Bases are considered the chemical opposite of acids because of their ability to

neutralize acids. In 1887 the Swedish physicist and chemist Svante Arrhenius def
ined a base as the chemical substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH-) and cat
ions. A typical base, according to the Arrhenius definition, is sodium hydroxide
(NaOH). The neutralization of an acid with a base to yield salt and water may b
e represented as
HCl (aq ) + KOH (aq ) ? H2O (l ) + KCl (aq )

(1)

A major problem with Arrhenius's definition of bases is that several chemical co

mpounds, such as NaHCO3, Na2CO3, Na3PO4, which produce basic solutions when diss
olved in water, do not contain hydroxide ions. The Brnsted-Lowry theory, which wa
s proposed independently by Danish chemist Johannes Brnsted and English chemist T
homas Lowry in 1923, states that a base accepts hydrogen ions and an acid donate
s hydrogen ions. This theory not only includes all bases containing hydroxide io
ns, but also covers any chemical species that are able to accept hydrogen ions i
n aqueous solution . For example, when sodium carbonate is dissolved in solution
, the carbonate ion accepts a hydrogen ion from water to form the bicarbonate io
n and hydroxide ion.
(2)
The Brnsted-Lowry theory includes water as a reactant and considers its acidity o
r basicity. In reaction (2) a new acid and base are formed, which are called the
conjugate acid and conjugate base, respectively.
The strength of a base is determined by the extent of its ionization in aqueous
solution. Strong bases, such as NaOH, are 100 percent ionized in aqueous solutio
n and weak bases, such as ammonia, are only partially ionized in aqueous solutio
n.
(3)
The partial ionization is a dynamic equilibrium , as indicated by the double arr
ow in equation (3).
The strength of acids and bases also determines the strength of their conjugate
bases and conjugate acids, respectively. Weak acids and bases have strong conjug
ate bases and acids. For example, when ammonium chloride is dissolved in water,
it gives an acidic solution because ammonium ion is a strong conjugate acid of t
he weak base ammonia, but chloride ion is a weak conjugate base of the strong ac
id hydrochloric acid.
NH4+ (aq ) + H2O (l ) ? NH3 (aq ) + H3O+ (aq )

(4)

The carbonate ion in equation (2) yields a basic solution because it is the stro
ng conjugate base of the weak acid HCO3-.
When NaHCO3 is dissolved in water, it gives a basic solution, even though a hydr
ogen ion is available. Predicting this requires one to consider the strength of
carbonic acid, H2CO3, which is a very weak acid.
H2CO3 (aq ) + H2O (l ) ? HCO3- (aq ) + H3O+ (aq )

(5)

However, HCO3- will act as an acid if a strong base is added.

HCO3- (aq ) + OH- (aq ) ? H2O (l ) + CO32- (aq )

(6)

This ability to act as a base or an acid is called amphoterism. Any anions of po

lyprotic acids, such as HCO3-, H2PO4-, and HPO42-, which contain replaceable hyd

rogen ions, are amphoteric. Some hydroxides, such as Al(OH)3 and Zn(OH)2, are al
so amphoteric, reacting with a base or acid, as illustrated by the following equ
ations:
Al(OH)3 (s ) + OH- (aq ) ? Al(OH)4- (aq )

(7)

Al(OH)3 (s ) + 3 H3O+ (aq ) ? Al3+ (aq ) + 6 H2O (l )

Equations
acid-base
s to form
electrons

(8)

(7) and (8) can also be explained by American chemist Gilbert Lewis's
theory. A Lewis acid is a substance that can accept a pair of electron
a new bond, and a Lewis base is a substance that can donate a pair of
to form a new bond.

(9)
All Arrhenius and Brnsted-Lowry bases are also Lewis bases. All metal cations are
potential Lewis acids. Complexes of metal ions with water, ammonia, and hydroxi
de ion are examples of Lewis acid-base reactions. For example, [Al(H2O)6]3+ may
be regarded as a combination of the Lewis acid, Al3+, with six electron pairs fr
om six H2O molecules.
Buffer solutions contain a base and an acid that can react with an added acid or
base, respectively, and they maintain a pH very close to the original value. Bu
ffers usually consist of approximately equal quantities of a weak acid and its c
onjugate base, or a weak base and its conjugate acid. For example, one of the bu
ffers used to keep the pH of the blood near 7.45 is the H2PO4-/HPO42- acid/conju
gate base system. Small amounts of an acid or base react with one of the compone
nts of the buffer mixture to produce the other component as follows:
H2PO4- (aq ) + OH- (aq ) ? H2O (l ) + HPO42- (aq )
HPO42- (aq ) + H3O+ (aq ) ? H2O (l ) + H2PO4- (aq )

(10)
(11)

see also Acid-Base Chemistry; Arrhenius, Svante; Brnsted, Johannes Nicolaus; Chem
ical Reactions; Lewis, Gilbert N.; Solution Chemistry.