Written By

Ng Chee Kin

B.Sc.(Hons.), MBA
ngcheekin@gmail.com
mrcheekin@blogspot.com.au
All Rights Reserved 2012 Ng Chee Kin

Page 1

1. The human respiratory system:

Lungs

Bronchus
(plural: bronchi)

Key:

Bronchiole

Bronchus

Bronchiole

3. The air flow during exhalation:

1.2

Bronchiole
Nose

Bronchus

he

Alveolus
Trachea

Transport of Oxygen in the Human Body

rc

1. The oxygen dissolves in the moist lining of the

alveolus and then it diffuses into the blood
capillaries.
2. In the blood capillaries, oxygen will combine
with haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form
oxyhaemoglobin.

TWB Sci F3 (Exp Note) A 2nd.indd 3

1. Chemical substances which are harmful to the

respiratory system are:
(a) nicotine, tar and carbon monoxide from
cigarette smoke
(b) sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon
monoxide, asbestos dust, coal dust and
hydrocarbons from vehicles and factories.
2. Tar and asbestos dust are carcinogenic, which
means they can cause lung cancer if inhaled
excessively.
3. Bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms
produce toxins which cause illnesses.
4. We need to improve the quality of air in order
to preserve healthy respiratory system.

ek

Nose
Trachea
Alveolus

.b

2. The air flow during inhalation:

.a

Other
body
cells

Deoxygenated blood
returns to the heart

Movement of oxygen
Movement of oxygenated blood
Movement of deoxygenated blood

The Importance of a Healthy Respiratory

System

in

Bronchioles

1.3

Heart

Deoxygenated blood
pumped out of the heart

lo

iii
Alveolus
(plural: alveoli)

Oxygenated blood
pumped out of the
heart

po

Lung

Oxygen enters blood in

the lungs

Blood capillaries
around the alveoli

Trachea

Oxygenated blood returns

to the heart

t.c

Oxygen

Human Breathing Mechanism

gs

Respiration

4. The oxygen is then absorbed by the body cells

for cellular respiration.

om

3. When oxyhaemoglobin reaches the body cells, it

breaks down and releases oxygen.

CHAPTER 1
1.1

Pr
R eE
SS
EXp
s

Haemoglobin
Oxyhaemoglobin

CHAPTER 2

Blood Circulation and Transport

2.1

Transport System in Humans

1. The human heart:

Vena cava
Semilunar
valves
Right
atrium
Tricuspid
valve
Right
ventricle

Aorta
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary
vein
Left atrium
Bicuspid
valve
Left
ventricle
Septum

5/26/2009 4:12:56 PM

Page 2

Deoxygenated
blood

Semilunar
valves

Right atrium
Vena cava

Bicuspid
valve

Tricuspid
valve

Left
atrium

Right
atrium

Septum

Right
ventricle

Oxygenated
blood
Lung

Left atrium

Left ventricle
Right
ventricle

Cardiac muscle
Deoxygenated blood

Internal organs
(for example,
liver, gut)

gs

lo

Vein

Connective
tissue

Lumen

Smooth
muscle

.b

Artery

Lumen

Endothelium

Small

Thickness of wall

Smooth
muscle

Lumen

Endothelium

Endothelium

Very small

Thick, muscular, elastic

Thin, less elastic,

muscular

Only one cell thick and

not muscular

Speed of blood flow

Rapid

Slow

Very slow

Blood pressure

Very high pressure

Low pressure

Very low pressure

No except at aorta and

pulmonary artery

Yes

No

rc

Presence of valves

TWB Sci F3 (Exp Note) A 2nd.indd 4

2.2

From

To

Oxygen (in
the form of
oxyhaemoglobin)

Lungs

All body
cells

Carbon dioxide

All body cells

Lungs

Digested food
(glucose, amino
acids)

Small
intestine

Liver and
all body
cells

Waste materials
(such as urea)

Liver and
cells

Kidneys

Hormones

Endocrine
glands

Target
organs

Human Blood

1. Human blood consists of:

(a) 55% plasma
(b) 45% blood cells and platelets
2. Types of blood cells:
Type

Large

he

Size of lumen

Capillary

Connective
tissue

in

Characteristic

Left
ventricle

Rest of the body (for

example, head, arms,
legs)

ek

iv

2. Functions of the heart:

(a) Pumps blood to all parts of the body.
(b) Transports nutrients and oxygen to the body
cells.
(c) Transports carbon dioxide and waste
materials from the body cells.
3. Types of blood vessels:

Structure

Substance
transported

po

Oxygenated blood

5. Double circulatory system:

(a) Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the
heart to the lungs and oxygenated blood
flows back again to the heart.
(b) Oxygenated blood is pumped from the heat
to the rest of the body and deoxygenated
blood flows back again to the heart.
6. Human blood transports many substances in our
body.

Vena cava

4. Path of blood flow in the circulator system:

.a

Pulmonary
vein

om

Aorta

t.c

Pulmonary artery

Function

Red blood cells

Carries oxygen from the

lungs to the body cells

White blood
cells

Defends the body against

diseases

Platelets

Helps in blood clotting

3. Functions of blood:
(a) Transports gases and dissolved substances
(b) Protects the body against diseases
(c) Maintains the body temperature at 37oC

5/26/2009 4:12:58 PM

Page 3

AB

5. Universal donor is a person with blood group O.

6. Universal recipient is a person with blood group
AB.
Transport System in Plants

1. The transport system in plants is called the

vascular system.
2. There are two main vascular tissues:
(a) Xylem- transports water and mineral salts
from the roots to the leaves
(b) Phloem- transports glucose from the leaves
to all parts of the plants
3. Xylem and phloem are found in the vascular
bundle.

Excretion

3.1

1. Excretion is a process of eliminating waste

products from the body.
2. The organs responsible for removing waste
products are called the excretory organs.
3. The waste products removed from the body are
called the excretory products.

.b

Cross section of root

TWB Sci F3 (Exp Note) A 2nd.indd 5

Urethra

Cortex

Medulla

Human Excretion

Excretory organ

ek

he

rc
m

Endodermis
Xylem
Phloem
Epidermis

Urinary
bladder

Excretory products

Skin

Water, mineral salts, urea

Lungs

Water, carbon dioxide

Kidneys

Water, mineral salts, urea

4. Excretion helps to maintain the balance of water

content, chemical composition and pH in the
body system.

Cortex
Medulla

Root hair
Cortex

Ureters

Cross section of stem

Renal
artery
Left
kidney

Epidermis
Phloem vascular
Xylem bundle
pith

Adrenal
gland

Cross section of leaf

Aorta

Right
kidney

Phloem

Renal
vein

Xylem

CHAPTER 3

in

2.3

Vena cava

.a

om

AB

t.c

The Urinary System in Humans

po

3.2

gs

Recipients blood
Donors
group
blood group

4. Transpiration is the process by which plant loses

water, in the form of water vapour.
5. Transpiration happens through the stomata
(singular: stoma), tiny pores on the leaves of
the plant.
6. Factors that affect the rate of transpiration:
(a) Light the brighter the light, the greater
the rate of transpiration.
(b) Temperature the higher the temperature,
the greater the rate of transpiration.
(c) Humidity the lower the humidity, the
greater the rate of transpiration.
(d) Wind the faster the movement of air, the
greater the rate of transpiration.
7. Transpiration helps plants to absorb and transport
water and minerals.

lo

4. Compatibility of blood groups:

Renal artery

Pyramid
Renal vein
Pelvis

Ureter

1. The human urinary system consists of: kidney,

ureter, bladder and urethra.
2. Functions of kidneys:
(a) To filter blood.
(b) To remove urea, excess mineral salts and
water to form urine.
(c) To control the balance of water and chemical
in the body.

5/26/2009 4:13:02 PM

Page 4

Reproduction
Understanding
Reproduction

TWB Sci F3 (Exp Note) A 2nd.indd 6

.b

he
rc
m

Testis

Seminal
vesicle

Vas deferens

Urethra

Budding
(yeast)

Vegetative
reproduction

ek

Spore formation
(moss, ferns and fungi)

Vas deferens

Epididymis
Penis

Regeneration
(planaria)

in

Plant
(pollen grain
and ovule)

Prostate gland

Asexual

Asexual

Binary fission
(bacteria)

Seminal vesicle

and

lo

vi
Sexual
(Involving the male and the female gametes)

Animals
(sperm and ovum)

Sexual

1. Reproduction is a process of producing new

individuals by living organisms.
2. Importance of reproduction:
(a) To increase the number of individuals of the
same species.
(b) To ensure certain species does not become
extinct.
3. Types of reproduction:

Reproduction

Function

.a

CHAPTER 4
4.1

Organ

om

1. Plants excrete waste products mainly through

simple diffusion.
2. Excretion in plant is mainly done through the
cell wall and stomata.
3. Mineral salts such as calcium carbonate and
calcium oxalate are retained in the plant as
crystals.
4. Minerals such as silicon salts are deposited in the
leaves to strengthen the leaf blade.
5. Nitrogenous waste products are removed when
plants shed their leaves, flowers or bark.

Male Reproductive System

Urethra

Prostate
gland

Penis

Produces sperms (the male

gametes)
Produces male sex hormones

Scrotum

Holds and protects the testes

Sperm duct
(vas deferens)

Transports sperms from the

testes to the urethra inside
the body

Urethra

Allows sperms to flow out of

the body

Penis

Transfers semen into vagina

during copulation

Seminal
vesicles

Secrete fluid which contains

nutrients for the sperms

t.c

Excretion in Plants

4.2

Testis (plural:
testes)

po

3.3

6. Most nitrogenous wastes are very poisonous.

7. Some excretory products of plants are useful
to humans such as: morphine, opium, cocaine,
tannins and oils.

gs

3. Kidney failure happens when the kidneys of

a person unable to perform their functions
properly.
4. Kidney failure can be treated through dialysis
or kidney transplant.
5. Dialysis is a method used to filter and remove
waste products from the blood of a patient.

1. Sperm:
(a) It is the male sex cell.
(b) It is produced by the testes.
(c) It is also the smallest cell in the males
body.
(d) It is shaped like a tadpole, which has a head,
neck, middle piece and tail.
(e) The head contains a nucleus which has
genetic material.
(f) The tail helps the sperm to move or swim in
the female reproductive system.
2. Males reach puberty at 12 to 14 years old, which
is later than girls.
3. There are physical, emotional and physiological
changes during puberty.
4. The testes start to produce sperm and male sex
hormones during puberty.

Scrotum
Scrotum

Testis

5/26/2009 4:13:03 PM

Page 5

Ovary
Uterus

4.4

Cervix

Oviduct (Fallopian tube)

Uterus

Cervix

Menstrual Cycle

1. Menstrual cycle is the changes in a womans ovary

and uterus over 28 days.
2. Menstrual cycle involves ovulation and
menstruation which happen regularly each
month.
3. Ovulation happens when an ovary releases a
mature ovum.
4. Menstruation is the shedding of the uterine wall
and blood through the vagina.
5. Menstruation can be divided into four stages:
(a) Menstruation phase (day 1 to 5)
(b) Repair phase (day 6 to 11)

lo

vii
Vagina

Function

Fallopian
Place of fertilisation
tube (oviduct)

in

Embryo moves
towards uterus

Childbirth
Baby

The ovum is fertilised (fertilisation)

Ovary

Widens during childbirth

4.6

Vagina (birth
canal)

Place where the sperms are

deposited during copulation
Baby is born through this
birth canal

1. Pregnant women need to take enough nutritious

food and have a balanced diet.
2. Pregnant women should avoid smoking, taking
alcohol or drugs.

he

Fallopian tube
Ovary produces an ovum (ovulation)

Cervix

rc

Implantation
Foetus

Eight-cell Four-cell Two-cell

stage
stage
stage

Place for the implantation of

zygote
Place where the foetus
develops and grows

Embryo

A zygote is formed

Uterus
(womb)

TWB Sci F3 (Exp Note) A 2nd.indd 7

Fertilisation
Zygote

An embryo is formed

Produces ova (the female

gametes)
Produces female sex hormones

ek

Organ

.b

Urethra

Ovary

1. Fertilisation is the fusion between the sperm and

the ovum.
2. Development of an embryo into a foetus until
birth:
Sperm
Ovum

po

Ovary

Fertilisation and Pregnancy

t.c

Vagina

4.5

.a

Oviduct (Fallopian tube)

(c) Fertile phase / ovulation phase (day 12 to 16)

(d) Premenstrual phase (day 17 to 28)
6. Women of about 50 years of age undergo
menopause when their menstruation stops.

om

1. Ovum (plural: ova):

(a) It is the female sex cell.
(b) It is produced by the ovary.
(c) It is the largest cell in the females body.
(d) It is spherical in shape, which contains a
nucleus and cytoplasm.
(e) The nucleus contain genetic material.
(f) It cannot move by itself.

Female Reproductive System

gs

4.3

Uterus

Embryo attaches to
uterine wall (implantation)

Importance of Prenatal Care

4.7

Importance of
Reproduction

Research

in

Human

1. Sterility (infertility) is the inability to produce

children.
2. Methods to overcome sterility:

5/26/2009 4:13:06 PM

Page 6

Sexual reproductive System of Flowering Plants

To protect the ovule

Ovule

Contains ova (the female gametes)

Anther

Contains pollen grains (the male gametes)

4.12

Filament

To support anther

Pollination

Pollen grains

Stigma

Pollen grains

Filament

Ovary

Stigma

viii

gs

Pistil
Style

Ovule

Pollen grain

lo

Anther

One plant

Stigma
Style

Stamen
Anther
Filament
Nectary
Receptacle

Pedicel

Function

he

Structure

Sepal

To protect flower during the bud stage

Petal

To attract insects or animals

Stamen

The male reproductive part

Pistil

The female reproductive part

Stigma

To receive pollen grains

Style

To support stigma

rc

Sepal

TWB Sci F3 (Exp Note) A 2nd.indd 8

Self-pollination

Cross-pollination

4. Agents of pollination:
(a) Wind
(c) Insects
(b) Animals
(d) Water

ek

Ovary
Ovule

Key:

.b

Pistil

Another plant of
the same species

in

Petal

Anther

po

Flower
Stamen

4.10

1. Vegetative reproduction is a method of producing

new plants from any vegetative parts of the
parent plant.
2. Vegetative reproduction is an asexual
reproduction.
3. Vegetative parts that can reproduce are: stem,
leaf and root.
4. Tissue culture and stem cuttings are techniques
used to produce new plants.

CHAPTER 5

Growth

5.1

Infancy
Adolescence
Old age
Childhood
Adulthood

Germination of Seeds

1. A seed is made up of an embryo and a food

store wrapped in a testa (seed coat).

Human Growth Pattern

1. Growth is an irreversible and permanent process

in living things.
2. Growth in humans can be determined by
measuring the height and weight.
3. Growth curve is divided into five stages:
(a) Infancy
(d) Adulthood
(b) Childhood
(e) Old age
(c) Adolescence

Development of Fruits and Seeds in Plants

1. Fertilisation occurs when the male gamete fuses

with the ovum in the ovule.
2. A zygote is formed when the ovum is fertilised
by the male gamete.
3. After fertilisation, the ovule will develop into a
seed and the ovary become the fruit.

4.11

.a

1. Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from

the anther to the stigma.
2. Self-pollination and cross-pollination:

1. Struture of a flower:

Vegetative reproduction in Flowering

Plants

om

4.9

Function

Height (cm)

4.8

Ovary

2. Germination happens when the embryo grows

into a seedling.
3. Seeds need air, water and suitable temperature
to germinate.

Structure

t.c

(a) Drug treatment (such as hormones)

(b) Surgery
(c) In vitro fertilisation (IVF)
3. Methods for birth control (contraception):
(a) Contraceptive pills
(b) Rhythm method (natural method)
(c) Using a condom
(d) Using a diaphragm
(e) Intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD)
(f) Vasectomy sperm ducts cut and tied
(g) Ligation (tubectomy) oviducts cut and tied

Slow
growth

Minimal
growth

Negative
growth

Rapid
growth

Rapid
growth
0

13

20

65

Age (years)

5/26/2009 4:13:08 PM

Page 7
CHAPTER 6

.a

6.1

Land and Its Resources

1. Minerals are solid elements or compounds found naturally.

2. Elements present in various minerals:
Carbonate

Cassiterite Haematite

Tin

Calcite

Sulphide

Malachite

Galena

China
clay

Iron

Calcium

Lead

Aluminium

gs

ix

Carbon

Sulphur

Description
Most mineral are hard

Solubility
in water

Most minerals are insoluble in

water

Action of
heat

Most metal oxides are stable

Metal sulphides break down
into metal oxide and release
sulphur dioxide gas

he

ek

Hardness

rc

Reactions Between Metals and Non-metals

1. Metals react with non-metals at different rates

to form stable compounds:
(a) Metals react with oxygen to form metal
oxide

TWB Sci F3 (Exp Note) A 2nd.indd 9

6.3

6.4

Metal

Reaction
rate with
oxygen

Reaction
rate with
sulphur

Magnesium

Very fast

Very fast

Aluminium

Very fast

Very fast

Zinc

Fast

Fast

Iron

Fast

Fast

Copper

Slow

Slow

Silicon Compounds

1. Silicon is the second most abundant element in

the Earths crust.

Calcium Compounds

1. Properties of calcium carbonate:

(a) Insoluble in water
(b) Reacts with dilute acids to produce salt, water
and carbon dioxide
(c) Breaks down into calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide when heated
2. Quicklime (calcium oxide) is formed when calcium
carbonate is heated strongly.
3. Slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) is formed when
calcium oxide is added with some water.
4. Limewater (calcium hydroxide solution) is formed
when slaked lime is added with more water.

6.5

(b) Metals react with sulphur to form metal

sulphide

in

3. Properties of minerals:
Properties

.b

lo

Silicon
Oxygen

Calcium
silicate

po

Copper

6.2

Silicate

Iron
pyrite

t.c

Oxide

om

Minerals in the Earths Crust

Element

2. Silicon always exists in the form of compounds

such as silicas and silicates.
3. Silica is silicon dioxide, which consists of silicon
and oxygen.
4. Silicate is made up of silicon, metal and oxygen.
5. Properties of silicas and silicates:
(a) Insoluble in water
(b) Do not react with acid
(c) Do not break down when heated
(d) Very stable and are not eroded easily

Natural Fuel Resources and Their Importance

1. Fossil fuels include petroleum, natural gas and

coal.
2. Petroleum:
(a) Formed from organism remains buried in
sediment under heat and high pressure.
(b) It contains many types of hydrocarbons which
can be separated by fractional distillation.
(c) The components of petroleum produced by
fractional distillation are called fractions (or
distillates).
(d) Different fractions are obtained due to
different boiling points.
the greater the boiling point, the darker
the colour of the fractions
the greater the boiling point, the more
viscous the fractions

5/26/2009 4:13:08 PM

Page 8

Product of
distillation

2. Electrical charges can be produced through

friction between two objects.
3. Matters are made up of small particles called
atoms.

Diesel oil

Fuel for lorries and

buses

Lubricating oil

Lubricants for
machines

Fuel oil

Fuel oil for ships

Bitumen

To seal roads

4. An atom has two charged particles:

(a) Electrons, which have a negative charge ()
(b) Protons, which have a positive charge (+)
5. Neutrons in an atom have no charge because
they are neutral.
6. An atom becomes positively charged when it
loses electrons.
7. An atom becomes negatively charged when it
gains electrons.
7.2

Electricity

1. Electricity is a form of energy. It is also called the

electrical energy.
2. Electrical energy can be generated by generators
and electric cells.
3. Current, voltage and resistance:
(a) Current
the rate of flow of charges.
flows from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal of a battery.

ek

he

1. Electrostatics is the study of static electrical

charges.

TWB Sci F3 (Exp Note) B 2nd.indd 10

Current

rc

Electrostatics

(b) Direction of electron flow

The flow of electric current and electron

t.c

Fuel for aircraft

Structure of an atom

po

Kerosene

Neutron (no charged)

gs

For making plastics

and polyvinyl chloride
(PVC)

lo

Naphta

.b

Fuel for vehicles

in

Petrol (gasoline)

3. Natural gas:
(a) consists of 90% methane, 10% of mixture of
ethane, propane, butane and pentane.
(b) It is usually found together with the
petroleum.
(c) It is used as fuel source and to produce
fertilisers.
4. Coal:
(a) Made up of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and
sulphur.
(b) It is formed from plant remains that grew in
swamps.

7.1

om

Proton (positively charged)

Cooking gas

Electricity

Electron (negatively charged)

Uses

Petroleum gas

CHAPTER 7

Electron flow

.a

the greater the boiling point, the more

soot is produced when the fractions are
burnt
the greater the boiling point, the harder
the fractions burn

(b) Voltage
the electrical force needed to move
electrical charges from one point to other
in a conductor.
(c) Resistance
characteristic that resists the flow of electric
current in a conductor.

7.3

1. Measuring current (symbol: I):

connect an ammeter in series with other
electrical components in a circuit.
the deflection of the pointer of the ammeter
shows the value of current flowing through
the components.
the SI unit for electric current is ampere
(symbol: A).
2. Measuring voltage (symbol: V):
connect a voltmeter in parallel to other
electrical components in a circuit.
the deflection of the pointer of the voltmeter
shows the value of voltage across the
components.
the SI unit for voltage is volt (symbol: V).
3. The SI unit for resistance (symbol: R) is the ohm
(symbol: ).
7.4

(a) Direction of electric current flow

Electric Current, Voltage and Resistance

The Relationship Between Current, Voltage

and Resistance

1. Resistor is an electrical component that resists

the flow of electric current.

5/26/2009 4:12:30 PM

Page 9
Electrical
component

Series circuit

Electric cell

TWB Sci F3 (Exp Note) B 2nd.indd 11

or

Resistor

rc

Battery (more
than one cell)

or

If one light bulb

burns out, other
light bulbs will still
light up.

gs

If one light bulb

burns out, the
circuit becomes
incomplete. Hence,
other light bulbs
will not light up.

.b

in

he

Symbol

Has more than one

path for currect to
flow through
Light bulbs glow
brighter than
those connected in
series

ek

Electrical
component

Parallel circuit

Has only one path

for current to flow
through
Light bulbs do not
glow as bright as
those connected in
parallel

lo

xi
Light bulb

3. Symbols of electrical components:

po

4. Comparison between series and parallel

circuits:

Wire

An electric circuit

om

Ammeter

t.c

Voltmeter

Dry cell

Bulb

G
G
G
V
V
V
A
A
A

Galvanometer

Electric Circuits

1. An electric circuit is a path which allows an

electric current to flow through.
2. A simple electric circuit is made up of 3
components:
(a) A cell (a source of electrical energy)
(b) A bulb (a resistor)
(c) Connecting wire (a conductive path)

or

Fuse

the greater the resistance, the smaller the

current.
increasing the voltage supplied will increase
the current in the circuit.

Switch

or

7.6

2. Advantages of a series circuit:

(a) When more cells are added to the circuit,
the voltage and current increase. Hence, the
bulbs glow brighter.
(b) Bulbs light up with equal brightness because
the current flows through each bulb is the
same.
3. Disadvantages of a series circuit:
(a) If one of the bulbs is fused (burned out), the
other bulbs will not light up.
(b) The brightness of the bulbs decreases when
more bulbs are connected in series, because
the electrical energy is shared by more
bulbs.

Rheostat
(Variable
resistor)

Voltage (V)
Resistance (R) =
Current (I)

7.5

Symbol

.a

2. Ohms Law:
the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to its voltage.

7.7

Parallel Circuit

1. Current, voltage and total resistance in parallel

circuit:
2. Advantages of a parallel circuit:
(a) When one of the bulbs is burned out, the
other bulbs will still light up.
(b) Each electrical component can be controlled
by separate switches.
(c) All bulbs will light up with the same
brightness.

V
V

V1
V

I1
R1

Series Circuit

I2

1. Current, voltage and total resistance in series

circuit:
V
V
I

I = I1 + I2

I = I1 = I2 = I3

I1R1

I2R2

I3R3

V
V1

V
V2

V
V3

V = V1 + V2 + V3

1 =
1 +
1

R
R1 R2

V2

3. Disadvantage of a parallel circuit:

(a) When more bulbs are connected in parallel,
the dry cells will become weak quicker.
7.8

R = R1 + R2 + R3

R2

V = V1 = V2

Magnetism

1. Magnetism is the properties and effects of

magnetic substances.

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Page 10
(c) Gas turbine generator

Copper wire
Switch

Air
filter

Compass

Generation of Electricity

8.1

po

The Generation of Electrical Energy

1. Types of generators:
(a) Hydroelectric power plant

gs

(b) The direction of the magnetic field lines can

be detected by using a compass.

Dam

Electromagnetism

Control
rods

Steam

rc

TWB Sci F3 (Exp Note) B 2nd.indd 12

Steam
turbine

Steam

Tunnel

Electrical
Output

Turbine and generator

Condenser

Reactor
Water
Steam
generator

Pylon

Pump

Pump

Turbine

Pump
27C

he

1. Electromagnetism refers to the properties and

effects of electromagnets produced by electric
current.
2. An electromagnet is a magnet that is produced
by the flow of electric current.
(a) Without electrical energy, an electromagnet
loses its megnetism.
(b) An electromagnet is a temporary magnet.
3. A straight line conductor carrying current produces
a concentric magnetic field lines around it.

Concrete wall

lo
Boiler

Generator

Diesel engine

(b) Thermal generator

ek

5. Characterstics of magnetic field lines:

(a) Run from the north pole to the south pole
of the magnet.
(b) Do not cross one another.

.b

7.9

Water

Magnetic
field lines

electric
current

(e) Nuclear power plant

Pylon

in

xii

Compass

Gas turbine Generator

Spark plug

t.c

Cardboard

Motor

(d) Diesel power plant

CHAPTER 8

Iron filings

om

Retort
stand

.a

Card

Power pack

Magnet
placed
under the
cardboard

Combustion
chamber
Exhaust
Compressor
Electric tower

2. Magnetic field is the area around a magnet where

a magnetic force can be detected.
3. The magnetic field of a magnet can be represented
by lines, called magnetic field lines.
4. The magnetic field lines have a certain pattern
and direction.
(a) The pattern of the magnetic field lines can
be shown by using iron filings.

38C

Water

Generator

8.2
Sea water

Water
Burner

Condenser
From water purification plant

Transformers

1. A transformer is a device for changing the voltage

of an alternating current.
2. An alternating current (symbol: a.c.) flows back
and forth, reversing its direction.

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Page 11
3. Types of transformers:
(a) Step-up transformer

(b)

Step-down transformer

Primary coil

Secondary coil

Secondary coil

8.4

To reduce the output voltage.

The secondary coil has less turns than the
primary coil.

33 kV

D
E

33 kV

33 kV
Hospital

Step-up
transformer

Switch
zone

132 kV/
275 kV/
500 kV

132 kV/
275 kV/
500 kV

Generation

TWB Sci F3 (Exp Note) B 2nd.indd 13

rc

11 kV

National
Grid
Network

he

Power
stations

11 kV

in

Shopping
complex

ek

Residential
area

Heavy
industrial
area

lo

xiii

240 V/
415 V

Transmission system

Main
substation
(Step-down
transformer)

132 kV/
275 kV/
500 kV

Components:
A Power
station
B Step-up
transformer
C National
Grid
Network
D Step-down
transformer
E Branch
substation

gs

11 kV

.b

132 kV/
275 kV/
500 kV

Distribution
system

Transmission
system

Transmission over
long distances

po

Electrical Power Transmission and Distribution System

Light
industrial area

Branch
substation

33 kV

Heavy
industrial area

Branch
substation

11 kV

Light
industrial area

Branch
substation

240 V

Residential
area

415 V

Shopping
complexes

Branch
substation

Distribution system

Electrical Power Supply and Wiring system in

Homes

1. Homes are supplied with 240 V alternating

current (a.c.).

t.c

To increase the output voltage.

The secondary coil has more turns than
the primary coil.
8.3

a.c.
output
voltage

om

Primary coil

.a

a.c.
input
voltage

a.c.
output
voltage

a.c.
input
voltage

Soft iron core

Soft iron core

1. National Grid Network is a system of high voltage

circuits that connects the main power stations.
2. Advantages of National Grid Network:
(a) Ensures continuous and uninterrupted
electrical power supply to the consumers.
(b) Reduces the operational cost of electrical
energy transmission.
(c) Prevents wastage of electrical energy.

Part

Function

Mains
fuse

Breaks the circuit when current

exceeds a safe value

Mains
switch

Cuts off electrical power supply

from the mains when electricity
is not needed

Circuit
breaker

Cuts off the electric current that

flows under abnormal conditions

Live wire

Carries the electric current from

the substation to the house

Neutral
wire

Carries the electric current from

the house back to the substation

Earth
wire

Connects an electrical appliance

to the earth or ground

Electric
meter

Measures the amount of

electricity used

2. Our home uses single-phase wiring system.

3. The commercial and industrial areas use threephase wiring system.
4. 3-pin plug:
Cover removed

Fuse

Earth wire
Cover

Neutral wire

Cable

Live wire

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Page 12
3. Types of fuses:
(a) Replaceable wire fuse
(b) Cartridge fuse

Neutral
wire

Earth
wire

Stars and Galaxies

Metal
cap

Fuse

9.1

Fuse wire

Prevents
excessive
current
flowing
into the
appliance
and
damaging it

Cost of Electrical Energy Usage

Fuse and Earth Wire

rc

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1. Fuse and earth wire are protection devices.

(a) Fuse breaks off the electrical circuit.
(b) Earth wire ensures the leakage of current
flows to the ground.
2. Function of the fuse:
(a) A fuse has a piece of short wire which has
a low melting point.
(b) When excess current flows through it, the
wire in the fuse melts and disconnects the
current.

TWB Sci F3 (Exp Note) B 2nd.indd 14

Replaceable wire fuse

4. Fuses have different ratings, according to the

maximum current they can carry. For example,
1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A and 13 A.
8.7

Safety Precautions in the Use of Electrical

Energy

1. Damaged appliances must be repaired by qualified

electrician only.
2. Avoid overloading a power point.
3. Avoid touching switches, wires or plugs with
wet hands, as this may cause electric shock or
electrocution.
4. Install Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) and
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) in home wiring
system for additional protection against electrical
accidents.

ek

8.6

Holder

in

Energy used (J)

1. Power (W) =
Time (s)
2. Power (P) = Voltage (V) Current (I)
3. Energy (kWh) = Power (kW) Time (h)
1 unit of electrical energy = 1 kWh

Contact

lo

8.5

Fuse wire

Contact

.b

xiv

A 3-pin plug carries electric current from a

power station to an appliance in use, and
then returns it to the substation.
A 3-pin plug also acts as a safety device to
protect an appliance in use from getting
damaged.

Cartridge fuse

t.c

Carries
leakage
current
from the
appliances
to the
Earth

po

Carries
current
from the
house
back
to the
substation

gs

Carries
current
from the
substation
to the
house

8.8

1. The Sun is a star that is closest to the Earth.

2. Characteristics of the Sun:
(a) It is the centre of the solar system.
(b) It is the only star in the solar system.
(c) It is mainly made of hydrogen (70% to 80%)
and helium.
3. Structure of the Sun:

om

Glass tube

The Sun

Live
wire

CHAPTER 9

.a

3-pin plug

Conserving Electrical Energy

1. We need to conserve electrical energy to prevent

wastage.
2. Ways to conserve energy:
(a) Use fluorescent lamps instead of incandescent
light bulbs.
(b) Use energy efficient electrical appliances.
(c) Use the washing machine with a full load.
(d) Switch off electrical appliances when they
are not in use.

Prominence

Sunspots

Corona
Chromosphere
Photosphere

Solar flare

Core

(a) Corona (outermost layer) is seen only during

a total solar eclipse.
(b) Chromosphere (middle layer) appears reddish
during a solar eclipse.
(c) Photosphere (innermost layer) is the Suns
surface as seen from the Earth. It has sunspots,
prominences and solar flares.
(d) Core (centre of the Sun) is the place where
nuclear fusion takes place, that is, hydrogen
is changed into helium, releasing a lot of
energy.
(e) Sunspots (dark patches) are cooler and they
can cause changes in the Earths climate, such
as extreme drought.
(f) Prominences are giant flares which are huge
columns, extending thousands of kilometres
from the surface. It produces solar wind and
causes aurora.
(g) Solar flares are huge clouds of hydrogen that
explode violently on the Suns surface. They

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Page 13

Stars and Galaxies in the Universe

he

rc

TWB Sci F3 (Exp Note) B 2nd.indd 15

.a

6. Galaxies:
(a) Are collection of billions of stars, planets, dust
and gases held together by a gravitational
force
(b) Types of galaxies:
Types

Description

Elliptical-shaped
galaxy

It has a diameter between

3000 and 10 000 light years.
It looks like a smooth,
round and oval-shaped disc,
and has no arms.
It is the brightest at the
core and gradually fades
towards the edge.
It is made up of old yellow
stars and does not contain
gas and dust, so new stars
are not formed.
Example: M87 in the centre
of Virgo cluster.

gs

lo
.b
in

Spiral-shaped
galaxy

ek

xv

Red giant White dwarf Black dwarf

It has a diameter between

25 000 and 32 000 light
years.
It does not have a definite
pattern or shape.
It exists in various different
forms and is usually made
up of young stars that are
very hot.
Example: Large Magellanic
Cloud

Red giant Supergiant Supernova

Black hole

Neutron star White dwarf star Dwarf star

Giant star Supergiant star
4. Formation of stars:
(a) Stars are formed from nebulae (singular:
nebula), which are made of clouds of dust
and gases.
(b) The nebula contracts when the gases and
dust exert a strong gravitational force on
each other.
(c) Further contraction causes the ball to become
denser until hydrogen atoms fuse to form
helium atoms a nuclear fusion reaction.
(d) The reaction causes the temperature to rise
and causes the star to expand.
(e) The balance between the contraction and
expansion of star will form a stable star, such
as the Sun.
5. The death of stars:
(a) When nuclear fusion no longer takes place,
the size of the core of the star will reduce.
(b) The size of a star determines its lifespan.
(c) Massive stars have longer lifespan than
smaller ones.
(d) The death of a medium-sized star:

Irregular-shaped
galaxy

(f) The death of a super-large star:

Red Yellow White Whitish-blue Blue

3. Arrangement of stars in ascending order of
size:

Description

om

1. Stars:
(a) Made up of dust and gases (such as hydrogen
and helium).
(b) Generate heat and light through nuclear
fusion.
(c) Differ in size, brightness, colour and
temperature.
2. Arrangement of stars in ascending order of
temperature:

Types

Red giant Supergiant Supernova

Neutron star

t.c

9.2

(e) The death of a large star:

po

also change the Earths climate and affect

the telecommunication systems on Earth.

It has a diameter of about

20 000 to 100 000 light years.
It is disc-shaped and made
up of stars gathering in
a whorl with spiral arms
at the edges. These arms
contain dust and gases.
It has a bright centre. Its
centre has older stars. Its
arms have younger stars,
while dwarf stars and
nebulae. The arms rotate
around its centre.
Example: The Milky Way,
Andromeda

7. The Milky Way:

(a) It is a spiral-shaped galaxy.
(b) The solar system is located in the Milky
Way.
8. The Universe:
(a) It consists of all the matter, energy and space
that exist.
(b) It has billions of galaxies, stars, planets and
particles.
(c) Its size is infinitive and unknown.

9.3

The Universe as a Gift from God

1. The Universe is a unique creation of God.

2. Everything that exists in the Universe is not
permanent: Stars are born and die out, new stars
are formed to replace them.

CHAPTER 10

Space Exploration

10.1

Developments in the Field of Astronomy and

Space Exploration

1. Astronomy is the study of objects in the

Universe.
2. The Greeks:
(a) The first people to study astronomy.
(b) First to declare that the Earth is spherical,
and the orbits of the planets are circular.

5/26/2009 4:12:41 PM

t.c

om

.a
.b

lo

gs

po

Space probe

in

Space station

Satellite
6. Types of satellites:
(a) Communication satellites enable instant
radio and telephone communication, live
telecast and Internet applications
(b) Weather satellites enable meteorologists to
predict weather hazards such as hurricanes
and floods
(c) Navigation satellites guide ships and
aircraft
(d) Military satellites improve national security,
defence and spying systems
(e) Environmental satellites detect worlds
resources
7. Remote sensing is the means of using satellites
to study the conditions on Earth from space.
8. Remote sensing can be used in geology,
agriculture, forestry, disaster management and
national security management.

rc

he

ek

xvi

3. The Islamic astronomers studied the rotation of

the Earth and the eclipses of the Sun and the
Moon.
4. Other developments:
(a) Hans Lippershey invested a telescope.
(b) Galileo Galilei was the first man to observe
objects in space with a telescope.
(c) Yuri Gagarin was the first person in space.
(d) Neil Armstrong was the first human to set
foot on the Moon.
(e) Aristotle believed wrongly that the Earth was
the centre of the Universe.
(f) Claudius Ptolemy supported Aristotles
belief that the Earth was the centre of the
Universe.
(g) Nicholas Copernicus (The father of the
modern astronomy) stated that the Sun is
the centre of the solar system.
5. Technology used in space exploration:
(a) Space telescope (such as Hubble Space
Telescope) helps scientists to discover
distant objects
(b) Space probes send images and data back
to Earth for analysis
(c) Space station allows scientists to work in
space for a long period of time
(d) Space shuttles carry astronauts to repair
and retrieve damaged satellites in space
(e) Satellites unmanned devices which are
placed in the orbit of the Earth to carry out
certain functions.

Page 14

Space telescope

TWB Sci F3 (Exp Note) B 2nd.indd 16

Space shuttle

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