,F n O1+N D M
11 nn YY ZZn8n8..>>22ZQ u>Z@.,+s/oZwf1* AM nZ1EM ,+*OtdM O
ZZ1..t_.tY ?=vC,+p_*~s2O4n .1Fn8p_Z=n2,+pJ AW*9 ,+p_s24 M DM M
Z..oZ* n82,S*/t 1 n Y Zn8.>2 M
gg n*/.Zn 1rZ*9pG,Fs n 1 Z.Z*ODt_p n
g 11 sOZ.o4D% Y 1 M
;;*O*OtJt_tI? n>vCw*~n8O=n ,`D1 n` =,Fp_AD8*9,FpVsOI M
;yn`* *91F,+p_Zs2DZ.pVOo@ pVnM tV 2n8 > , pVO
yyn`n8*9,+p_OZ DZpV.o@.>,FpV1 OnO ZFM
yynpVO1 r, 1 O.Z*2.OFZN 5pJ,ÀD tJ,+ n
yysOQ,;Wn >? s2D.s2o@t_.pG>,FusZ1.1 .>O,FAMpV sO1 4 Z, p_2sOZs n, O
y@<,Fn 1 1 n`<pG.2O 1 1 .M
=pzQ.FF WWsOsOt.tuus s 1 p_. <1+,+1*On8E2,+,`*/ .1n sO7D# > nE,8 !
D*/2n` p_oZ.*/* D1 >hnOQW1 Dn 1 7 1+1 2 O N
.o@DDn`=oZ,+*/*OD.>>nn2 *9,SSFrZ p_... FN2 Z M2M
..o@o@DD==,+,+*O*O..>>n2n2Z tV/n8N *Z ,F*O.O*OnOtZ2
..o@o@DD==,F,FpVpVsOsOIIZ ntV n8@>,+, .1 */s tz */2M`Z% n> ,+pVO.
..o@o@DD==,F,FpVpVOOnUner.sOn8Z*9,+.p_t_.pVZ.. M 9M /
F
6^`
..o@o@DD==,F,FpVs On 1 n8*2=,S*/.nO /N
.sO<,+*O92*/,S*/Z1 Zn n8OsON .n>5,Fn 9*/tVZs9n2O n 2 n8EO,8 .%1
661FFsOsOtGtG*9*9? ,F,FpVpVsOsOqIQ, ,1 */*/..<<u1yus s 1+ n n 1 M8 M
1 1+ 1 M`1
2sOZtVnO. ON
0nR Q#W s2M * @o FQZpG*/.s.
00pp 1 SSrZrZr.r.s/s/1 ww e cR s2 tJ1F,S1 */n2E n ,rdI*~*~veve M Q@ F@
M 1
1 \ M @ @ 1
#I*ODO<2p_ Z^WsOZtr.u*2s <1 nep_DFrZo@p_.[,8=,S*/. nO O7 N @
I4n`* *O o@p_pV.Z*/H,Fn`Zoqr.*2p 1 <s2neTFrZsp_[1,8nO .M`2 O @M 7 M @ O
44n`n84* */J2nXI*~pV.veo@ D=,+*O.>n2DMÒ @M M O
44pVpGZ+Fn2F* Zt6DsO.s2t_aQA.Z2rD O*ONFn2n0.F @6,+n . E
44p_sE,*Oeov:@p.1 sOnOZ tV%p_. n81* Z 1
44sQs9vs2T.*O*22F,+anA.Zt_D,F*Zn .1 M 2 N
%X? 0D 2 1 Md
*O*OOOZZnn,F,FpGpG;AD* ntGoZt_Dp_A. n 1 .2 N
*OF* QOZp n,F pG;ADfntGs9ova n 1 s/N ,+ */M8,F*/NpVZ..<u.n 1C rZn8s n .
-nF* ,FQn v5 n@tVWt ? s9vanpVnT|*O =1 1 ,+pVs o@12.ne%> p 1 1 ZpJ,`. % 1 M`N
--s@sO,Fo@s Z1 tV..83cOn`1=,Fs 1 1 N
--sOsO,F,Fss 11 @ZpVF.EDo@DM .Sr>,FpVs2sOZ4sODD @
--sO@,F,+s.11 */~tI2p_n.ZoZn .1 =*/1 ,S,F*/s .1 FnOn> ,8 M8
-@,+.*/tIp_.oZ.=,+p_s24 M`%
yyn8s2@ , 1<*/pVQt4.<sOs2.pVo.oZ*/.tz= ,+s 1 .O
yys2s2Z.?tVFp_p_ZQn`.* F1 sOpGoZs */ tz Ds2M` ZN nE,S M Z ON
M
'%
yyssO,+1 ,+*/sO,FpV sO 4:ZCWrZsOn8tGs* 1 n . M`N

yysOsO,+,+*/SrT,FpVsOA.4t_,F n 1 n8 >,+/*O1 ZOZ tG* 1
yy. t_t W n n,F.n >1 s1 D M . t_n . .
yy WWnn 11 Z p n`*/ *OtzO pV . * 1 OM`
y Wn 11 .1F8*/tG* 1 Z .
xxXr=,S*~Or n2 I *~ve @7
xXxr+>pVt_tG r*9,+Ip_s2*~4v M 1 F
xx++>>pVpVt_t_tGtVs2*9,++s>s21 Dn2M2M8dM N
xXOn 1 ,+sOZn2 M % @ .
4f..FF WWsOsOttuuss 1 p_, ..<,+n*OEW,+s9*/v5.n nsO.D CD s9v5n 1 /N 7 N
cc** 1 */*/tVtV tVtVnntt*/>p.*Ot_Z1@p_F, pV1 8ZOtVn8 8 1
cfn8* *11 */tV tVnxt R1 1 n`<s21 .*/.nOF M8N2
ffn8nD* Eo@? Z,+tVM2s M? Dn` * M2M
f#nrD1 *OpVFsQnOo4 M8N
##rDrD*O*OFFnn01FM8ns/ ,S*9Z,+n8p_.s2>4n2Z.
##rDrD*O*OFFn0n0FFrZrZY p_p_[[,U,8Z 2M8n8 >,Fs Z
##rDpG*/*O.Fs.nOQ, 1 */D6us 1F n 1 1 M8 2
##pVp_,+n S8rsQn tVn8 =., 1FpGpV>8p_*/,6t[O=.
ffsOsOtGtG** 1 p_,6ZO sO ,+ */,FR pVsO 4 Q.2
ffsOsOtVtVnOQ1ZZ*Or.tJ*2,+<n n21 @.*9,+s 1 N@Z
ffs/s/,+,+nnEE,F,FpGpVs*/t, n1 ,F*On .M<Zus 1+ n 1 Z M Z
ffs9s9vyv5no@n 1 |n`*Oo=,+ps 1 s2.T1 s 1 nOZO2
ffs9s9v5v5nn 11 |*OD=*/,+tVs pJ,611:2 D On>,+ n 1 D% N
1CY
2N
M`
N
ffs9s9v5v5nn 1C,Y DpV*O*/ZtVpJO,6 tVnO. n,Fn 1 D ZM
ffs9s9v5v5nn 11 E2Z*O1 Zn82.*/* ,F1 pVnOEnO,` .%
ffs9s9v5v5nn 11 O,1 n8Z*2n2=,FDpVOn2.
\10p . * 1 1 H@1 , 1 *O.<us 1+ n 1 >sOpVtz
#E,+r.*/M 2 s 1 n8*/] CrZns 1 n
LLZYF .*/tVDp_,6s2ht|u*Os >,Fs .1 .*Ot_p_,6 |*2=,Fs
LX.Z*OFt_p_ ,6hD|s2*Ot>u,Fs s 1y1: 1Y n8*2=,FpVOn0Ws9van1 1 Z
X.* 1 , 0 1 @<,+*O1 tZ
hehy*2.o@Fp_sD .W sOt us 1:1 n`<pG6,S*/.nO 1 7
hyhy*2*/,Fo@pVp_s.sHQvC, *~N */ODn26@us N n
h:h:n`n`*O*O==,S,S*/*/..1 nOnOZ@pV8.*/o@.1F.*2>>,Fp_1,FpVOpVOn2M8nO ' N 7 /
h:h:n`n`*/=,+t*OQZ O .tVW* n 1 . s/ ,+ */,FpVsO4 / N
h:h:n`n`==,F,Fp_p_ADAD88*9*9,F,FpVpVsOsO1II@Zur.Z*/tVt_t ? v5v5*~*~22nOnO MD M
h:h:n`n`==,F,Fp_p_A.A.nn 1 D.F pV t_pG >s2 ?sOE, sOtVtVn8M o
h:h:n`n`<<pGpG66,S,S*/*/..1 nOnOZ RR ? % 1 M
h:h:n`n`<<pGpG66,S,+s*/. nO@Znt_wW,FpVn`Z=tV,Fp_1pVn O n2. %
h:h:n`n`<<pGs26.,+s*/.11 ZnO<rQ ZE,`.% 1
h:h:n`n`<<s2s2..*/*/..nOnO@.M`N1* n8 S*OrDt_tV*/nZtzpG*Ot M . ON
h:h:n`n`<<s2s2..*/*/..nOnO@Z.Fn * 11 p_*On`t_e tVn txR M8 R N M8N2
h:h:n`n`<<s2s2..*/*/..nOnOZQ,Fn *O11 p_.n`6 u? s .* 1 *On t_M2tVMOn*OtzM . oTM2AM p_ .oZ.=,+s .O
h:h:n`n`<<s2s2..*/*/EE,C,CA. t_n ,F1n 1Z n.M h1F us 1 .tV*. 1
h:h:n`n`<<s2s2..*/*9,+EnO,C 11 n YY Zn. 1+n>,+n 1 . M8 N
h:hyn`}<Zbt_ ,+*OE,y.%OM81n8%N > ,Fs 1 %
M

h:h:sQsO,+s/*9, ,+? p_.n8*/ ? *Ob OY Z.n* ,F1pGn2 A.Mn tGoZ.1

h:h:ZZtVtVn8n888Z..Fn * 1 p_*On`t_:tVn>tp p Z1 >p_,+Z8p_,+8 1 %
h[X0 1 2 1 F
6`
bb@*/.,FF */WZtVsOn tusn`*O1 >*/,FZs .Z* 1 n8E,CWs9v5n 1 @

b@b@*~*~vCvC,+,+1 sEsEsOsO,F,FrTrTv5v51 *~*~22nOnL 1M8N M`
b@b 8R */hetG* 1 Q Wn 1 . Md.
bQbQn`n8t_>n`sO=D,FoZpVM Q* pJ1,6 H2 , 1 */.<us 1+ n 1 >s2p_tz
bQbQn8n tVF.Qn4.D nO2Z ZMrD*O FnO.
bQbQnn 1Y pVpVn8n8::*Op.*/>tVZ@p_<, pGZt_n`
bQbQnn 11 pVpVn8n8J D* R1 */1 tVn8t_n8FsOt1 .*O*O..*/>tV@n21 < pGMO8MOM @
b@bQpVXt_1 pG>s2 ? M`>1N sO1 E, s2t_tVn8o n`=,Fp_A.n M` NON
bQbQppVZn0Zut_ZnU? .X>,F* pV1+sO 1 4sO ZpG01-s/,+p_s241 M8M N%
bQbQpVpVZZneOtVvCn *~ZOr.nO*2 <n2.O Z
bQb pVQpV.T<ns2? wWpVo.n`*/=,`tz M8N M N @
bQbQ s2WZn8>., oT v5*~2*On8.F8*/ tV G 1n M M . AM
bQb@W,n8 >R , y11 @ 1 n Y Zn.1 OM D ZM .M
bQb Z.tVp_*, ? Zn0r.vC*O1F*~ nOOWnOO
bEbE,S,SY */* .oZ1>*s21@o4A. 2 n`*/*OM`,FFNpVsO14Mn Z n E,8..
bQbQZv:Wp_1 ,+n S1 r4WZs2,+F*/pJ,+Ip_s2D1 ! C r.ns 1 n 9M F Z O
bQQ.Sr 1 s.. O N
))*/*/- <v:p p_1 ,+>S.rIpJ.,` M8%N Z N
dCn8rZFn8tVs* Rn sOpVZtzD 0* MdN@ p fs9van */.<un Z
CCrZrZn8n8ss 11 nn ZZy#Es ,F1 rD,+sO*/ Os .n` */M84N 1 1 1 M8N
1
1
&%
6^`
CCrZrZn8n8ss 1 nn .ZCbQZrZWnn21 nDZsEpV <p_,FpV.sO I MdF . 2
CCrZr n8nOn n1 .Z p_rD *O :FnOCZrZ n8 s 1 Zn . M`M8N N
CCrp 11 n n ?? nOv: p 1 n0% R FM @6,+n D M
1 *O*O..FF1 oZoZ..>=M ,+n s1 Z@ 2
11 *O*O..66uuss 1F n@1 Z s2 1 N p_n 1 M
11 *O*O..66uuss 1F1F nn 11 sOs pVtVnOM`8Q%@tG * 1 p p_D* *91 ,Fnò*OD.2o]OF n8sO.o.* 1 O
11 *O*O..66uuss 1F1F nn 11 pGFs sO11 tGnO*9Q,FpVWsOs9I vy o@n 1 n8o]p 1 sOI.OO
11 *O*O..66uuss 1F1F nn 115E1 u*9n ,+p_sDs M8n8FsO .M`*O1 2 ,`Q
11 *O*O..66uuss 1F1F nn 11 @@<<,F,F1+nn1 ? 1Zo@Is9v: I M8 N
11 *O*O..6<upG<s ,F1F1Fs n 11 Q 9* 1 pV*O? ZtVnOZM8 N @. 2
11 pGpG*/*/ZZ22t_t_nnvCvC1 *~*~OOM nOn^ M`N
11 pGZ*/n Z2h;t_}n2Qb Ds9v5nn ,F1 n .dM ZM
ddZZ1 DZnn2? Z9*Op >Z. pJ,` D*2 1 o@N.pVM s.AM %
1 1 1 MOM9 M
yy..pJpJ,`,`@|R * a*Obo 7
yy..pJpJ,`,`Z.rZynn1 1, 2O /N N
yy..pJpJ,`,`0Zt6OsOs2ZtJ1,tVnO* W OIN .O Z
yy..pJpJ,`,`ZZOv5s2*/tJ,<, ,`?? *D ?z1 n8*2M=,FpVOn2Q
#*ODZ ,FZWnOD
# */tVheZn2DZ p_D 6,S*/E,+*OZNZnMs2. E O
##** 1 pGpG*/*/ZZtVtVnen ,*/*/D.*O<>up_s ,Fs 1 n NZ@M Z@
#cn8* >11 ,FpG*Os /.. FN 1 . 1+ 1 N O
ccn8n8>>,F,Fss 11 **/Z2Zt_n2tVpJ,+. o@nOW
1
'%
ccn8n8>>,F,Fss 1 t_n8Z*O/O,+Zr4p_,F D o@ nO
ccn8n8>>,F,Fss 1:1:Zr.s@*Oo@F.nUt_.FrZ8pJ [,` D
ccn8n8>>,F,Fss 11 Z<*O . <s2 t_Z ,Fn09*/tVZ nO
;csOpV t_, 1 *9* 1,+p_Z4 W1 On nòqZ 1 n Y Zn8.> n,Fn 1 . ZM
ccsOsOt_t_,,+??*O* O n0 W?gsO1 tGn8* *OM>pJ,6,F2pVO n2 @R Q.2
ccsOsOt_t_,+,+*O*OOOnn2Z1 >ns O.1tV*/,FsOpVsO 4Z s@No@ nON
ccsOsOt_t_,+,+*O*OOOn2n2@@t_ZpVZr.HnO*OWF nO .2 ?z M`
csOt_, n,Fn 1 D 2
77*9*~O,<,`nOW@ n8t_n` =, s *OOZn,FpG/Z
77*~*~OOnOnOZZ+FpV*~ZvCnO,F sQ1 sO ,Fr4 M`N Md N
77*~*~OOnOnOZQ, Y pG.*/*.1 O nOtVnOM`N M
77*~*~OOn>n>uuss 1F1 @ZZFp_s2Q..FFM8p_sOQN pG.oZF*OMdsOtZ pG oZM */ tz M
%n8rZ<n`,F*9sO,+ <1F,F s2Zn>ne,+n 1: pVoZs9OOnOn . nEM ,8 MA
pVpVn.!o@pVZ1.pVZo@2nep >1p 1* ZOpJ ,`D
pVp .n2o@'pVZ4 .p_,.h Fn81 sO.o.1 * 1 OM8 M8
1

'y,SD*/<tz D W sOtus 1:1 n`*O>,+*/D>nO @ % '/ Z7
j>s2@A.2 1 */,FpVsO4Z .
).F WsOtus 1 p Wn8oZ*O.>n2 0 1 ' 7
(

Electronique - Lessons in Electronic Circuits II - AC

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electronique - Lessons in Electronic Circuits II - AC

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats



} F|F } | } |FB// ////// /////// /////

|F } | } |Fv// ////// /////// /////

'3" #Kv74 vVsN 

+ V+//// ////// /////// /////

FH= } F| } |r|||r|0y|D  L[| } |

XE ||FF3Vr|90| } 33s F } 

| } /F|s!/F } FF/|F } |9F/|r!

F|FsF#7#|s F F } F| } } } F|#F

(DC) Generator operation

|FsFs| } | F|7#FK FF } y;

FC |!|%C% } E } F| .VDn)(Cn

Speed reduction geartrain

_F v||F F0 |]_| F

# } P3 |PF r9#|F|F|CXXPFF|F|  } F| } r9

FF } #/pF  } F| } 9|F|F| } F| } n%X|

}  F#kr|FF #FF|#F || +rs } F

X }  F3F//| } r|s|3H#|

+s  } F } | } %rC }  #r|F

V3 } F } | } FFFHF |nk | VvV33| }

one wave cycle

3| } F/| ?|!|F } 0#FsF/FF !|K9r|||

)3$ECF| F|v }} |9

|F } ))E|!3K|K/|kK } |HFE!|

Frequency (in hertz)

A sharp (or B flat)

G sharp (or A flat)

FF|!| } !_VFF|sFFV |F|_F

C } K; } Fk;|?FVD|E;79| } %/|3F?C

||/V| } =| } 37pFkp7npgFp3k ?sF ||

one wave cycle

one wave cycle

9k7#H30F3|EkF|_7|F } " |

3 H9K3F FKFFF|F|r } F|_| } |H

|#9#7FF|9kF | } +s||

F!F H=|KF|/9k 3|sKF

more heat energy

(same load resistance)

less heat energy

FEF|v0 } F|V } |F|F| FK } F | v|

7=| } FF | %[FkEF|9|v| %[F9#

| } FF|FkFk |7p3p|=||P|| }  3F | } C

 } | } |%9kFFE?VF| } (#"E|F||F

AVG = 0.637 (Peak)

RMS = 0.577 (Peak)

/|| K } | } F/r++kFF

F } FKE73  } rF[|=FF } | } |F  } }

3 |F|F } #F|H?F|F } ||||CP_k| } $%]

7FF|sHFFF# [nn[kFELp? } 9|%|#|

F9 9k|F }  } | } |F99#kKFF! ||

|;F=F/7 } | } /FF9; F! } FFEF

99k/ r  /FFs|Fs  } KF

FP| } F F } | } 9F#%|| }  )73 ynPE|9k

Phase shift = 90 degrees

Phase shift = 180 degrees

A and B waveforms are

mirror-images of each other

Phase shift = 0 degrees

in perfect step with each other

k EuX-a G!EDL!CFEQXZY[E\J]W[^!_HG~ITHL!CFEX-NiWY`EEPbX`_VmFnoEGX-^+E X-LL!CFEG!X`_VEJ]^!E aFEPT uP`f[L!CFE(QInnONiE W[abLSW`J&G0L!Em

TFEPrL uCOX-mbL+EP^QInon&NiE c EPY[W-L+E c L!WVL!COXL G!aFN Eu\LX-nW`TFE[l

Phase shift = 90 degrees

X-nsu\aFnsXL+IoW[T GJ]W`^ g uPIo^u\a IKL#X-TOX-nG!IsG_(a G0LL+X-[E(ITrL!Wu\W[T G!I c E^+X-L!IW`TNOW`L!CX-_VmFnIKL+a c EHX-T c m C X`G!E

TFEW-J L!CFE_VW`^+EdJX`G+u\IT XL+IoTFeX-m mFnoIsuPX-L!IW`T G*W`JEPnEu\L!^+IuPIKLRIsGVITL+CFEe`ETFEP^XL+IoW[TW-JIoTYIG!INFnoE^+Iom mFnoEG*W-J

} F|F } | } |FB// ////// /////// /////

|F } | } |Fv// ////// /////// /////

'3" #Kv74 vVsN

+ V+//// ////// /////// /////

FH= } F| } |r|||r|0y|D L[| } |

XE ||FF3Vr|90| } 33s F }

| } /F|s!/F } FF/|F } |9F/|r!

F|FsF#7#|s F F } F| } } } F|#F

|FsFs| } | F|7#FK FF } y;

FC |!|%C% } E } F| .VDn)(Cn

_F v||F F0|]_| F

# } P3 |PF r9#|F|F|CXXPFF|F| } F| } r9

FF } #/pF } F| } 9|F|F| } F| } n%X|

} F#kr|FF #FF|#F || +rs } F

X } F3F//| } r|s|3H#|

+s } F } | } %rC } #r|F

V3 } F } | } FFFHF |nk | VvV33| }

3| } F/| ?|!|F } 0#FsF/FF !|K9r|||

)3$ECF| F|v }} |9

|F } ))E|!3K|K/|kK } |HFE!|

FF|!| } !_VFF|sFFV |F|_F

C } K; } Fk;|?FVD|E;79| } %/|3F?C

||/V| } =| } 37pFkp7npgFp3k ?sF ||

9k7#H30F3|EkF|_7|F } " |

3 H9K3F FKFFF|F|r } F|_| } |H

|#9#7FF|9kF | } +s||

F!F H=|KF|/9k 3|sKF

FEF|v0 } F|V } |F|F| FK } F | v|

7=| } FF | %[FkEF|9|v| %[F9#

| } FF|FkFk |7p3p|=||P|| } 3F | } C

} | } |%9kFFE?VF| } (#"E|F||F

/|| K } | } F/r++kFF

F } FKE73 } rF[|=FF } | } |F } }

3 |F|F } #F|H?F|F } ||||CP_k| } $%]

7FF|sHFFF# [nn[kFELp? } 9|%|#|

F9 9k|F } } | } |F99#kKFF! ||

|;F=F/7 } | } /FF9; F! } FFEF

99k/ r /FFs|Fs } KF

FP| } F F } | } 9F#%|| } )73 ynPE|9k

k EuX-a G!EDL!CFEQXZY[E\J]W[^!_HG~ITHL!CFEX-NiWY`EEPbX`_VmFnoEGX-^+EX-LL!CFEG!X`_VEJ]^!E aFEPT uP`f[L!CFE(QInnONiEW[abLSW`J&G0L!Em

TFEPrLuCOX-mbL+EP^QInon&NiE c EPY[W-L+E c L!WVL!COXLG!aFN Eu\LX-nW`TFE[l

X-nsu\aFnsXL+IoW[T GJ]W`^ g uPIo^u\a IKL#X-TOX-nG!IsG_(a G0LL+X-[E(ITrL!Wu\W[T G!I c E^+X-L!IW`TNOW`L!CX-_VmFnIKL+a c EHX-T c m C X`G!E

TFEW-JL!CFE_VW`^+EdJX`G+u\IT XL+IoTFeX-m mFnoIsuPX-L!IW`T GW`JEPnEu\L!^+IuPIKLRIsGVITL+CFEe`ETFEP^XL+IoW[TW-JIoTYIG!INFnoE^+Iom mFnoEGW-J

BDCFE^!EX-^+Ed_HX`TrrIT c GVW`JT X-L!aF^X-n^X c IX-L!IYÈEPTFE^!e[u\W`_VmiW[G!E c W-JEnoEu:L+^!W[_VXè`TFEPL!IsuQDXZYÈGPlY[EPT

CFInoEL+CFE c IomiW`nEnWrW[bG(nIÈTFW-L+CFIoT eU_VW[^!EdL!C X`TX`TW[mOETuPIoû\a IKLfSX-T c L+CFEnoWW[mXG0C W`^!LVuPIoû\aFIoLf

FC InoE#L!CFE^!E#IsG $# _VW`^+EL!C X-LuPX`TNOE(G!X`I c X`NOW[abLX-TrL+EPTFT XHL!EuC TFW`nW`e[`fbL+CFIGNF^+IoEPJ~ITrL!^+W c a u:L+IoW[TIG

Nld!GIkGITRfId ZKGFtd!GVXGIpUFgL_Nr^FH^`iW| IG^ixL_GIT_FH^lL_UFHpSbhKT_T_GIFLSbUWT$SbhKUL_QfldnGHFHJoLOZH^`L hH^`FL_UxL_UGRQNDHkNixL$^`pGf

FNT$JPGToLONMQ]hHSSbGRQOQ]D{hKiWi|m^`FH^i| G,SbUWT_SIhKUL_Qfd!G[FKGGJmL_N0d!NT_vMd ULOZsc^`LOZKGsY^`LOU\SI^iNVK~GSL$Qt^FHJ

nNsYjKiWGbcFhKsVaGT_Q!^`T_GGR^QOUGTL_NpT_^Q]jcd ZKGF[L_ZKGI| OT GrTOGjKT_GQOGIFLOGRJYpT$^`jKZKU\SI^iiW|w ED JKT_^zd^tiUWFKGd UxL_Z

ZKGU\JPGR^gN`DT_GIjKT_GQOGIFLOUWFKpg^gFhKsVaGTUWFcpT$^`jKZKU\SI^iPD{NT_s,UWQFKN`L_ZKUFHpoFKGIdgweG^`iWiHiWG^TOFHGJBLOZHUWQUFcpT_^JPG

^`LOGTfzd!GiWG^`T_FKGRJrLOZH^`LL_ZKGIT_Gd!GIT_Gd^z|QLONrJPGQOUpFH^lL_GL_ZKGnkl^ihKGRQ $P$I

^`LOGT!|GbLd!GiGR^`T_FKGJLOZH^`L LOZKGgFhKsVaGT iUWFKGoSINhKi\JGILOGIFaJL_NBLOZKGgiWGbDLNDGIT_NY^QdnGii

ZKGRQ]GHGIi\JKQNDFhKstVXGIT$Q {d ZKNiGfUFL_GIpGTfT$^lL_UNFH^ìfUT_T$^lLOUWNFa^ìfXT_GîfGIL_Sw iWG^TOFHGJ0UWFepT$^JPGBQOS$ZKNNi

z E UWQ^pT$^`jHZKUWS^`iT_GIjHTOGRQ]GFL$^lL_UNFeND^0SbNsBjHiGIeFhKsVaGTw ELtiWNNvPQoiWUWvG^F^`T_TONldgfd UxL_Z^

vl^z|fHQONYZKNldGbK^SbLOiW|SI^Fd!GgT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL ha^`FLOULOUWGQ NDkNiL_^pGNTSIhKTOT_GIFLUWFuLOZKGgD{NTOsN`D}^YkGRSLONT$

UWsYUi\^`T_i|fUD kNixL$^`pGQONhHT_SIGQ}d ULOZcL_ZKGQ_^`sYGjKZa^QOG^`FKpiG^`T_GSbNFHFKGSbLOGJcLONpGbL_ZKGITUWFQOGIT_UGRQIfLOZKGUT

UWsYUi\^`T_i|fKUDNjKjXNQOUFKp[kNiL_^`pGgQ]NhKT_SIGQ ^TOGoSINFKFKGRSL_GJuUF0QOGIT_UWGQfPLOZKGUTkNixL$^`pGRQ Q]hHVPLOT$^SbL^Q |Nh

GbLOGTOsYUWFKUWFKpYd ZKGbL_ZKGIT NT!FHN`LLOZKGRQ]GgkNiL_^pGQONhHT_SIGQ^`T_GNjKjXNQOUFKpBG^S$ZNLOZKGTTOG hHUT_GQ^`FuGbK^sBUWFH^`

HphKTOGfKQ]NBL_ZH^lL L_ZKGosYGbL_GIT hHQOGIT vFKNldQd ZH^`L^BFKGIp^lLOUWkGNT jaNQ]ULOUWkGUWFHJPU\SI^lL_UNFqTOGR^`iWi|[sYGR^`FHQUWFqTOGiW^`LOUWNF

ZKU\Q!HT$QL sYG^Q]hKT_GIsYGFLN`D l ^SITONQOQLOZKGgiWGbDLOZa^`FHJkNixL$^`pGQONhKT$SbGLOGii\QhHQ!LOZa^lLLOZKGgVHiW^S$vciGR^JN`D

GR^QOhKTOUWFKpLOZKGgNLOZKGT hKFKvFKNld FukNixL$^`pGQONhKT$SbG

ZKU\QQOGSINFHJqkNiLOsYGbL_GITT_G^JPUFHpHfHZHNldnGkGITRfPU\Q^ l { kNiL_QfHd ZKU\S$ZqLOGii\QhHQLOZa^lLL_ZKGtVKi\^S$v

{VHiW^S$v LOGRQLiGR^JBL_NhHS$ZKUWFKptLOZKGriGIDL!d UWT_G^`FHJ[UxL$Q!jaNQ]ULOUWkGRp{T_GJ LOGRQLiWG^JcLONhaS$ZKUFHpgLOZKGrT_UpZLnd UT_GfLOZHG

EDakGSbLONT$Qd UxL_ZhHFHSbNsBsYNFB^FKpiWGQ^`T_G!^JKJPGRJflLOZHGIUWT}sY^pFKULOhaJPGQ iGFKp`L_ZHQ

^JKJthHj hKULOG JPUXGTOGFLOiW|gLOZH^F

kNixL$^`pG hH^FL_UxL_UGRQ^`T_G SbNsBjHiGI hH^`FL_UxL_UGRQIf^FHJ~hHQ]LiUWvG!L_ZKG^`VXNlkG!kGRSL_NT$QIf`d ZHUWS$Zc^JHJhHjBUWFc^rLOT_UpNFKN

F0NT_JPGT LONdnNTOvd UxL_ZLOZHGQOGSbNsYjKiGIuFhKsVaGT_Qd UxL_ZKNhKLrJPT$^zd UFHpckGSbLONT_QfHd!GgHT$QLFKGIGRJ0Q]NsYGovUFHJ0N`D

L$^`FHJK^T_JNT_UGFL_^lL_UNFcD{NT kGSbLONT^`FHpiWGQ!UFqSIUT$SbhHUxLSI^iWSIhKi\^lLOUWNFaQ!JKGbHFKGRQ ^QVXGIUWFKpBLONLOZKGgT_UWpZL

d ULOZ0^YiWNldnGT]SI^Q]G`U\ {UWFjKhKT_GgsY^`LOZKGsc^lLOU\SIQ NT~] {UWFGIiWGSbLOT_NFKU\SIQ w!ZKGQOGgiWNldnGT]SI^Q]GriGIL]L_GIT$QJPNcFKNL

NSbNFkGITOLaD{T_NsTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TLON jXNi\^`TRfbHFHJrL_ZKGjXNi\^`Tsc^pFKULOhHJKGLOZKT_NhKpZL_ZKGhHQOG}N`DL_ZKG|L_ZH^`pNT_G^`F

o- FKNL_^lL_UNF[JPGIFHN`LOGRQn^tSbNsYjKiWGbYFhKstVXGIT!UWFcLOGTOscQnN`DUxL$QkGSbLONT QiWGIFKpLOZ^FHJc^`FKphKi\^`TnJKUT_GSbLOUWNF

ZKGUsc^`pUFa^`T_|YSINsYjXNFKGFL U\QjKT_GSbGRJPGJV|^BiNld!GITOSI^QOGb~bf YQONsYGbL_UsYGQ S^`iWiGRJ[L_ZKGg~!NjXGIT$^lLONTw

3P C54UA76 A~\

KNTYiNFKpZH^FHJshKixL_UjHiU\SI^`LOUWNF^`FHJyJPUWkU\QOUNFfjXNi\^`TYUWQL_ZKGuD^zkNT_GJFKN`L$^lLOUWNFLONmd!NT_ved ULOZw ZKGF

NNVPL$^`UWFgLOZHGT_GSbUWjKT_NPSI^`ifRNTUFkGITOL_ R fl^SbNsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGITRflQ]UWsYjKiW|JKUkU\JPGL_ZKGFhKsVaGT UFjaNiW^T

ZKGjXNi\^`T_UL|tsc^`T_vPQD{NT!^`iWiKLOZHTOGGkNixL$^`pG QONhKT$SbGRQ^`T_G NT_UWGIFLOGRJYUF[QOhHS$Z[^gd^z|oL_ZH^lLnLOZKGUT!QL$^lLOGRJYkNixLO

ZKGYQ]hHs N`DL_ZKGQOGkGSbLONT$Qd UWiWi}VaGY^T_GQOhKiL_^FLrkGRSLONTNTOUWpUWFH^`LOUWFKp^lLrLOZHGYQ]L_^T]L_UFHpjXNUWFLrD{NTrL_ZKG

FqNT$JPGIT!L_N[JPGbL_GIT_sBUWFKGgd ZH^`L LOZKGgT_GQOhKiL_^FL kGSL_NT Q!sc^`pFKULOhHJPGo^FHJq^`FKpiGg^TOGd ULOZKNhPLTOGRQ]NT]L_UFHptL_N

FjXNi\^`T D{NTOsqfKL_ZKU\QG hH^`LOGRQLON w kNiL_Q

eGSI^FhHQOG P O!LON[kGIT_UxD{|LOZHG^SSbhKT$^SI|NDNhKTTOGRQ]hKiL_Qw FL_ZKU\QL_GQ]LrSbUWT$SbhKULfaLOZKGcv T_GQOUWQ]LONT