41 43 44 45 4.6 CHAPTER FOUR - THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR Contents PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION CONSTRUCTION. CALIBRATION AS. ERRORS | BLOCKAGES: AND LEAKS 6 wie ev eusnaie owe twa cee venacres wile ns 04s 8 SERVICEABILITY CHECKS ... AIRSPEED INDICATORS QUESTIONS .........-0.00.0085INSTRUMENTS THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR 41 a2 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION The notes on pressure heads explain that whereas an aircraft on the ground in still air is subject only to atmospheric (static) pressure (S), the leading edges of an aircraft in forward flight are subject to an additional (dynamic) pressure. This results in a total (pitot) pressure (P) on the atic pressure leading edges of dynamic pressure plu The dynamic pressure is often called 'pitot excess’ pressure (PE) so we have:~ P=PE+S The pitot head senses pitot pressure and the statie/vent senses static pressure. These two ssures are fed to the airspeed indicator, a differential pressure gauge, wl 3s their difference PE (the dynamic pressure). Now dynamic pressure isa measure of airspeed, because: ich measure Dynamic Pressure = /4pV? where V is true airspeed and p is density of the surrounding air, Thus the ASI measures airspeed by measuring dynamic pressure, displaying the result (usually in knots) on a suitably calibrated seale. CONSTRUCTIO! In principle, the simple ASI can be considered as an airtight box divided by a DIAPHRAGM flexible diaphragm, with pitot pressure fed to one side and statie pressure to the other side. Figure 4.1 illustrates such a system, The pressure difference across the diaphragm is (Dy +S) - S, whieh is Dy, the dynamic pressure, Accordingly, the diaphragm deflects by an amount proportional solely to this dynamic pressure, its movement heing transmitted by a system of levers to the indicating needle on the face of the ASI, Note that static pressure is common to both sides of the diaphragm, and so does not influence diaphragm movement. Figure 4.1. The Simple Air Speed Indicator. 4-1 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedINSTRUMENTS THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR 44 In practice, the static pressure is fed into the hermetically-sealed instrument case, the pitot pressure being piped to a thin metal capsule capable of expansion and contraction, The layout is shown in Figure 4.2 Note that the pressure differential between the inside and outside of the eapsule is (Dy +S) - S which is Dy, as with the diaphragm. ‘apsule will therefore be proportional to the changes in Expansion or contraction on the dynamic pressure produced by changes of airspeed. The capsule moveme! sare transmitted by 4 Figure 4.2. A Functional Diagram of an Air temperature-compensated magnifying linkage Speed Indicator to the pointer indicating airspeed on the face of the ASL CALIBRATION From the formula in paragraph 4.1 it can be seen that dynamic pre speed of the aireraft but also on the air density. ure depends not only on the This density varies with temperature and pressure and so with altitude. The ASI is calibrated to read true airspeed for the air density of 1225 grammes per cubic metre which would be produced by the ISA MSL pressure of 1013.25 mb and temperature + 15°C (dry air conditions). No allowance is made in the calibration for the change in density which oecurs with change of altitude, It follows that even if there were no other errors, the ASI could only indicate TAS MSL air density existed at the flig when ISA (level, that is to say when the aircraft was flying in air having a density of 1225 grammes per cubic metre. This density value can only be found at or clase to sea level (depending on how much the actual conditions deviate from standard). AS.L, ERRORS: Density Error. Unless the air round the aircraft is at the calibration density of 1225 gramm per cubic metre, which can only occur near sea level, the AST cannot correctly indicate TAS. The formula in Paragraph 4.1. shows that dynamic pressure is proportional to density, so at altitude, where density is less, the dynamic pressure generated by a given TAS will be less than for the same TAS in flight at sea level. ASI capsule expansion will be proportionately less and the speed indicated will be less than the true speed 4-2 ‘© Oxlord Aviation Services LimitedINSTRUMENTS. THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR Summarising, the ASI under-reads the true speed at altitude, the discrepancy being called ‘density error’. If below MSL, the ASI will over read the true speed. ‘The navigational computer is commonly used to correct for density error, computing true airspeed from CAS (the ‘Calibrated’ Air Speed obtained by applying corrections for instrument and position errors to the reading of the ASI). In the Airspeed window, set pressure altitude against Corrected Outside Air Temperature (COAT); then read off TAS against CAS on the inner scale. ‘on the outer seale ‘This computation allows for the height of the aircraft above the calibration 1013.25 mb pressure level (which should be set on the altimeter subscale) and also for temperature deviation from standard conditions. Summarising, CAS + correction for density error (nearly always + ) = TAS Problem If the temperature at FL 100 is ISA minus 15°C (about - 20°C), will the TAS for a given CAS, be greater or smaller than in standard conditions? Solution TAS will be smaller in the lower temperature conditions. If the CAS is kept the same as in standard conditions, the dynamic pressure must be the same. inged and since a Jower temperature must increase the air density, then V, the TAS, must be less to preserve the balance of the equation (Dy = 4 pV"), Instrument Error. Manufacturing imperfections and usage result in small errors which are determined on the ground under laboratory conditions by reference to a datum instrument. A correction card can be produced for the speed range of the instrument. Position Error. Alternatively known as ‘pressure! error, this arises mainly from the sensing of incorrect static pressure, and is described more fully in the section entitled Pressure Heads. Position errors throughout the speed range are determined by the aircraft manuf the test flying programme fora particular aircraft type. ‘rer during Itis not unusual to compile a joint correction card for position and instrument errors and place it in the aircraft near the ASI concerned, 4-3 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedINSTRUMENTS THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR Summarising:- IAS (indicated air speed) + P and I correction = CAS Manoeuvr Induced Errors. These are associated chiefly with manoeuvres involving change in angle of attack, giving transient errors and a lag in the cation of changes in airspeed. Chapter 2 (Pressure Heads) covers this subject in greater detail. Compressibility Error. Airis compressible and except at true airspeeds below about 150 knots where the effect is negligible, the pressure produced in the pitot tube is higher than it would be for an ideal incompressible fluid, for which the dynamic pressure is 4 pV?. ‘The ASI is calibrated to this ideal incompressible flow formula instead of to a more complex compressible flow formula, Because of this, the instrument will over-read, IAS and CAS will be too high, and a subtractive compressibility correction will have to be applied preferably before correcting for density error, ie. to CAS giving what is known as EAS (equivalent airspeed), ‘The correction, which exceeds 20 knots if TAS is near the speed of sound, can be obtained from graphs or tables, or it can be applied by most high speed navigation computers. With true airspeeds of less than 300 knots the error is small enough to be ignored in the calculation of TAS from IAS. With most ASIs, compressibility error appropriate to IAS mean sea level conditions is allowed for in the calibration of the instrument, Order of Correction. a) Apply P and I correction to IAS, giving CAS. b) _Athigh speeds, apply the subtractive compressibility correction to CAS to give EAS. ©) FromCAS or EAS, obtain TAS by use of the computer (ora special chart) to correct for density error Air Speed Defi JAS(Indicated Air Speed) indicated reading on instrument CAS(Calibrated Air Speed) IAS + correction for instrument & position error 4-4 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedINSTRUMENTS THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR EAS(Equivalent Air Speed) - CAS compressibility corrections ‘TAS(True Air Speed) = CAS 4 density error compressibility error or EAS + density error More ASI Definitions: The stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed in the landing configuration. ‘1 = The stall speed or the minimum steady flight speed in a specified configuration Ver (he maximum Flap Extension speed Vxo = The maximum normal operating limit speed, The Never Exceed speed » ~ The maximum Landing Gear Operation speed (up or down). The maximum speed Landing Gear Extended speed Visi. = Best rate of climb when Single Engine (2 eng a/c) Some ASI’s incorporate coloured markings on the dial - these ‘range markings’ consist of coloured ares and radial lines. ‘The White Are denotes the flap operating range, from stall at maximum AUW in the landing configuration (full flap, landing gear down, wings level, power-off) up to Vyy (maximum flaps extended speed). ‘The Green Are denotes the normal operating speed range, from stall speed at maximum all-up ‘weight (flaps up, wings level) up to Vig (normal operating limit speed’ or ‘maximum structural cruising speed’ ) which should not be exceeded except in smooth air, Operations at IASs in the green are should be safe in all conditions, including turbulence The Yellow Are denotes the caution range, which extends from Vyo (normal operating limit speed) up to Vi (the never exceed speed). The aircraft should be operated at IASs in the caution range only in smooth air, A Red Radial Line denotes Vy;, the never exceed speed, Some ASIs have blue radial denote certain important speeds, (e.g. best single-engines speed for a light twin-engined aeroplane). 4-5 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedINSTRUMENTS, THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR Optionally for piston engined light twins: A blue radial line denotes the best rate of climb speed for one engine out, maximum weight, at mean sea level (Vys¢). A red radial line denotes the minimum control speed at maxirnum weight (Vye,). A usefull formula for estimating TAS is: TAS = CAS + (1.75% of CAS per 1,000 ft of Altitude). eg. fora CAS of 100 kt at 10,000 ft: TAS =CAS + (1.75 x 100 x 10) = 117.5 kt TOLERANCE - (JAR 25) - + 3% or 5 Kts whichever is the greater BLOCKAGES AND LEAKS, Pitot Head. If the pitot head becomes blocked, the ASI reading will, in general, remain unchanged. In level cruise, a blockage (probably ice) will lock in the previous pitot pressure and any change in actual airspeed will not be registered. However, a slow leakage in the pitot pipeline is likely, so that the IAS gradually decreases. Ifaltitude is changed with a blocked pitot head and clear static source, the IAS will increase during a climb because the pressure locked inside the capsule remains constant while the static pressure of the air surrounding the capsule decreases. Conversely the IAS descent with blocked head. decreases during a Static Head. A static head is more exposed to icing conditions and is therefore more likely to become obstructed than is a static vent A blocked static source during descent will mean that the ‘old’ (higher altitude) static pressure surrounding the capsule will be lower than it should be, so that if the pitot supply is normal the ASI will over-read. This could be dangerous in that the aireraft is nearer the stall than the ASI is indicating Note that a climb with blocked static source and normal pitot air will result in the ASI under reading, If the alternative static source is selected an error may occur. This error will be due to position error, Any dynamic, or turbulence, effects would usually result in a higher static pressure and thus produce an under-reading. 4-6 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedINSTRUMENTS THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR 4.6 Leaks, Leuks can occur either inside or outside the pressure cabin, A leak in the pitot tube causes the ASI to under read. A leak in the static tube where the outside pressure is lower than static, some unpressurised aircraft, will cause the ASI to over read. Where the outside air is higher than static, in a pressurised cabin the ASI will under read. SERVICEABILITY CHECKS ‘The following checks of the ASI and pressure supply system should be made before flight:~ a) b) 3) ad Pressure head cover(s) and static vent plug(s) removed and stowed aboard the aircraft. Pitot tube(s), holes/slots in static head(s) and/or static vent(s) should be checked free from obvious obstructions such as insects. Pitot head heater operative (if fitted). Dial glass clean and undamaged, ‘The instrument should indicate airspeed in the correct sense shortly after starting the take-off run, 4-7 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedINSTRUMENTS: THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR AIRSPEED INDICATORS 1. If the pitot line to an ASI becomes totally blocked during a climb, the ASI reading will: a) decrease, no matter what the actual airspeed is, b) increase, no matter what the actual airspeed is. ©) progressively under indicate the value of the airspeed. 4) stick at the airspeed showing at the moment of blockage, 2. Compressibility error: 8) causes overreading of the ASI at all levels whenever TAS exceeds 300 kt. b) causes overreading of the ASI whenever CAS exceeds 300 kt. ©) is calibrated out of the ASI at MSL ISA conditions and only causes overreading when air density is decreased and CAS exceeds 300 kt. d) is calibrated out of the ASI at MSL ISA conditions and only causes overreading when air density is decreased and TAS exceeds 300 kt. 3 If the static line to the ASI becomes blocked during a long descent, a dangerous situation could arise due to the ASI: 2) overreading, this indicated speed falsely showing the aircraft to be further from the stalling speed than it aetually is. b) _underreading, this indicated speed falsely showing the aircraft to be closer to the stalling speed than it actually is, ©) _underreading, this indicated speed possibly leading to the operation of flaps and/or landing gear at speeds in excess of safety speeds 4) —_overreading, this indicated speed possibly leading to the operation of flaps and/or landing gear at speeds in excess of safety speeds, 4, An aircraft maintaining, a constant CAS and altitude is flying from a cold airmass air. The effet of the change of temperature on the speed will be: ito warmer a) CAS will decrease. b) BAS will increase. ©) TAS will increase. d) TAS will decrease. 5 ‘The airspeed indicator is calibrated to a) conditions of the International Standard Atmosphere b) conditions of the International Standard Atmosphere at MSL. oe an air density of 1013.25 gms/m*. d) indicate correctly in any atmosphere 4-9 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedINSTRUMENTS. THE AIRSPEED INDICATOR 6. 9 10. Dynamic pressure is equal to a) Yavp? b) % pv* ©) (pv d (py Excluding blockages, the full list of errors of the ASI is: a) instrument error, position error, density error, manoeuvre induced error. b) instrument error, position error, temperature error, compres ity error, manoeuvre induced error. ©) instrument error, position error, barometric error, temperature error, lag, manoeuvre induced error. 4) instrument error, position error, density error, compressibility error, manoeuvre induced error. Some ASIs have coloured ares and lines marked on their dials. A yellow are and a white are indicate: a) cautionary range and normal operating range. b) flap operating speed range and normal operating range. ©) cautionary range and flap operating speed range. d) flap operating speed range and cautionary range. What will be the TAS if cruising altitude is 39 000 ft, temperature is ISA +5 and CAS 200 kt: a) 388 kt b) 380 kt c) 364 kt d) 370kt If the static line to the ASI becomes blocked during a climb, the ASI reading will: a) increase, no matter what the actual airspeed is b) progressively under indicate the value of airspeed. ©) progressively over indicate the value of airspeed. d) stick at the airspeed showing at the moment of blockage, 4-10 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services Limited